Producing development: The anatomy of human embryos and the norms of Wilhelm His

Bulletin of the History of Medicine

Volumn 74, Issue 1, 2000, Pages 29-79

  Hopwood, Nick ^a  

^a NONE

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ANATOMY; ART; ARTICLE; EMBRYOLOGY; GERMANY; HISTORY; HUMAN; HUMAN DEVELOPMENT; MEDICAL ILLUSTRATION; MEDICAL SCHOOL;

ANATOMY, ARTISTIC; EMBRYOLOGY; FACULTY, MEDICAL; GERMANY; HISTORY, 19TH CENTURY; HUMAN DEVELOPMENT; HUMANS; MEDICAL ILLUSTRATION; PORTRAITS;

EID: 0034145631     PISSN: 00075140     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1353/bhm.2000.0020     Document Type: Article

References (291)

1. Wilhelm His, Anatomie menschlicher Embryonen, 3 vols. (Leipzig: F. C. W. Vogel): vol. 1, Embryonen des ersten Monats (1880); vol. 2, Gestalt-und Grössenenlwicklung bis zum Schluss des 2. Monats (1882); vol. 3, Zur Geschichte der Organe (1885). Though usually bound together, the three installments of text and figures are paginated independently and will be cited as AmE 1, 2, and 3. The first and third were accompanied by folio atlases; two series of eight wax models and a set of ten glass photographs were sold separately.
2. Wilhelm His, Anatomie menschlicher Embryonen, 3 vols. (Leipzig: F. C. W. Vogel): vol. 1, Embryonen des ersten Monats (1880); vol. 2, Gestalt-und Grössenenlwicklung bis zum Schluss des 2. Monats (1882); vol. 3, Zur Geschichte der Organe (1885). Though usually bound together, the three installments of text and figures are paginated independently and will be cited as AmE 1, 2, and 3. The first and third were accompanied by folio atlases; two series of eight wax models and a set of ten glass photographs were sold separately.
3. Wilhelm His, Anatomie menschlicher Embryonen, 3 vols. (Leipzig: F. C. W. Vogel): vol. 1, Embryonen des ersten Monats (1880); vol. 2, Gestalt-und Grössenenlwicklung bis zum Schluss des 2. Monats (1882); vol. 3, Zur Geschichte der Organe (1885). Though usually bound together, the three installments of text and figures are paginated independently and will be cited as AmE 1, 2, and 3. The first and third were accompanied by folio atlases; two series of eight wax models and a set of ten glass photographs were sold separately.
4. Wilhelm His, Anatomie menschlicher Embryonen, 3 vols. (Leipzig: F. C. W. Vogel): vol. 1, Embryonen des ersten Monats (1880); vol. 2, Gestalt-und Grössenenlwicklung bis zum Schluss des 2. Monats (1882); vol. 3, Zur Geschichte der Organe (1885). Though usually bound together, the three installments of text and figures are paginated independently and will be cited as AmE 1, 2, and 3. The first and third were accompanied by folio atlases; two series of eight wax models and a set of ten glass photographs were sold separately.
5. See Jane M. Oppenheimer, "Problems, Concepts, and Their History," and "Methods and Techniques," in Analysis of Development, ed. Benjamin H. Willier, Paul A. Weiss, and Viktor Hamburger (Philadelphia: Saunders, 1955), pp. 1-38. A recent collection edited by Scott F. Gilbert is significantly entitled A Conceptual History of Modern Embryology (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1994 [1991]). The textual equivalent of a developmental series is a narrative of development.
6. See Jane M. Oppenheimer, "Problems, Concepts, and Their History," and "Methods and Techniques," in Analysis of Development, ed. Benjamin H. Willier, Paul A. Weiss, and Viktor Hamburger (Philadelphia: Saunders, 1955), pp. 1-38. A recent collection edited by Scott F. Gilbert is significantly entitled A Conceptual History of Modern Embryology (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1994 [1991]). The textual equivalent of a developmental series is a narrative of development.
7. On the problem of experimentalism in embryology, see Jane M. Oppenheimer, "Embryological Concepts in the Twentieth Century," in idem, Essays in the History of Embryology and Biology (Cambridge: MIT Press, 1967), pp. 1-61, on pp. 4-10; and Jane Maienschein, Transforming Traditions in American Biology, 1880-1915 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1991), which on pp. 111-13 also includes a rare analysis of the work of making a developmental series. More generally, see John V. Pickstone, "Museological Science? The Place of the Analytical/Comparative in Nineteenth-Century Science, Technology and Medicine," Hist. Sci., 1994, 32: 111-38.
8. On the problem of experimentalism in embryology, see Jane M. Oppenheimer, "Embryological Concepts in the Twentieth Century," in idem, Essays in the History of Embryology and Biology (Cambridge: MIT Press, 1967), pp. 1-61, on pp. 4-10; and Jane Maienschein, Transforming Traditions in American Biology, 1880-1915 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1991), which on pp. 111-13 also includes a rare analysis of the work of making a developmental series. More generally, see John V. Pickstone, "Museological Science? The Place of the Analytical/Comparative in Nineteenth-Century Science, Technology and Medicine," Hist. Sci., 1994, 32: 111-38.
9. On the problem of experimentalism in embryology, see Jane M. Oppenheimer, "Embryological Concepts in the Twentieth Century," in idem, Essays in the History of Embryology and Biology (Cambridge: MIT Press, 1967), pp. 1-61, on pp. 4-10; and Jane Maienschein, Transforming Traditions in American Biology, 1880-1915 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1991), which on pp. 111-13 also includes a rare analysis of the work of making a developmental series. More generally, see John V. Pickstone, "Museological Science? The Place of the Analytical/Comparative in Nineteenth-Century Science, Technology and Medicine," Hist. Sci., 1994, 32: 111-38.
10. See especially Ludwik Fleck, Genesis and Development of a Scientific Fact, ed. Thaddeus J. Trenn and Robert K. Merton, trans. Fred Bradley and Thaddeus J. Trenn (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1979); Adele E. Clarke and Joan H. Fujimura, eds., The Right Tools for the Job: At Work in Twentieth-Century Life Sciences (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1992); Robert E. Kohler, Lords of the Fly: Drosophila Genetics and the Experimental Life (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1994); Nelly Oudshoorn, Beyond the Natural Body: An Archeology of Sex Hormones (London: Routledge, 1994); Timothy Lenoir, Instituting Science: The Cultural Production of Scientific Disciplines (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1997). I worked toward this new of scientific production in Nick Hopwood, "Genetics in the Mandarin Style," essay review of Styles of Scientific Thought: The German Genetics Community 1900-1933 by Jonathan Harwood (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1993), Stud. Hist. Philos. Sci., 1994, 25: 237-50.
11. See especially Ludwik Fleck, Genesis and Development of a Scientific Fact, ed. Thaddeus J. Trenn and Robert K. Merton, trans. Fred Bradley and Thaddeus J. Trenn (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1979); Adele E. Clarke and Joan H. Fujimura, eds., The Right Tools for the Job: At Work in Twentieth-Century Life Sciences (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1992); Robert E. Kohler, Lords of the Fly: Drosophila Genetics and the Experimental Life (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1994); Nelly Oudshoorn, Beyond the Natural Body: An Archeology of Sex Hormones (London: Routledge, 1994); Timothy Lenoir, Instituting Science: The Cultural Production of Scientific Disciplines (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1997). I worked toward this new of scientific production in Nick Hopwood, "Genetics in the Mandarin Style," essay review of Styles of Scientific Thought: The German Genetics Community 1900-1933 by Jonathan Harwood (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1993), Stud. Hist. Philos. Sci., 1994, 25: 237-50.
12. See especially Ludwik Fleck, Genesis and Development of a Scientific Fact, ed. Thaddeus J. Trenn and Robert K. Merton, trans. Fred Bradley and Thaddeus J. Trenn (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1979); Adele E. Clarke and Joan H. Fujimura, eds., The Right Tools for the Job: At Work in Twentieth-Century Life Sciences (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1992); Robert E. Kohler, Lords of the Fly: Drosophila Genetics and the Experimental Life (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1994); Nelly Oudshoorn, Beyond the Natural Body: An Archeology of Sex Hormones (London: Routledge, 1994); Timothy Lenoir, Instituting Science: The Cultural Production of Scientific Disciplines (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1997). I worked toward this new of scientific production in Nick Hopwood, "Genetics in the Mandarin Style," essay review of Styles of Scientific Thought: The German Genetics Community 1900-1933 by Jonathan Harwood (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1993), Stud. Hist. Philos. Sci., 1994, 25: 237-50.
13. See especially Ludwik Fleck, Genesis and Development of a Scientific Fact, ed. Thaddeus J. Trenn and Robert K. Merton, trans. Fred Bradley and Thaddeus J. Trenn (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1979); Adele E. Clarke and Joan H. Fujimura, eds., The Right Tools for the Job: At Work in Twentieth-Century Life Sciences (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1992); Robert E. Kohler, Lords of the Fly: Drosophila Genetics and the Experimental Life (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1994); Nelly Oudshoorn, Beyond the Natural Body: An Archeology of Sex Hormones (London: Routledge, 1994); Timothy Lenoir, Instituting Science: The Cultural Production of Scientific Disciplines (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1997). I worked toward this new of scientific production in Nick Hopwood, "Genetics in the Mandarin Style," essay review of Styles of Scientific Thought: The German Genetics Community 1900-1933 by Jonathan Harwood (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1993), Stud. Hist. Philos. Sci., 1994, 25: 237-50.
14. See especially Ludwik Fleck, Genesis and Development of a Scientific Fact, ed. Thaddeus J. Trenn and Robert K. Merton, trans. Fred Bradley and Thaddeus J. Trenn (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1979); Adele E. Clarke and Joan H. Fujimura, eds., The Right Tools for the Job: At Work in Twentieth-Century Life Sciences (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1992); Robert E. Kohler, Lords of the Fly: Drosophila Genetics and the Experimental Life (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1994); Nelly Oudshoorn, Beyond the Natural Body: An Archeology of Sex Hormones (London: Routledge, 1994); Timothy Lenoir, Instituting Science: The Cultural Production of Scientific Disciplines (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1997). I worked toward this new of scientific production in Nick Hopwood, "Genetics in the Mandarin Style," essay review of Styles of Scientific Thought: The German Genetics Community 1900-1933 by Jonathan Harwood (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1993), Stud. Hist. Philos. Sci., 1994, 25: 237-50.
15. See especially Ludwik Fleck, Genesis and Development of a Scientific Fact, ed. Thaddeus J. Trenn and Robert K. Merton, trans. Fred Bradley and Thaddeus J. Trenn (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1979); Adele E. Clarke and Joan H. Fujimura, eds., The Right Tools for the Job: At Work in Twentieth-Century Life Sciences (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1992); Robert E. Kohler, Lords of the Fly: Drosophila Genetics and the Experimental Life (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1994); Nelly Oudshoorn, Beyond the Natural Body: An Archeology of Sex Hormones (London: Routledge, 1994); Timothy Lenoir, Instituting Science: The Cultural Production of Scientific Disciplines (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1997). I worked toward this new of scientific production in Nick Hopwood, "Genetics in the Mandarin Style," essay review of Styles of Scientific Thought: The German Genetics Community 1900-1933 by Jonathan Harwood (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1993), Stud. Hist. Philos. Sci., 1994, 25: 237-50.
16. See especially Ludwik Fleck, Genesis and Development of a Scientific Fact, ed. Thaddeus J. Trenn and Robert K. Merton, trans. Fred Bradley and Thaddeus J. Trenn (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1979); Adele E. Clarke and Joan H. Fujimura, eds., The Right Tools for the Job: At Work in Twentieth-Century Life Sciences (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1992); Robert E. Kohler, Lords of the Fly: Drosophila Genetics and the Experimental Life (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1994); Nelly Oudshoorn, Beyond the Natural Body: An Archeology of Sex Hormones (London: Routledge, 1994); Timothy Lenoir, Instituting Science: The Cultural Production of Scientific Disciplines (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1997). I worked toward this new of scientific production in Nick Hopwood, "Genetics in the Mandarin Style," essay review of Styles of Scientific Thought: The German Genetics Community 1900-1933 by Jonathan Harwood (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1993), Stud. Hist. Philos. Sci., 1994, 25: 237-50.
17. On the history of monitoring pregnancy, and the associated construction of the "fetal patient," see William Ray Arney, Power and the Profession of Obstetrics (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1982); Ann Oakley, The Captured Womb: A History of the Medical Care of Pregnant Women (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1984); Bettyann Holtzmann Kevles, Naked to the Bone: Medical Imaging in the Twentieth Century (New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 1997), pp. 228-60; and Monica J. Casper, The Making of the Unborn Patient: A Social Anatomy of Fetal Surgery (New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 1998).
18. On the history of monitoring pregnancy, and the associated construction of the "fetal patient," see William Ray Arney, Power and the Profession of Obstetrics (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1982); Ann Oakley, The Captured Womb: A History of the Medical Care of Pregnant Women (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1984); Bettyann Holtzmann Kevles, Naked to the Bone: Medical Imaging in the Twentieth Century (New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 1997), pp. 228-60; and Monica J. Casper, The Making of the Unborn Patient: A Social Anatomy of Fetal Surgery (New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 1998).
19. On the history of monitoring pregnancy, and the associated construction of the "fetal patient," see William Ray Arney, Power and the Profession of Obstetrics (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1982); Ann Oakley, The Captured Womb: A History of the Medical Care of Pregnant Women (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1984); Bettyann Holtzmann Kevles, Naked to the Bone: Medical Imaging in the Twentieth Century (New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 1997), pp. 228-60; and Monica J. Casper, The Making of the Unborn Patient: A Social Anatomy of Fetal Surgery (New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 1998).
20. On the history of monitoring pregnancy, and the associated construction of the "fetal patient," see William Ray Arney, Power and the Profession of Obstetrics (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1982); Ann Oakley, The Captured Womb: A History of the Medical Care of Pregnant Women (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1984); Bettyann Holtzmann Kevles, Naked to the Bone: Medical Imaging in the Twentieth Century (New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 1997), pp. 228-60; and Monica J. Casper, The Making of the Unborn Patient: A Social Anatomy of Fetal Surgery (New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 1998).
21. On embryonic and fetal images and narratives in recent medicine and public culture, see Zoë Sofia, "Exterminating Fetuses: Abortion, Disarmament and the Sexo-Semiotics of Extraterrestrialism," Diacritics, 1984, 14 (2): 47-59; Rosalind Pollack Petchesky, "Foetal Images: The Power of Visual Culture in the Politics of Reproduction," in Reproductive Technologies: Gender, Motherhood and Medicine, ed. Michelle Stanworth (Cambridge: Polity Press, 1987), pp. 57-80; Sarah Franklin, "Fetal Fascinations: New Dimensions to the Medical-Scientific Construction of Fetal Personhood," in Off-Centre: Feminism and Cultural Studies, ed. Sarah Franklin, Celia Lury, and Jackie Stacey (London: HarperCollins Academic, 1991), pp. 190-205; idem, "Postmodern Procreation: Representing Reproductive Practice," Sci. Cult., 1993, 3: 522-61; Janelle Sue Taylor, The Public Foetus and the Family Car: From Abortion Politics to a Volvo Advertisement," in ibid., 601-18; idem, "Image of Contradiction: Obstetrical Ultrasound in American Culture," in Reproducing Reproduction: Kinship, Power, and Technological Innovation, ed. Sarah Franklin and Helena Ragoné (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1998), pp. 15-45; Carol Stabile, "Shooting the Mother: Fetal Photography and the Politics of Disappearance," in The Visible Woman: Imaging Technologies, Gender and Science, ed. Paula A. Treichler, Lisa Cartwright, and Constance Penley (New York: New York University Press, 1998), pp. 171-97; Valerie Hartouni, "Fetal Exposures: Abortion Politics and the Optics of Allusion," in ibid., pp. 198-216; Frances Price, "Now You See It, Now You Don't: Mediating Science and Managing Uncertainty in Reproductive Medicine," in Misunderstanding Science? The Public Reconstruction of Science and Technology, ed. Alan Irwin and Brian Wynne (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996), pp. 84-106; Michael Mulkay, The Embryo Research Debate: Science and the Politics of Reproduction (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997); Lynn M. Morgan and Meredith W. Michaels, eds., Fetal Subjects, Feminist Positions (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1999).
22. On embryonic and fetal images and narratives in recent medicine and public culture, see Zoë Sofia, "Exterminating Fetuses: Abortion, Disarmament and the Sexo-Semiotics of Extraterrestrialism," Diacritics, 1984, 14 (2): 47-59; Rosalind Pollack Petchesky, "Foetal Images: The Power of Visual Culture in the Politics of Reproduction," in Reproductive Technologies: Gender, Motherhood and Medicine, ed. Michelle Stanworth (Cambridge: Polity Press, 1987), pp. 57-80; Sarah Franklin, "Fetal Fascinations: New Dimensions to the Medical-Scientific Construction of Fetal Personhood," in Off-Centre: Feminism and Cultural Studies, ed. Sarah Franklin, Celia Lury, and Jackie Stacey (London: HarperCollins Academic, 1991), pp. 190-205; idem, "Postmodern Procreation: Representing Reproductive Practice," Sci. Cult., 1993, 3: 522-61; Janelle Sue Taylor, The Public Foetus and the Family Car: From Abortion Politics to a Volvo Advertisement," in ibid., 601-18; idem, "Image of Contradiction: Obstetrical Ultrasound in American Culture," in Reproducing Reproduction: Kinship, Power, and Technological Innovation, ed. Sarah Franklin and Helena Ragoné (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1998), pp. 15-45; Carol Stabile, "Shooting the Mother: Fetal Photography and the Politics of Disappearance," in The Visible Woman: Imaging Technologies, Gender and Science, ed. Paula A. Treichler, Lisa Cartwright, and Constance Penley (New York: New York University Press, 1998), pp. 171-97; Valerie Hartouni, "Fetal Exposures: Abortion Politics and the Optics of Allusion," in ibid., pp. 198-216; Frances Price, "Now You See It, Now You Don't: Mediating Science and Managing Uncertainty in Reproductive Medicine," in Misunderstanding Science? The Public Reconstruction of Science and Technology, ed. Alan Irwin and Brian Wynne (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996), pp. 84-106; Michael Mulkay, The Embryo Research Debate: Science and the Politics of Reproduction (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997); Lynn M. Morgan and Meredith W. Michaels, eds., Fetal Subjects, Feminist Positions (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1999).
23. On embryonic and fetal images and narratives in recent medicine and public culture, see Zoë Sofia, "Exterminating Fetuses: Abortion, Disarmament and the Sexo-Semiotics of Extraterrestrialism," Diacritics, 1984, 14 (2): 47-59; Rosalind Pollack Petchesky, "Foetal Images: The Power of Visual Culture in the Politics of Reproduction," in Reproductive Technologies: Gender, Motherhood and Medicine, ed. Michelle Stanworth (Cambridge: Polity Press, 1987), pp. 57-80; Sarah Franklin, "Fetal Fascinations: New Dimensions to the Medical-Scientific Construction of Fetal Personhood," in Off-Centre: Feminism and Cultural Studies, ed. Sarah Franklin, Celia Lury, and Jackie Stacey (London: HarperCollins Academic, 1991), pp. 190-205; idem, "Postmodern Procreation: Representing Reproductive Practice," Sci. Cult., 1993, 3: 522-61; Janelle Sue Taylor, The Public Foetus and the Family Car: From Abortion Politics to a Volvo Advertisement," in ibid., 601-18; idem, "Image of Contradiction: Obstetrical Ultrasound in American Culture," in Reproducing Reproduction: Kinship, Power, and Technological Innovation, ed. Sarah Franklin and Helena Ragoné (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1998), pp. 15-45; Carol Stabile, "Shooting the Mother: Fetal Photography and the Politics of Disappearance," in The Visible Woman: Imaging Technologies, Gender and Science, ed. Paula A. Treichler, Lisa Cartwright, and Constance Penley (New York: New York University Press, 1998), pp. 171-97; Valerie Hartouni, "Fetal Exposures: Abortion Politics and the Optics of Allusion," in ibid., pp. 198-216; Frances Price, "Now You See It, Now You Don't: Mediating Science and Managing Uncertainty in Reproductive Medicine," in Misunderstanding Science? The Public Reconstruction of Science and Technology, ed. Alan Irwin and Brian Wynne (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996), pp. 84-106; Michael Mulkay, The Embryo Research Debate: Science and the Politics of Reproduction (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997); Lynn M. Morgan and Meredith W. Michaels, eds., Fetal Subjects, Feminist Positions (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1999).
24. On embryonic and fetal images and narratives in recent medicine and public culture, see Zoë Sofia, "Exterminating Fetuses: Abortion, Disarmament and the Sexo-Semiotics of Extraterrestrialism," Diacritics, 1984, 14 (2): 47-59; Rosalind Pollack Petchesky, "Foetal Images: The Power of Visual Culture in the Politics of Reproduction," in Reproductive Technologies: Gender, Motherhood and Medicine, ed. Michelle Stanworth (Cambridge: Polity Press, 1987), pp. 57-80; Sarah Franklin, "Fetal Fascinations: New Dimensions to the Medical-Scientific Construction of Fetal Personhood," in Off-Centre: Feminism and Cultural Studies, ed. Sarah Franklin, Celia Lury, and Jackie Stacey (London: HarperCollins Academic, 1991), pp. 190-205; idem, "Postmodern Procreation: Representing Reproductive Practice," Sci. Cult., 1993, 3: 522-61; Janelle Sue Taylor, The Public Foetus and the Family Car: From Abortion Politics to a Volvo Advertisement," in ibid., 601-18; idem, "Image of Contradiction: Obstetrical Ultrasound in American Culture," in Reproducing Reproduction: Kinship, Power, and Technological Innovation, ed. Sarah Franklin and Helena Ragoné (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1998), pp. 15-45; Carol Stabile, "Shooting the Mother: Fetal Photography and the Politics of Disappearance," in The Visible Woman: Imaging Technologies, Gender and Science, ed. Paula A. Treichler, Lisa Cartwright, and Constance Penley (New York: New York University Press, 1998), pp. 171-97; Valerie Hartouni, "Fetal Exposures: Abortion Politics and the Optics of Allusion," in ibid., pp. 198-216; Frances Price, "Now You See It, Now You Don't: Mediating Science and Managing Uncertainty in Reproductive Medicine," in Misunderstanding Science? The Public Reconstruction of Science and Technology, ed. Alan Irwin and Brian Wynne (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996), pp. 84-106; Michael Mulkay, The Embryo Research Debate: Science and the Politics of Reproduction (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997); Lynn M. Morgan and Meredith W. Michaels, eds., Fetal Subjects, Feminist Positions (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1999).
25. On embryonic and fetal images and narratives in recent medicine and public culture, see Zoë Sofia, "Exterminating Fetuses: Abortion, Disarmament and the Sexo-Semiotics of Extraterrestrialism," Diacritics, 1984, 14 (2): 47-59; Rosalind Pollack Petchesky, "Foetal Images: The Power of Visual Culture in the Politics of Reproduction," in Reproductive Technologies: Gender, Motherhood and Medicine, ed. Michelle Stanworth (Cambridge: Polity Press, 1987), pp. 57-80; Sarah Franklin, "Fetal Fascinations: New Dimensions to the Medical-Scientific Construction of Fetal Personhood," in Off-Centre: Feminism and Cultural Studies, ed. Sarah Franklin, Celia Lury, and Jackie Stacey (London: HarperCollins Academic, 1991), pp. 190-205; idem, "Postmodern Procreation: Representing Reproductive Practice," Sci. Cult., 1993, 3: 522-61; Janelle Sue Taylor, The Public Foetus and the Family Car: From Abortion Politics to a Volvo Advertisement," in ibid., 601-18; idem, "Image of Contradiction: Obstetrical Ultrasound in American Culture," in Reproducing Reproduction: Kinship, Power, and Technological Innovation, ed. Sarah Franklin and Helena Ragoné (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1998), pp. 15-45; Carol Stabile, "Shooting the Mother: Fetal Photography and the Politics of Disappearance," in The Visible Woman: Imaging Technologies, Gender and Science, ed. Paula A. Treichler, Lisa Cartwright, and Constance Penley (New York: New York University Press, 1998), pp. 171-97; Valerie Hartouni, "Fetal Exposures: Abortion Politics and the Optics of Allusion," in ibid., pp. 198-216; Frances Price, "Now You See It, Now You Don't: Mediating Science and Managing Uncertainty in Reproductive Medicine," in Misunderstanding Science? The Public Reconstruction of Science and Technology, ed. Alan Irwin and Brian Wynne (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996), pp. 84-106; Michael Mulkay, The Embryo Research Debate: Science and the Politics of Reproduction (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997); Lynn M. Morgan and Meredith W. Michaels, eds., Fetal Subjects, Feminist Positions (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1999).
26. On embryonic and fetal images and narratives in recent medicine and public culture, see Zoë Sofia, "Exterminating Fetuses: Abortion, Disarmament and the Sexo-Semiotics of Extraterrestrialism," Diacritics, 1984, 14 (2): 47-59; Rosalind Pollack Petchesky, "Foetal Images: The Power of Visual Culture in the Politics of Reproduction," in Reproductive Technologies: Gender, Motherhood and Medicine, ed. Michelle Stanworth (Cambridge: Polity Press, 1987), pp. 57-80; Sarah Franklin, "Fetal Fascinations: New Dimensions to the Medical-Scientific Construction of Fetal Personhood," in Off-Centre: Feminism and Cultural Studies, ed. Sarah Franklin, Celia Lury, and Jackie Stacey (London: HarperCollins Academic, 1991), pp. 190-205; idem, "Postmodern Procreation: Representing Reproductive Practice," Sci. Cult., 1993, 3: 522-61; Janelle Sue Taylor, The Public Foetus and the Family Car: From Abortion Politics to a Volvo Advertisement," in ibid., 601-18; idem, "Image of Contradiction: Obstetrical Ultrasound in American Culture," in Reproducing Reproduction: Kinship, Power, and Technological Innovation, ed. Sarah Franklin and Helena Ragoné (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1998), pp. 15-45; Carol Stabile, "Shooting the Mother: Fetal Photography and the Politics of Disappearance," in The Visible Woman: Imaging Technologies, Gender and Science, ed. Paula A. Treichler, Lisa Cartwright, and Constance Penley (New York: New York University Press, 1998), pp. 171-97; Valerie Hartouni, "Fetal Exposures: Abortion Politics and the Optics of Allusion," in ibid., pp. 198-216; Frances Price, "Now You See It, Now You Don't: Mediating Science and Managing Uncertainty in Reproductive Medicine," in Misunderstanding Science? The Public Reconstruction of Science and Technology, ed. Alan Irwin and Brian Wynne (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996), pp. 84-106; Michael Mulkay, The Embryo Research Debate: Science and the Politics of Reproduction (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997); Lynn M. Morgan and Meredith W. Michaels, eds., Fetal Subjects, Feminist Positions (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1999).
27. On embryonic and fetal images and narratives in recent medicine and public culture, see Zoë Sofia, "Exterminating Fetuses: Abortion, Disarmament and the Sexo-Semiotics of Extraterrestrialism," Diacritics, 1984, 14 (2): 47-59; Rosalind Pollack Petchesky, "Foetal Images: The Power of Visual Culture in the Politics of Reproduction," in Reproductive Technologies: Gender, Motherhood and Medicine, ed. Michelle Stanworth (Cambridge: Polity Press, 1987), pp. 57-80; Sarah Franklin, "Fetal Fascinations: New Dimensions to the Medical-Scientific Construction of Fetal Personhood," in Off-Centre: Feminism and Cultural Studies, ed. Sarah Franklin, Celia Lury, and Jackie Stacey (London: HarperCollins Academic, 1991), pp. 190-205; idem, "Postmodern Procreation: Representing Reproductive Practice," Sci. Cult., 1993, 3: 522-61; Janelle Sue Taylor, The Public Foetus and the Family Car: From Abortion Politics to a Volvo Advertisement," in ibid., 601-18; idem, "Image of Contradiction: Obstetrical Ultrasound in American Culture," in Reproducing Reproduction: Kinship, Power, and Technological Innovation, ed. Sarah Franklin and Helena Ragoné (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1998), pp. 15-45; Carol Stabile, "Shooting the Mother: Fetal Photography and the Politics of Disappearance," in The Visible Woman: Imaging Technologies, Gender and Science, ed. Paula A. Treichler, Lisa Cartwright, and Constance Penley (New York: New York University Press, 1998), pp. 171-97; Valerie Hartouni, "Fetal Exposures: Abortion Politics and the Optics of Allusion," in ibid., pp. 198-216; Frances Price, "Now You See It, Now You Don't: Mediating Science and Managing Uncertainty in Reproductive Medicine," in Misunderstanding Science? The Public Reconstruction of Science and Technology, ed. Alan Irwin and Brian Wynne (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996), pp. 84-106; Michael Mulkay, The Embryo Research Debate: Science and the Politics of Reproduction (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997); Lynn M. Morgan and Meredith W. Michaels, eds., Fetal Subjects, Feminist Positions (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1999).
28. On embryonic and fetal images and narratives in recent medicine and public culture, see Zoë Sofia, "Exterminating Fetuses: Abortion, Disarmament and the Sexo-Semiotics of Extraterrestrialism," Diacritics, 1984, 14 (2): 47-59; Rosalind Pollack Petchesky, "Foetal Images: The Power of Visual Culture in the Politics of Reproduction," in Reproductive Technologies: Gender, Motherhood and Medicine, ed. Michelle Stanworth (Cambridge: Polity Press, 1987), pp. 57-80; Sarah Franklin, "Fetal Fascinations: New Dimensions to the Medical-Scientific Construction of Fetal Personhood," in Off-Centre: Feminism and Cultural Studies, ed. Sarah Franklin, Celia Lury, and Jackie Stacey (London: HarperCollins Academic, 1991), pp. 190-205; idem, "Postmodern Procreation: Representing Reproductive Practice," Sci. Cult., 1993, 3: 522-61; Janelle Sue Taylor, The Public Foetus and the Family Car: From Abortion Politics to a Volvo Advertisement," in ibid., 601-18; idem, "Image of Contradiction: Obstetrical Ultrasound in American Culture," in Reproducing Reproduction: Kinship, Power, and Technological Innovation, ed. Sarah Franklin and Helena Ragoné (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1998), pp. 15-45; Carol Stabile, "Shooting the Mother: Fetal Photography and the Politics of Disappearance," in The Visible Woman: Imaging Technologies, Gender and Science, ed. Paula A. Treichler, Lisa Cartwright, and Constance Penley (New York: New York University Press, 1998), pp. 171-97; Valerie Hartouni, "Fetal Exposures: Abortion Politics and the Optics of Allusion," in ibid., pp. 198-216; Frances Price, "Now You See It, Now You Don't: Mediating Science and Managing Uncertainty in Reproductive Medicine," in Misunderstanding Science? The Public Reconstruction of Science and Technology, ed. Alan Irwin and Brian Wynne (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996), pp. 84-106; Michael Mulkay, The Embryo Research Debate: Science and the Politics of Reproduction (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997); Lynn M. Morgan and Meredith W. Michaels, eds., Fetal Subjects, Feminist Positions (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1999).
29. On embryonic and fetal images and narratives in recent medicine and public culture, see Zoë Sofia, "Exterminating Fetuses: Abortion, Disarmament and the Sexo-Semiotics of Extraterrestrialism," Diacritics, 1984, 14 (2): 47-59; Rosalind Pollack Petchesky, "Foetal Images: The Power of Visual Culture in the Politics of Reproduction," in Reproductive Technologies: Gender, Motherhood and Medicine, ed. Michelle Stanworth (Cambridge: Polity Press, 1987), pp. 57-80; Sarah Franklin, "Fetal Fascinations: New Dimensions to the Medical-Scientific Construction of Fetal Personhood," in Off-Centre: Feminism and Cultural Studies, ed. Sarah Franklin, Celia Lury, and Jackie Stacey (London: HarperCollins Academic, 1991), pp. 190-205; idem, "Postmodern Procreation: Representing Reproductive Practice," Sci. Cult., 1993, 3: 522-61; Janelle Sue Taylor, The Public Foetus and the Family Car: From Abortion Politics to a Volvo Advertisement," in ibid., 601-18; idem, "Image of Contradiction: Obstetrical Ultrasound in American Culture," in Reproducing Reproduction: Kinship, Power, and Technological Innovation, ed. Sarah Franklin and Helena Ragoné (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1998), pp. 15-45; Carol Stabile, "Shooting the Mother: Fetal Photography and the Politics of Disappearance," in The Visible Woman: Imaging Technologies, Gender and Science, ed. Paula A. Treichler, Lisa Cartwright, and Constance Penley (New York: New York University Press, 1998), pp. 171-97; Valerie Hartouni, "Fetal Exposures: Abortion Politics and the Optics of Allusion," in ibid., pp. 198-216; Frances Price, "Now You See It, Now You Don't: Mediating Science and Managing Uncertainty in Reproductive Medicine," in Misunderstanding Science? The Public Reconstruction of Science and Technology, ed. Alan Irwin and Brian Wynne (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996), pp. 84-106; Michael Mulkay, The Embryo Research Debate: Science and the Politics of Reproduction (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997); Lynn M. Morgan and Meredith W. Michaels, eds., Fetal Subjects, Feminist Positions (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1999).
30. On embryonic and fetal images and narratives in recent medicine and public culture, see Zoë Sofia, "Exterminating Fetuses: Abortion, Disarmament and the Sexo-Semiotics of Extraterrestrialism," Diacritics, 1984, 14 (2): 47-59; Rosalind Pollack Petchesky, "Foetal Images: The Power of Visual Culture in the Politics of Reproduction," in Reproductive Technologies: Gender, Motherhood and Medicine, ed. Michelle Stanworth (Cambridge: Polity Press, 1987), pp. 57-80; Sarah Franklin, "Fetal Fascinations: New Dimensions to the Medical-Scientific Construction of Fetal Personhood," in Off-Centre: Feminism and Cultural Studies, ed. Sarah Franklin, Celia Lury, and Jackie Stacey (London: HarperCollins Academic, 1991), pp. 190-205; idem, "Postmodern Procreation: Representing Reproductive Practice," Sci. Cult., 1993, 3: 522-61; Janelle Sue Taylor, The Public Foetus and the Family Car: From Abortion Politics to a Volvo Advertisement," in ibid., 601-18; idem, "Image of Contradiction: Obstetrical Ultrasound in American Culture," in Reproducing Reproduction: Kinship, Power, and Technological Innovation, ed. Sarah Franklin and Helena Ragoné (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1998), pp. 15-45; Carol Stabile, "Shooting the Mother: Fetal Photography and the Politics of Disappearance," in The Visible Woman: Imaging Technologies, Gender and Science, ed. Paula A. Treichler, Lisa Cartwright, and Constance Penley (New York: New York University Press, 1998), pp. 171-97; Valerie Hartouni, "Fetal Exposures: Abortion Politics and the Optics of Allusion," in ibid., pp. 198-216; Frances Price, "Now You See It, Now You Don't: Mediating Science and Managing Uncertainty in Reproductive Medicine," in Misunderstanding Science? The Public Reconstruction of Science and Technology, ed. Alan Irwin and Brian Wynne (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996), pp. 84-106; Michael Mulkay, The Embryo Research Debate: Science and the Politics of Reproduction (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997); Lynn M. Morgan and Meredith W. Michaels, eds., Fetal Subjects, Feminist Positions (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1999).
31. On embryonic and fetal images and narratives in recent medicine and public culture, see Zoë Sofia, "Exterminating Fetuses: Abortion, Disarmament and the Sexo-Semiotics of Extraterrestrialism," Diacritics, 1984, 14 (2): 47-59; Rosalind Pollack Petchesky, "Foetal Images: The Power of Visual Culture in the Politics of Reproduction," in Reproductive Technologies: Gender, Motherhood and Medicine, ed. Michelle Stanworth (Cambridge: Polity Press, 1987), pp. 57-80; Sarah Franklin, "Fetal Fascinations: New Dimensions to the Medical-Scientific Construction of Fetal Personhood," in Off-Centre: Feminism and Cultural Studies, ed. Sarah Franklin, Celia Lury, and Jackie Stacey (London: HarperCollins Academic, 1991), pp. 190-205; idem, "Postmodern Procreation: Representing Reproductive Practice," Sci. Cult., 1993, 3: 522-61; Janelle Sue Taylor, The Public Foetus and the Family Car: From Abortion Politics to a Volvo Advertisement," in ibid., 601-18; idem, "Image of Contradiction: Obstetrical Ultrasound in American Culture," in Reproducing Reproduction: Kinship, Power, and Technological Innovation, ed. Sarah Franklin and Helena Ragoné (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1998), pp. 15-45; Carol Stabile, "Shooting the Mother: Fetal Photography and the Politics of Disappearance," in The Visible Woman: Imaging Technologies, Gender and Science, ed. Paula A. Treichler, Lisa Cartwright, and Constance Penley (New York: New York University Press, 1998), pp. 171-97; Valerie Hartouni, "Fetal Exposures: Abortion Politics and the Optics of Allusion," in ibid., pp. 198-216; Frances Price, "Now You See It, Now You Don't: Mediating Science and Managing Uncertainty in Reproductive Medicine," in Misunderstanding Science? The Public Reconstruction of Science and Technology, ed. Alan Irwin and Brian Wynne (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996), pp. 84-106; Michael Mulkay, The Embryo Research Debate: Science and the Politics of Reproduction (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997); Lynn M. Morgan and Meredith W. Michaels, eds., Fetal Subjects, Feminist Positions (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1999).
32. Samuel Thomas Soemmerring, Icones embryonum humanorum (Frankfurt am Main: Varentrapp and Wenner, 1799). I am indebted for this perspective to Barbara Duden, Disembodying Women: Perspectives on Pregnancy and the Unborn, trans. Lee Hoinacki (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1993); idem, "'Ein falsch Gewächs, ein unzeitig Wesen, gestocktes Blut': Zur Geschichte von Wahrnehmung und Sichtweise der Leibesfrucht," in Unter anderen Umständen: Zur Geschichte der Abtreibung, ed. Gisela Staupe and Lisa Vieth (Dresden: Deutsches Hygiene-Museum; Berlin: Argon Verlag, 1993), pp. 27-35; idem, The Woman beneath the Skin: A Doctor's Patients in Eighteenth-Century Germany, trans. Thomas Dunlap (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1991). See further especially Esther FischerHomberger, Medizin vor Gericht: Gerichtsmedizin von der Renaissance bis zur Aufklärung (Bern: Hans Huber, 1983), pp. 222-92; LudmillaJ.Jordanova, "Gender, Generation and Science: William Hunter's Obstetrical Atlas," in William Hunter and the Eighteenth-Century Medical World, ed. William F. Bynum and Roy Porter (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985), pp. 385-412; Andrea Henderson, "Doll-Machines and Butcher-Shop Meat: Models of Childbirth in die Early Stages of Industrial Capitalism," Genders, 1991, 12: 100-119; Michael Hagner, "Vom Naturalienkabinett zur Embryologie: Wandlungen des Monströsen und die Ordnung des Lebens," in Der falsche Körper: Beiträge zu einer Geschichte der Monstrositäten, ed. idem (Göttingen: Wallstein, 1995), pp. 73-107. For a fine "predevelopmental" series of wax models of human embryos, see Benedetto Lanza, Maria Luisa Azzaroli Puccetti, Marta Poggesi, and Antonio Martelli, Le cere anatomiche della Specola (Florence: Arnaud Editore, 1979), p. 226.
33. Samuel Thomas Soemmerring, Icones embryonum humanorum (Frankfurt am Main: Varentrapp and Wenner, 1799). I am indebted for this perspective to Barbara Duden, Disembodying Women: Perspectives on Pregnancy and the Unborn, trans. Lee Hoinacki (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1993); idem, "'Ein falsch Gewächs, ein unzeitig Wesen, gestocktes Blut': Zur Geschichte von Wahrnehmung und Sichtweise der Leibesfrucht," in Unter anderen Umständen: Zur Geschichte der Abtreibung, ed. Gisela Staupe and Lisa Vieth (Dresden: Deutsches Hygiene-Museum; Berlin: Argon Verlag, 1993), pp. 27-35; idem, The Woman beneath the Skin: A Doctor's Patients in Eighteenth-Century Germany, trans. Thomas Dunlap (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1991). See further especially Esther FischerHomberger, Medizin vor Gericht: Gerichtsmedizin von der Renaissance bis zur Aufklärung (Bern: Hans Huber, 1983), pp. 222-92; LudmillaJ.Jordanova, "Gender, Generation and Science: William Hunter's Obstetrical Atlas," in William Hunter and the Eighteenth-Century Medical World, ed. William F. Bynum and Roy Porter (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985), pp. 385-412; Andrea Henderson, "Doll-Machines and Butcher-Shop Meat: Models of Childbirth in die Early Stages of Industrial Capitalism," Genders, 1991, 12: 100-119; Michael Hagner, "Vom Naturalienkabinett zur Embryologie: Wandlungen des Monströsen und die Ordnung des Lebens," in Der falsche Körper: Beiträge zu einer Geschichte der Monstrositäten, ed. idem (Göttingen: Wallstein, 1995), pp. 73-107. For a fine "predevelopmental" series of wax models of human embryos, see Benedetto Lanza, Maria Luisa Azzaroli Puccetti, Marta Poggesi, and Antonio Martelli, Le cere anatomiche della Specola (Florence: Arnaud Editore, 1979), p. 226.
34. Samuel Thomas Soemmerring, Icones embryonum humanorum (Frankfurt am Main: Varentrapp and Wenner, 1799). I am indebted for this perspective to Barbara Duden, Disembodying Women: Perspectives on Pregnancy and the Unborn, trans. Lee Hoinacki (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1993); idem, "'Ein falsch Gewächs, ein unzeitig Wesen, gestocktes Blut': Zur Geschichte von Wahrnehmung und Sichtweise der Leibesfrucht," in Unter anderen Umständen: Zur Geschichte der Abtreibung, ed. Gisela Staupe and Lisa Vieth (Dresden: Deutsches Hygiene-Museum; Berlin: Argon Verlag, 1993), pp. 27-35; idem, The Woman beneath the Skin: A Doctor's Patients in Eighteenth-Century Germany, trans. Thomas Dunlap (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1991). See further especially Esther FischerHomberger, Medizin vor Gericht: Gerichtsmedizin von der Renaissance bis zur Aufklärung (Bern: Hans Huber, 1983), pp. 222-92; LudmillaJ.Jordanova, "Gender, Generation and Science: William Hunter's Obstetrical Atlas," in William Hunter and the Eighteenth-Century Medical World, ed. William F. Bynum and Roy Porter (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985), pp. 385-412; Andrea Henderson, "Doll-Machines and Butcher-Shop Meat: Models of Childbirth in die Early Stages of Industrial Capitalism," Genders, 1991, 12: 100-119; Michael Hagner, "Vom Naturalienkabinett zur Embryologie: Wandlungen des Monströsen und die Ordnung des Lebens," in Der falsche Körper: Beiträge zu einer Geschichte der Monstrositäten, ed. idem (Göttingen: Wallstein, 1995), pp. 73-107. For a fine "predevelopmental" series of wax models of human embryos, see Benedetto Lanza, Maria Luisa Azzaroli Puccetti, Marta Poggesi, and Antonio Martelli, Le cere anatomiche della Specola (Florence: Arnaud Editore, 1979), p. 226.
35. Samuel Thomas Soemmerring, Icones embryonum humanorum (Frankfurt am Main: Varentrapp and Wenner, 1799). I am indebted for this perspective to Barbara Duden, Disembodying Women: Perspectives on Pregnancy and the Unborn, trans. Lee Hoinacki (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1993); idem, "'Ein falsch Gewächs, ein unzeitig Wesen, gestocktes Blut': Zur Geschichte von Wahrnehmung und Sichtweise der Leibesfrucht," in Unter anderen Umständen: Zur Geschichte der Abtreibung, ed. Gisela Staupe and Lisa Vieth (Dresden: Deutsches Hygiene-Museum; Berlin: Argon Verlag, 1993), pp. 27-35; idem, The Woman beneath the Skin: A Doctor's Patients in Eighteenth-Century Germany, trans. Thomas Dunlap (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1991). See further especially Esther FischerHomberger, Medizin vor Gericht: Gerichtsmedizin von der Renaissance bis zur Aufklärung (Bern: Hans Huber, 1983), pp. 222-92; LudmillaJ.Jordanova, "Gender, Generation and Science: William Hunter's Obstetrical Atlas," in William Hunter and the Eighteenth-Century Medical World, ed. William F. Bynum and Roy Porter (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985), pp. 385-412; Andrea Henderson, "Doll-Machines and Butcher-Shop Meat: Models of Childbirth in die Early Stages of Industrial Capitalism," Genders, 1991, 12: 100-119; Michael Hagner, "Vom Naturalienkabinett zur Embryologie: Wandlungen des Monströsen und die Ordnung des Lebens," in Der falsche Körper: Beiträge zu einer Geschichte der Monstrositäten, ed. idem (Göttingen: Wallstein, 1995), pp. 73-107. For a fine "predevelopmental" series of wax models of human embryos, see Benedetto Lanza, Maria Luisa Azzaroli Puccetti, Marta Poggesi, and Antonio Martelli, Le cere anatomiche della Specola (Florence: Arnaud Editore, 1979), p. 226.
36. Samuel Thomas Soemmerring, Icones embryonum humanorum (Frankfurt am Main: Varentrapp and Wenner, 1799). I am indebted for this perspective to Barbara Duden, Disembodying Women: Perspectives on Pregnancy and the Unborn, trans. Lee Hoinacki (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1993); idem, "'Ein falsch Gewächs, ein unzeitig Wesen, gestocktes Blut': Zur Geschichte von Wahrnehmung und Sichtweise der Leibesfrucht," in Unter anderen Umständen: Zur Geschichte der Abtreibung, ed. Gisela Staupe and Lisa Vieth (Dresden: Deutsches Hygiene-Museum; Berlin: Argon Verlag, 1993), pp. 27-35; idem, The Woman beneath the Skin: A Doctor's Patients in Eighteenth-Century Germany, trans. Thomas Dunlap (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1991). See further especially Esther FischerHomberger, Medizin vor Gericht: Gerichtsmedizin von der Renaissance bis zur Aufklärung (Bern: Hans Huber, 1983), pp. 222-92; LudmillaJ.Jordanova, "Gender, Generation and Science: William Hunter's Obstetrical Atlas," in William Hunter and the Eighteenth-Century Medical World, ed. William F. Bynum and Roy Porter (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985), pp. 385-412; Andrea Henderson, "Doll-Machines and Butcher-Shop Meat: Models of Childbirth in die Early Stages of Industrial Capitalism," Genders, 1991, 12: 100-119; Michael Hagner, "Vom Naturalienkabinett zur Embryologie: Wandlungen des Monströsen und die Ordnung des Lebens," in Der falsche Körper: Beiträge zu einer Geschichte der Monstrositäten, ed. idem (Göttingen: Wallstein, 1995), pp. 73-107. For a fine "predevelopmental" series of wax models of human embryos, see Benedetto Lanza, Maria Luisa Azzaroli Puccetti, Marta Poggesi, and Antonio Martelli, Le cere anatomiche della Specola (Florence: Arnaud Editore, 1979), p. 226.
37. Samuel Thomas Soemmerring, Icones embryonum humanorum (Frankfurt am Main: Varentrapp and Wenner, 1799). I am indebted for this perspective to Barbara Duden, Disembodying Women: Perspectives on Pregnancy and the Unborn, trans. Lee Hoinacki (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1993); idem, "'Ein falsch Gewächs, ein unzeitig Wesen, gestocktes Blut': Zur Geschichte von Wahrnehmung und Sichtweise der Leibesfrucht," in Unter anderen Umständen: Zur Geschichte der Abtreibung, ed. Gisela Staupe and Lisa Vieth (Dresden: Deutsches Hygiene-Museum; Berlin: Argon Verlag, 1993), pp. 27-35; idem, The Woman beneath the Skin: A Doctor's Patients in Eighteenth-Century Germany, trans. Thomas Dunlap (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1991). See further especially Esther FischerHomberger, Medizin vor Gericht: Gerichtsmedizin von der Renaissance bis zur Aufklärung (Bern: Hans Huber, 1983), pp. 222-92; LudmillaJ.Jordanova, "Gender, Generation and Science: William Hunter's Obstetrical Atlas," in William Hunter and the Eighteenth-Century Medical World, ed. William F. Bynum and Roy Porter (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985), pp. 385-412; Andrea Henderson, "Doll-Machines and Butcher-Shop Meat: Models of Childbirth in die Early Stages of Industrial Capitalism," Genders, 1991, 12: 100-119; Michael Hagner, "Vom Naturalienkabinett zur Embryologie: Wandlungen des Monströsen und die Ordnung des Lebens," in Der falsche Körper: Beiträge zu einer Geschichte der Monstrositäten, ed. idem (Göttingen: Wallstein, 1995), pp. 73-107. For a fine "predevelopmental" series of wax models of human embryos, see Benedetto Lanza, Maria Luisa Azzaroli Puccetti, Marta Poggesi, and Antonio Martelli, Le cere anatomiche della Specola (Florence: Arnaud Editore, 1979), p. 226.
38. Samuel Thomas Soemmerring, Icones embryonum humanorum (Frankfurt am Main: Varentrapp and Wenner, 1799). I am indebted for this perspective to Barbara Duden, Disembodying Women: Perspectives on Pregnancy and the Unborn, trans. Lee Hoinacki (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1993); idem, "'Ein falsch Gewächs, ein unzeitig Wesen, gestocktes Blut': Zur Geschichte von Wahrnehmung und Sichtweise der Leibesfrucht," in Unter anderen Umständen: Zur Geschichte der Abtreibung, ed. Gisela Staupe and Lisa Vieth (Dresden: Deutsches Hygiene-Museum; Berlin: Argon Verlag, 1993), pp. 27-35; idem, The Woman beneath the Skin: A Doctor's Patients in Eighteenth-Century Germany, trans. Thomas Dunlap (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1991). See further especially Esther FischerHomberger, Medizin vor Gericht: Gerichtsmedizin von der Renaissance bis zur Aufklärung (Bern: Hans Huber, 1983), pp. 222-92; LudmillaJ.Jordanova, "Gender, Generation and Science: William Hunter's Obstetrical Atlas," in William Hunter and the Eighteenth-Century Medical World, ed. William F. Bynum and Roy Porter (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985), pp. 385-412; Andrea Henderson, "Doll-Machines and Butcher-Shop Meat: Models of Childbirth in die Early Stages of Industrial Capitalism," Genders, 1991, 12: 100-119; Michael Hagner, "Vom Naturalienkabinett zur Embryologie: Wandlungen des Monströsen und die Ordnung des Lebens," in Der falsche Körper: Beiträge zu einer Geschichte der Monstrositäten, ed. idem (Göttingen: Wallstein, 1995), pp. 73-107. For a fine "predevelopmental" series of wax models of human embryos, see Benedetto Lanza, Maria Luisa Azzaroli Puccetti, Marta Poggesi, and Antonio Martelli, Le cere anatomiche della Specola (Florence: Arnaud Editore, 1979), p. 226.
39. Samuel Thomas Soemmerring, Icones embryonum humanorum (Frankfurt am Main: Varentrapp and Wenner, 1799). I am indebted for this perspective to Barbara Duden, Disembodying Women: Perspectives on Pregnancy and the Unborn, trans. Lee Hoinacki (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1993); idem, "'Ein falsch Gewächs, ein unzeitig Wesen, gestocktes Blut': Zur Geschichte von Wahrnehmung und Sichtweise der Leibesfrucht," in Unter anderen Umständen: Zur Geschichte der Abtreibung, ed. Gisela Staupe and Lisa Vieth (Dresden: Deutsches Hygiene-Museum; Berlin: Argon Verlag, 1993), pp. 27-35; idem, The Woman beneath the Skin: A Doctor's Patients in Eighteenth-Century Germany, trans. Thomas Dunlap (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1991). See further especially Esther FischerHomberger, Medizin vor Gericht: Gerichtsmedizin von der Renaissance bis zur Aufklärung (Bern: Hans Huber, 1983), pp. 222-92; LudmillaJ.Jordanova, "Gender, Generation and Science: William Hunter's Obstetrical Atlas," in William Hunter and the Eighteenth-Century Medical World, ed. William F. Bynum and Roy Porter (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985), pp. 385-412; Andrea Henderson, "Doll-Machines and Butcher-Shop Meat: Models of Childbirth in die Early Stages of Industrial Capitalism," Genders, 1991, 12: 100-119; Michael Hagner, "Vom Naturalienkabinett zur Embryologie: Wandlungen des Monströsen und die Ordnung des Lebens," in Der falsche Körper: Beiträge zu einer Geschichte der Monstrositäten, ed. idem (Göttingen: Wallstein, 1995), pp. 73-107. For a fine "predevelopmental" series of wax models of human embryos, see Benedetto Lanza, Maria Luisa Azzaroli Puccetti, Marta Poggesi, and Antonio Martelli, Le cere anatomiche della Specola (Florence: Arnaud Editore, 1979), p. 226.
40. Samuel Thomas Soemmerring, Icones embryonum humanorum (Frankfurt am Main: Varentrapp and Wenner, 1799). I am indebted for this perspective to Barbara Duden, Disembodying Women: Perspectives on Pregnancy and the Unborn, trans. Lee Hoinacki (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1993); idem, "'Ein falsch Gewächs, ein unzeitig Wesen, gestocktes Blut': Zur Geschichte von Wahrnehmung und Sichtweise der Leibesfrucht," in Unter anderen Umständen: Zur Geschichte der Abtreibung, ed. Gisela Staupe and Lisa Vieth (Dresden: Deutsches Hygiene-Museum; Berlin: Argon Verlag, 1993), pp. 27-35; idem, The Woman beneath the Skin: A Doctor's Patients in Eighteenth-Century Germany, trans. Thomas Dunlap (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1991). See further especially Esther FischerHomberger, Medizin vor Gericht: Gerichtsmedizin von der Renaissance bis zur Aufklärung (Bern: Hans Huber, 1983), pp. 222-92; LudmillaJ.Jordanova, "Gender, Generation and Science: William Hunter's Obstetrical Atlas," in William Hunter and the Eighteenth-Century Medical World, ed. William F. Bynum and Roy Porter (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985), pp. 385-412; Andrea Henderson, "Doll-Machines and Butcher-Shop Meat: Models of Childbirth in die Early Stages of Industrial Capitalism," Genders, 1991, 12: 100-119; Michael Hagner, "Vom Naturalienkabinett zur Embryologie: Wandlungen des Monströsen und die Ordnung des Lebens," in Der falsche Körper: Beiträge zu einer Geschichte der Monstrositäten, ed. idem (Göttingen: Wallstein, 1995), pp. 73-107. For a fine "predevelopmental" series of wax models of human embryos, see Benedetto Lanza, Maria Luisa Azzaroli Puccetti, Marta Poggesi, and Antonio Martelli, Le cere anatomiche della Specola (Florence: Arnaud Editore, 1979), p. 226.
41. See Barbara Brookes, Abortion in England 1900-1967 (London: Croom Helm, 1988); and on Germany see, e.g., the chapters by Karin Stukenbrock, Eduard Seidler, and Christiane Dienel in Geschichte der Abtreibung: Von der Antike bis zur Gegenwart, ed. Robert Jütte (Munich: C. H. Beck, 1993), pp. 91-168.
42. See Barbara Brookes, Abortion in England 1900-1967 (London: Croom Helm, 1988); and on Germany see, e.g., the chapters by Karin Stukenbrock, Eduard Seidler, and Christiane Dienel in Geschichte der Abtreibung: Von der Antike bis zur Gegenwart, ed. Robert Jütte (Munich: C. H. Beck, 1993), pp. 91-168.
43. Franz Keibel, "Introduction,"in Manual of Human Embryology, ed. idem and Franklin P. Mall, 2 vols. (Philadelphia: Lippincott, 1910-12), 1: xi-xviii, on p. xiii.
44. See the important survey by human embryologist Ronan O'Rahilly, "One Hundred Years of Human Embryology," Iss. Rev. Terat., 1988, 4: 81-128. By contrast, Karen Newman, Fetal Positions: Individualism, Science, Visuality (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1996), skips the nineteenth century completely; Duden, Disembodying Women and "'Ein falsch Gewächs'" (both n. 7), acknowledges that Soemmerring had only begun to represent human development.
45. See the important survey by human embryologist Ronan O'Rahilly, "One Hundred Years of Human Embryology," Iss. Rev. Terat., 1988, 4: 81-128. By contrast, Karen Newman, Fetal Positions: Individualism, Science, Visuality (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1996), skips the nineteenth century completely; Duden, Disembodying Women and "'Ein falsch Gewächs'" (both n. 7), acknowledges that Soemmerring had only begun to represent human development.
46. See the important survey by human embryologist Ronan O'Rahilly, "One Hundred Years of Human Embryology," Iss. Rev. Terat., 1988, 4: 81-128. By contrast, Karen Newman, Fetal Positions: Individualism, Science, Visuality (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1996), skips the nineteenth century completely; Duden, Disembodying Women and "'Ein falsch Gewächs'" (both n. 7), acknowledges that Soemmerring had only begun to represent human development.
47. For an entry point to the historiography, see Maienschein, Transforming Traditions (n. 3). Important in mapping previously ignored terrain are Adele E. Clarke, "Embryology and the Rise of American Reproductive Sciences, circa 1910-1940," in The Expansion of American Biology, ed. Keith R. Benson, Jane Maienschein, and Ronald Rainger (New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 1991), pp. 107-32; idem, Disciplining Reproduction: Modernity, American Life
48. For an entry point to the historiography, see Maienschein, Transforming Traditions (n. 3). Important in mapping previously ignored terrain are Adele E. Clarke, "Embryology and the Rise of American Reproductive Sciences, circa 1910-1940," in The Expansion of American Biology, ed. Keith R. Benson, Jane Maienschein, and Ronald Rainger (New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 1991), pp. 107-32; idem, Disciplining Reproduction: Modernity, American Life Sciences, and "the Problems of Sex" (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1998); and Lynn K. Nyhart, Biology Takes Form: Animal Morphology and the German Universities, 1800-1900 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1995). For a survey, see Nick Hopwood, "Embryology," in The Cambridge History of Science, vol. 6: Life and Earth Sciences since 1800, ed. Peter J. Bowler and John V. Pickstone (New York: Cambridge University Press, forthcoming).
49. For an entry point to the historiography, see Maienschein, Transforming Traditions (n. 3). Important in mapping previously ignored terrain are Adele E. Clarke, "Embryology and the Rise of American Reproductive Sciences, circa 1910-1940," in The Expansion of American Biology, ed. Keith R. Benson, Jane Maienschein, and Ronald Rainger (New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 1991), pp. 107-32; idem, Disciplining Reproduction: Modernity, American Life Sciences, and "the Problems of Sex" (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1998); and Lynn K. Nyhart, Biology Takes Form: Animal Morphology and the German Universities, 1800-1900 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1995). For a survey, see Nick Hopwood, "Embryology," in The Cambridge History of Science, vol. 6: Life and Earth Sciences since 1800, ed. Peter J. Bowler and John V. Pickstone (New York: Cambridge University Press, forthcoming).
50. For an entry point to the historiography, see Maienschein, Transforming Traditions (n. 3). Important in mapping previously ignored terrain are Adele E. Clarke, "Embryology and the Rise of American Reproductive Sciences, circa 1910-1940," in The Expansion of American Biology, ed. Keith R. Benson, Jane Maienschein, and Ronald Rainger (New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 1991), pp. 107-32; idem, Disciplining Reproduction: Modernity, American Life Sciences, and "the Problems of Sex" (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1998); and Lynn K. Nyhart, Biology Takes Form: Animal Morphology and the German Universities, 1800-1900 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1995). For a survey, see Nick Hopwood, "Embryology," in The Cambridge History of Science, vol. 6: Life and Earth Sciences since 1800, ed. Peter J. Bowler and John V. Pickstone (New York: Cambridge University Press, forthcoming).
51. For an entry point to the historiography, see Maienschein, Transforming Traditions (n. 3). Important in mapping previously ignored terrain are Adele E. Clarke, "Embryology and the Rise of American Reproductive Sciences, circa 1910-1940," in The Expansion of American Biology, ed. Keith R. Benson, Jane Maienschein, and Ronald Rainger (New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 1991), pp. 107-32; idem, Disciplining Reproduction: Modernity, American Life Sciences, and "the Problems of Sex" (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1998); and Lynn K. Nyhart, Biology Takes Form: Animal Morphology and the German Universities, 1800-1900 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1995). For a survey, see Nick Hopwood, "Embryology," in The Cambridge History of Science, vol. 6: Life and Earth Sciences since 1800, ed. Peter J. Bowler and John V. Pickstone (New York: Cambridge University Press, forthcoming).
52. Ernst Haeckel, Anthropogenic, oder Entwicklungsgeschichte des Menschen: Gemeinverständliche wissenschaftliche Vortrāge ūber die Grundzüge der menschlichen Keimes- und Stammes-Geschichte (Leipzig: Wilhelm Engelmann, 1874), p. xi.
53. On atlases, see Lorraine Daston and Peter Galison, "The Image of Objectivity," Representations, 1992, 40: 81-128; and on an embryological atlas, see Jane Maienschein, "From Presentation to Representation in E. B. Wlson's The Cell," Biol. Philos., 1991, 6: 227-54. On biomedical norms, see Georges Canguilhem, The Normal and the Pathological, trans. Carolyn R. Fawcett and Robert S. Cohen (New York: Zone Books, 1989 [1978]); Michel Foucault, The History of Sexuality, vol. 1, An Introduction, trans. Robert Hurley (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1981 [1978]), p. 144; and Volker Hess, ed., Normierung der Gesundheit: Messende Verfahren der Medizin als kulturelle Praktik um 1900 (Husum: Matthiesen, 1997).
54. On atlases, see Lorraine Daston and Peter Galison, "The Image of Objectivity," Representations, 1992, 40: 81-128; and on an embryological atlas, see Jane Maienschein, "From Presentation to Representation in E. B. Wlson's The Cell," Biol. Philos., 1991, 6: 227-54. On biomedical norms, see Georges Canguilhem, The Normal and the Pathological, trans. Carolyn R. Fawcett and Robert S. Cohen (New York: Zone Books, 1989 [1978]); Michel Foucault, The History of Sexuality, vol. 1, An Introduction, trans. Robert Hurley (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1981 [1978]), p. 144; and Volker Hess, ed., Normierung der Gesundheit: Messende Verfahren der Medizin als kulturelle Praktik um 1900 (Husum: Matthiesen, 1997).
55. On atlases, see Lorraine Daston and Peter Galison, "The Image of Objectivity," Representations, 1992, 40: 81-128; and on an embryological atlas, see Jane Maienschein, "From Presentation to Representation in E. B. Wlson's The Cell," Biol. Philos., 1991, 6: 227-54. On biomedical norms, see Georges Canguilhem, The Normal and the Pathological, trans. Carolyn R. Fawcett and Robert S. Cohen (New York: Zone Books, 1989 [1978]); Michel Foucault, The History of Sexuality, vol. 1, An Introduction, trans. Robert Hurley (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1981 [1978]), p. 144; and Volker Hess, ed., Normierung der Gesundheit: Messende Verfahren der Medizin als kulturelle Praktik um 1900 (Husum: Matthiesen, 1997).
56. On atlases, see Lorraine Daston and Peter Galison, "The Image of Objectivity," Representations, 1992, 40: 81-128; and on an embryological atlas, see Jane Maienschein, "From Presentation to Representation in E. B. Wlson's The Cell," Biol. Philos., 1991, 6: 227-54. On biomedical norms, see Georges Canguilhem, The Normal and the Pathological, trans. Carolyn R. Fawcett and Robert S. Cohen (New York: Zone Books, 1989 [1978]); Michel Foucault, The History of Sexuality, vol. 1, An Introduction, trans. Robert Hurley (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1981 [1978]), p. 144; and Volker Hess, ed., Normierung der Gesundheit: Messende Verfahren der Medizin als kulturelle Praktik um 1900 (Husum: Matthiesen, 1997).
57. On atlases, see Lorraine Daston and Peter Galison, "The Image of Objectivity," Representations, 1992, 40: 81-128; and on an embryological atlas, see Jane Maienschein, "From Presentation to Representation in E. B. Wlson's The Cell," Biol. Philos., 1991, 6: 227-54. On biomedical norms, see Georges Canguilhem, The Normal and the Pathological, trans. Carolyn R. Fawcett and Robert S. Cohen (New York: Zone Books, 1989 [1978]); Michel Foucault, The History of Sexuality, vol. 1, An Introduction, trans. Robert Hurley (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1981 [1978]), p. 144; and Volker Hess, ed., Normierung der Gesundheit: Messende Verfahren der Medizin als kulturelle Praktik um 1900 (Husum: Matthiesen, 1997).
58. Soemmerring, quoted in Ludwig Choulant, History and Bibliography of Anatomic Illustration, trans. Mortimer Frank (New York: Schuman's, 1945), p. 302.
59. See O'Rahilly, "One Hundred Years" (n. 10); the "bureau of Standards" tag, from the third director, George W. Corner, is on p. 93.
60. Daston and Galison, "Image" (n. 13), p. 81.
61. On collecting embryos, sec especially Adele E. Clarke, "Research Materials and Reproductive Science in the United States, 1910-1940,"in Physiology in the American Context 1850-1940, ed. Gerald L. Geison (Bethesda, Md.: American Physiological Society, 1987), pp. 323-50, on pp. 332-34. Clarke outlines how human embryos were collected by His's American students; I show that they built explicitly on his reforms. On "rendering practices," see Michael Lynch, "Discipline and the Material Form of Images: An Analysis of Scientific Visibility," Soc. Stud. Sci., 1985, 15: 37-66; and Michael Lynch and Steve Woolgar, eds., Representation in Scientific Practice (Cambridge: MIT Press, 1990 [1988]). For "working objects," see Daston and Galison, "Image" (n. 13), p. 85.
62. On collecting embryos, sec especially Adele E. Clarke, "Research Materials and Reproductive Science in the United States, 1910-1940,"in Physiology in the American Context 1850-1940, ed. Gerald L. Geison (Bethesda, Md.: American Physiological Society, 1987), pp. 323-50, on pp. 332-34. Clarke outlines how human embryos were collected by His's American students; I show that they built explicitly on his reforms. On "rendering practices," see Michael Lynch, "Discipline and the Material Form of Images: An Analysis of Scientific Visibility," Soc. Stud. Sci., 1985, 15: 37-66; and Michael Lynch and Steve Woolgar, eds., Representation in Scientific Practice (Cambridge: MIT Press, 1990 [1988]). For "working objects," see Daston and Galison, "Image" (n. 13), p. 85.
63. On collecting embryos, sec especially Adele E. Clarke, "Research Materials and Reproductive Science in the United States, 1910-1940,"in Physiology in the American Context 1850-1940, ed. Gerald L. Geison (Bethesda, Md.: American Physiological Society, 1987), pp. 323-50, on pp. 332-34. Clarke outlines how human embryos were collected by His's American students; I show that they built explicitly on his reforms. On "rendering practices," see Michael Lynch, "Discipline and the Material Form of Images: An Analysis of Scientific Visibility," Soc. Stud. Sci., 1985, 15: 37-66; and Michael Lynch and Steve Woolgar, eds., Representation in Scientific Practice (Cambridge: MIT Press, 1990 [1988]). For "working objects," see Daston and Galison, "Image" (n. 13), p. 85.
64. On collecting embryos, sec especially Adele E. Clarke, "Research Materials and Reproductive Science in the United States, 1910-1940,"in Physiology in the American Context 1850-1940, ed. Gerald L. Geison (Bethesda, Md.: American Physiological Society, 1987), pp. 323-50, on pp. 332-34. Clarke outlines how human embryos were collected by His's American students; I show that they built explicitly on his reforms. On "rendering practices," see Michael Lynch, "Discipline and the Material Form of Images: An Analysis of Scientific Visibility," Soc. Stud. Sci., 1985, 15: 37-66; and Michael Lynch and Steve Woolgar, eds., Representation in Scientific Practice (Cambridge: MIT Press, 1990 [1988]). For "working objects," see Daston and Galison, "Image" (n. 13), p. 85.
65. Daston and Galison designated the problem of selection as selecting a class of phenomena tobe decisive for a discipline ("Image" [n. 13], p. 85); choosing which objects among them should represent the standard phenomena, they named the problem of choice (p. 86). At the risk of confusion, I prefer to call the latter the problem of selection, because this more readily evokes practical activities.
66. †," Anatomischer Anzeiger (hereafter, AA), 1904, 25: 161-208; Wilhelm Waldeyer, "Wilhelm His: Sein Leben und Wirken," Deutsche medizinische Wochenschrift, 1904, 30: 1438-41, 1469-71, 1509-11; Wilhelm His (Jr.), Wilhelm His der Anatom: Ein Lebensbild (Berlin: Urban & Schwarzenberg, 1931); Hans Querner, "His, Wilhelm," Diet. Sci. Biog., 6: 434-36; Hugo Kurz, Wilhelm His (Basel und Leipzig): Seine Beiträge zur Weltgeltung der Anatomie im 19. Jahrhundert (Basel: Anatomisches Museum, 1992); Gottfried Zirnstein, "Wilhelm His (1831-1904)," in Sächsische Lebensbilder, vol. 4, ed. Reimer Groß and Gerald Wiemers (Leipzig: Sächsische Akademie der Wissenschaften; Stuttgart: Steiner, 1999), pp. 157-73. His is sometimes confused with his son of the same name, who discovered the bundle of His in the heart.
67. †," Anatomischer Anzeiger (hereafter, AA), 1904, 25: 161-208; Wilhelm Waldeyer, "Wilhelm His: Sein Leben und Wirken," Deutsche medizinische Wochenschrift, 1904, 30: 1438-41, 1469-71, 1509-11; Wilhelm His (Jr.), Wilhelm His der Anatom: Ein Lebensbild (Berlin: Urban & Schwarzenberg, 1931); Hans Querner, "His, Wilhelm," Diet. Sci. Biog., 6: 434-36; Hugo Kurz, Wilhelm His (Basel und Leipzig): Seine Beiträge zur Weltgeltung der Anatomie im 19. Jahrhundert (Basel: Anatomisches Museum, 1992); Gottfried Zirnstein, "Wilhelm His (1831-1904)," in Sächsische Lebensbilder, vol. 4, ed. Reimer Groß and Gerald Wiemers (Leipzig: Sächsische Akademie der Wissenschaften; Stuttgart: Steiner, 1999), pp. 157-73. His is sometimes confused with his son of the same name, who discovered the bundle of His in the heart.
68. †," Anatomischer Anzeiger (hereafter, AA), 1904, 25: 161-208; Wilhelm Waldeyer, "Wilhelm His: Sein Leben und Wirken," Deutsche medizinische Wochenschrift, 1904, 30: 1438-41, 1469-71, 1509-11; Wilhelm His (Jr.), Wilhelm His der Anatom: Ein Lebensbild (Berlin: Urban & Schwarzenberg, 1931); Hans Querner, "His, Wilhelm," Diet. Sci. Biog., 6: 434-36; Hugo Kurz, Wilhelm His (Basel und Leipzig): Seine Beiträge zur Weltgeltung der Anatomie im 19. Jahrhundert (Basel: Anatomisches Museum, 1992); Gottfried Zirnstein, "Wilhelm His (1831-1904)," in Sächsische Lebensbilder, vol. 4, ed. Reimer Groß and Gerald Wiemers (Leipzig: Sächsische Akademie der Wissenschaften; Stuttgart: Steiner, 1999), pp. 157-73. His is sometimes confused with his son of the same name, who discovered the bundle of His in the heart.
69. †," Anatomischer Anzeiger (hereafter, AA), 1904, 25: 161-208; Wilhelm Waldeyer, "Wilhelm His: Sein Leben und Wirken," Deutsche medizinische Wochenschrift, 1904, 30: 1438-41, 1469-71, 1509-11; Wilhelm His (Jr.), Wilhelm His der Anatom: Ein Lebensbild (Berlin: Urban & Schwarzenberg, 1931); Hans Querner, "His, Wilhelm," Diet. Sci. Biog., 6: 434-36; Hugo Kurz, Wilhelm His (Basel und Leipzig): Seine Beiträge zur Weltgeltung der Anatomie im 19. Jahrhundert (Basel: Anatomisches Museum, 1992); Gottfried Zirnstein, "Wilhelm His (1831-1904)," in Sächsische Lebensbilder, vol. 4, ed. Reimer Groß and Gerald Wiemers (Leipzig: Sächsische Akademie der Wissenschaften; Stuttgart: Steiner, 1999), pp. 157-73. His is sometimes confused with his son of the same name, who discovered the bundle of His in the heart.
70. †," Anatomischer Anzeiger (hereafter, AA), 1904, 25: 161-208; Wilhelm Waldeyer, "Wilhelm His: Sein Leben und Wirken," Deutsche medizinische Wochenschrift, 1904, 30: 1438-41, 1469-71, 1509-11; Wilhelm His (Jr.), Wilhelm His der Anatom: Ein Lebensbild (Berlin: Urban & Schwarzenberg, 1931); Hans Querner, "His, Wilhelm," Diet. Sci. Biog., 6: 434-36; Hugo Kurz, Wilhelm His (Basel und Leipzig): Seine Beiträge zur Weltgeltung der Anatomie im 19. Jahrhundert (Basel: Anatomisches Museum, 1992); Gottfried Zirnstein, "Wilhelm His (1831-1904)," in Sächsische Lebensbilder, vol. 4, ed. Reimer Groß and Gerald Wiemers (Leipzig: Sächsische Akademie der Wissenschaften; Stuttgart: Steiner, 1999), pp. 157-73. His is sometimes confused with his son of the same name, who discovered the bundle of His in the heart.
71. †," Anatomischer Anzeiger (hereafter, AA), 1904, 25: 161-208; Wilhelm Waldeyer, "Wilhelm His: Sein Leben und Wirken," Deutsche medizinische Wochenschrift, 1904, 30: 1438-41, 1469-71, 1509-11; Wilhelm His (Jr.), Wilhelm His der Anatom: Ein Lebensbild (Berlin: Urban & Schwarzenberg, 1931); Hans Querner, "His, Wilhelm," Diet. Sci. Biog., 6: 434-36; Hugo Kurz, Wilhelm His (Basel und Leipzig): Seine Beiträge zur Weltgeltung der Anatomie im 19. Jahrhundert (Basel: Anatomisches Museum, 1992); Gottfried Zirnstein, "Wilhelm His (1831-1904)," in Sächsische Lebensbilder, vol. 4, ed. Reimer Groß and Gerald Wiemers (Leipzig: Sächsische Akademie der Wissenschaften; Stuttgart: Steiner, 1999), pp. 157-73. His is sometimes confused with his son of the same name, who discovered the bundle of His in the heart.
72. †," Anatomischer Anzeiger (hereafter, AA), 1904, 25: 161-208; Wilhelm Waldeyer, "Wilhelm His: Sein Leben und Wirken," Deutsche medizinische Wochenschrift, 1904, 30: 1438-41, 1469-71, 1509-11; Wilhelm His (Jr.), Wilhelm His der Anatom: Ein Lebensbild (Berlin: Urban & Schwarzenberg, 1931); Hans Querner, "His, Wilhelm," Diet. Sci. Biog., 6: 434-36; Hugo Kurz, Wilhelm His (Basel und Leipzig): Seine Beiträge zur Weltgeltung der Anatomie im 19. Jahrhundert (Basel: Anatomisches Museum, 1992); Gottfried Zirnstein, "Wilhelm His (1831-1904)," in Sächsische Lebensbilder, vol. 4, ed. Reimer Groß and Gerald Wiemers (Leipzig: Sächsische Akademie der Wissenschaften; Stuttgart: Steiner, 1999), pp. 157-73. His is sometimes confused with his son of the same name, who discovered the bundle of His in the heart.
73. †," Anatomischer Anzeiger (hereafter, AA), 1904, 25: 161-208; Wilhelm Waldeyer, "Wilhelm His: Sein Leben und Wirken," Deutsche medizinische Wochenschrift, 1904, 30: 1438-41, 1469-71, 1509-11; Wilhelm His (Jr.), Wilhelm His der Anatom: Ein Lebensbild (Berlin: Urban & Schwarzenberg, 1931); Hans Querner, "His, Wilhelm," Diet. Sci. Biog., 6: 434-36; Hugo Kurz, Wilhelm His (Basel und Leipzig): Seine Beiträge zur Weltgeltung der Anatomie im 19. Jahrhundert (Basel: Anatomisches Museum, 1992); Gottfried Zirnstein, "Wilhelm His (1831-1904)," in Sächsische Lebensbilder, vol. 4, ed. Reimer Groß and Gerald Wiemers (Leipzig: Sächsische Akademie der Wissenschaften; Stuttgart: Steiner, 1999), pp. 157-73. His is sometimes confused with his son of the same name, who discovered the bundle of His in the heart.
74. On His's chick work, see Nick Hopwood, "'Giving Body' to Embryos: Modeling, Mechanism, and the Microtome in Late Nineteenth-Century Anatomy," Isis, 1999, 90: 462-96. More generally on the history of microtechnique, see Stefan Apáthy, Die Mikrotechnik der thierischen Morphologie; eine kritische Darstellung der mikroskopischen Untersuchungsmethoden, 2 parts (Braunschweig: H. Bruhn, 1896; Leipzig: S. Hirzel, 1901), 1: 35-140; and Brian Bracegirdle, A History of Microtechnique: The Evolution of the Microtome and the Development of Tissue Preparation (London: Heinemann Educational, 1978). His expressed pleasure at working specifically on human embryos because it allowed him to remain much closer to his anatomical profession than did the fish on which he had spent much of his time since finishing with the chick; see His to Friedrich Miescher-His (1811-87), 3 November 1878, Friedrich Miescher Papers, Universitätsbibliothek Basel.
75. On His's chick work, see Nick Hopwood, "'Giving Body' to Embryos: Modeling, Mechanism, and the Microtome in Late Nineteenth-Century Anatomy," Isis, 1999, 90: 462-96. More generally on the history of microtechnique, see Stefan Apáthy, Die Mikrotechnik der thierischen Morphologie; eine kritische Darstellung der mikroskopischen Untersuchungsmethoden, 2 parts (Braunschweig: H. Bruhn, 1896; Leipzig: S. Hirzel, 1901), 1: 35-140; and Brian Bracegirdle, A History of Microtechnique: The Evolution of the Microtome and the Development of Tissue Preparation (London: Heinemann Educational, 1978). His expressed pleasure at working specifically on human embryos because it allowed him to remain much closer to his anatomical profession than did the fish on which he had spent much of his time since finishing with the chick; see His to Friedrich Miescher-His (1811-87), 3 November 1878, Friedrich Miescher Papers, Universitätsbibliothek Basel.
76. On His's chick work, see Nick Hopwood, "'Giving Body' to Embryos: Modeling, Mechanism, and the Microtome in Late Nineteenth-Century Anatomy," Isis, 1999, 90: 462-96. More generally on the history of microtechnique, see Stefan Apáthy, Die Mikrotechnik der thierischen Morphologie; eine kritische Darstellung der mikroskopischen Untersuchungsmethoden, 2 parts (Braunschweig: H. Bruhn, 1896; Leipzig: S. Hirzel, 1901), 1: 35-140; and Brian Bracegirdle, A History of Microtechnique: The Evolution of the Microtome and the Development of Tissue Preparation (London: Heinemann Educational, 1978). His expressed pleasure at working specifically on human embryos because it allowed him to remain much closer to his anatomical profession than did the fish on which he had spent much of his time since finishing with the chick; see His to Friedrich Miescher-His (1811-87), 3 November 1878, Friedrich Miescher Papers, Universitätsbibliothek Basel.
77. On His's chick work, see Nick Hopwood, "'Giving Body' to Embryos: Modeling, Mechanism, and the Microtome in Late Nineteenth-Century Anatomy," Isis, 1999, 90: 462-96. More generally on the history of microtechnique, see Stefan Apáthy, Die Mikrotechnik der thierischen Morphologie; eine kritische Darstellung der mikroskopischen Untersuchungsmethoden, 2 parts (Braunschweig: H. Bruhn, 1896; Leipzig: S. Hirzel, 1901), 1: 35-140; and Brian Bracegirdle, A History of Microtechnique: The Evolution of the Microtome and the Development of Tissue Preparation (London: Heinemann Educational, 1978). His expressed pleasure at working specifically on human embryos because it allowed him to remain much closer to his anatomical profession than did the fish on which he had spent much of his time since finishing with the chick; see His to Friedrich Miescher-His (1811-87), 3 November 1878, Friedrich Miescher Papers, Universitätsbibliothek Basel.
78. I speak of "framing" embryos as Charles E. Rosenberg has written of "framing disease": see "Introduction: Framing Disease: Illness, Society, and History," in Framing Disease: Studies in Cultural History, ed. Charles E. Rosenberg and Janet Golden (New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 1992), pp. xiii-xxvi. On alternative ways in which fetuses have been constructed in recent biomedicine, see MonicaJ. Casper, "At the Margins of Humanity: Fetal Positions in Science and Medicine," Sci. Technol Hum. Val, 1994, 19: 307-23.
79. I speak of "framing" embryos as Charles E. Rosenberg has written of "framing disease": see "Introduction: Framing Disease: Illness, Society, and History," in Framing Disease: Studies in Cultural History, ed. Charles E. Rosenberg and Janet Golden (New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 1992), pp. xiii-xxvi. On alternative ways in which fetuses have been constructed in recent biomedicine, see MonicaJ. Casper, "At the Margins of Humanity: Fetal Positions in Science and Medicine," Sci. Technol Hum. Val, 1994, 19: 307-23.
80. For "treasures," "precious objects," and the first of many appeals to gynecologists, which other anatomists amplified, see AmE 1: 4-5. The figure of seventy-nine is the sum of the embryos His mentioned receiving in the three parts of the work.
81. For the arrival of embryo a, see AmE 1: 100; for the quotes, see His to Miescher, 30 December 1879, Miescher Papers.
82. For the arrival of embryo a, see AmE 1: 100; for the quotes, see His to Miescher, 30 December 1879, Miescher Papers.
83. His urged physicians to search any late bleed for clumps of blood; see AmE 1: 3.
84. Cornelie Usborne, "Rhetoric and Resistance: Rationalization of Reproduction in Weimar Germany," Soc. Polit., 1997, 4: 65-89, on pp. 80-81.
85. James Woycke, Birth Control in Germany 1871-1933 (London: Routledge, 1988), p. 91.
86. Cornelie Usborne, "Wise Women, Wise Men and Abortion in the Weimar Republic: Gender, Class and Medicine,"in Gender Relations in German History: Power, Agency and Experience from the Sixteenth to the Twentieth Century, ed. Lynn Abrams and Elizabeth Harvey (London: UCL Press, 1996), pp. 143-75, on p. 167; and idem, "Abortion for Sale! The Competition between Quacks and Doctors in Weimar Germany," in Illness and Healing Alternatives in Western Europe, ed. Marijke Gijswijt-Hofstra, Hilary Marland, and Hans de Waardt (London: Routledge, 1997), pp. 183-204, on p. 196, where Usborne points out that returning with the "fetus"to an abortionist meant acknowledging more than just unblocking the flow of blood. It would be interesting to know at how early a stage such "fetuses" were handed in - i.e., whether much time was spent examining material from before the third or fourth month of pregnancy, when most abortions were carried out. His reproduced such medical case notes as he was able to obtain, and typically reported age, number of children, and the date of the last period before the abortion, and occasionally such information as husband's occupation or remarks on character. Tracing the unnamed women to the physicians' casebooks or, for the postmortems, to official records or newspaper reports, would be rewarding but difficult.
87. Cornelie Usborne, "Wise Women, Wise Men and Abortion in the Weimar Republic: Gender, Class and Medicine,"in Gender Relations in German History: Power, Agency and Experience from the Sixteenth to the Twentieth Century, ed. Lynn Abrams and Elizabeth Harvey (London: UCL Press, 1996), pp. 143-75, on p. 167; and idem, "Abortion for Sale! The Competition between Quacks and Doctors in Weimar Germany," in Illness and Healing Alternatives in Western Europe, ed. Marijke Gijswijt-Hofstra, Hilary Marland, and Hans de Waardt (London: Routledge, 1997), pp. 183-204, on p. 196, where Usborne points out that returning with the "fetus"to an abortionist meant acknowledging more than just unblocking the flow of blood. It would be interesting to know at how early a stage such "fetuses" were handed in - i.e., whether much time was spent examining material from before the third or fourth month of pregnancy, when most abortions were carried out. His reproduced such medical case notes as he was able to obtain, and typically reported age, number of children, and the date of the last period before the abortion, and occasionally such information as husband's occupation or remarks on character. Tracing the unnamed women to the physicians' casebooks or, for the postmortems, to official records or newspaper reports, would be rewarding but difficult.
88. His to Miescher, 3 November 1878, Miescher Papers. On embryo M, see further AmE 1: 116-17. His reckoned he must have received the specimen in 1863, but it is likely to have been the "beautiful egg from the 3d week, a present from Prof. Miescher," referred to in Staatsarchiv Basel EA DD12, "Bericht über die anatomischen Sammlungen im Jahr 1861." Reports in üiis series show that Basel physicians, His's chief early suppliers, had been donating embryonic and fetal material since at least the late 1850s. He dedicated AmE 1 to the Basel Medical Society.
89. His to Miescher, 3 November 1878, Miescher Papers. On embryo M, see further AmE 1: 116-17. His reckoned he must have received the specimen in 1863, but it is likely to have been the "beautiful egg from the 3d week, a present from Prof. Miescher," referred to in Staatsarchiv Basel EA DD12, "Bericht über die anatomischen Sammlungen im Jahr 1861." Reports in üiis series show that Basel physicians, His's chief early suppliers, had been donating embryonic and fetal material since at least the late 1850s. He dedicated AmE 1 to the Basel Medical Society.
90. Lynch, "Discipline" (n. 17); Lynch and Woolgar, Representation (n. 17); Duden, Disembodying Women and "'Ein falsch Gewächs'" (both n. 7).
91. Lynch, "Discipline" (n. 17); Lynch and Woolgar, Representation (n. 17); Duden, Disembodying Women and "'Ein falsch Gewächs'" (both n. 7).
92. Lynch, "Discipline" (n. 17); Lynch and Woolgar, Representation (n. 17); Duden, Disembodying Women and "'Ein falsch Gewächs'" (both n. 7).
93. [J. J. Victor] Coste, Histoire générale et particulière du développement des corps organisés (Paris, 1849); Alexander Ecker, Icones physiologicae: Erläuterungstafeln zur Physiologie und Entwickelungsgeschichte (Leipzig: Leopold Voss, 1851-59).
94. [J. J. Victor] Coste, Histoire générale et particulière du développement des corps organisés (Paris, 1849); Alexander Ecker, Icones physiologicae: Erläuterungstafeln zur Physiologie und Entwickelungsgeschichte (Leipzig: Leopold Voss, 1851-59).
95. Quote from AmE 1: 6. On His's models, see Hopwood, "'Giving Body'" (n. 20).
96. Quote from AmE 1: 6. On His's models, see Hopwood, "'Giving Body'" (n. 20).
97. AmE 1: 3-4; 2: 3.
98. For critiques of images of fetal autonomy in recent biomedicine, see Petchesky, "Foetal Images" and other works cited in n. 6.
99. AmE 1: 6-7, on p. 6.
100. On the photographs, see Karl Bardeleben's review of AmE 1, Deutsche medicinische Wochenschrift, 1881, 7: 44. For mention of a demonstration, see the report of Wilhelm His, "Ueber jüngere menschl. Embryonen und über die Allantois des Menschen," in Tageblatt der 52. Versammlung Deutscher Naturforscher und Aerzte in Baden-Baden 1879 (Baden-Baden, n.d.), pp. 64-65, on p. 64.
101. On the photographs, see Karl Bardeleben's review of AmE 1, Deutsche medicinische Wochenschrift, 1881, 7: 44. For mention of a demonstration, see the report of Wilhelm His, "Ueber jüngere menschl. Embryonen und über die Allantois des Menschen," in Tageblatt der 52. Versammlung Deutscher Naturforscher und Aerzte in Baden-Baden 1879 (Baden-Baden, n.d.), pp. 64-65, on p. 64.
102. On producing drawings from micrographs, see Michael Lynch, The Externalized Retina: Selection and Mathematization in the Visual Documentation of Objects in the Life Sciences," in Lynch and Woolgar, Representation (n. 17), pp. 153-86.
103. On Pausch, see AmE 3: 6; and on the drawing apparatus, later sold by Hartnack as an "embryograph," AmE 1: 8-10.
104. On Pausch, see AmE 3: 6; and on the drawing apparatus, later sold by Hartnack as an "embryograph," AmE 1: 8-10.
105. Keibel, "Introduction" (n. 9), p. xv.
106. AmE 1: 1.
107. AmE 2: 2.
108. AmE 1: 147.
109. AmE 1: 166-68; 2: 72-86. On the overturning of the dominant view, see Victor Cornelius Medvei, A History of Endocrinology (Lancaster, U.K.: MTP Press, 1982), chap. 17; Stefanie Holle, "Die Wederlegung des Postulates von der Gleichzeitigkeit der Ovulation und Menstruation bei der Frau: Klinische und histologische Untersuchungen im frühen 20. Jahrhundert" (medical doctoral dissertation, University of Erlangen-Nuremberg, 1984).
110. AmE 1: 166-68; 2: 72-86. On the overturning of the dominant view, see Victor Cornelius Medvei, A History of Endocrinology (Lancaster, U.K.: MTP Press, 1982), chap. 17; Stefanie Holle, "Die Wederlegung des Postulates von der Gleichzeitigkeit der Ovulation und Menstruation bei der Frau: Klinische und histologische Untersuchungen im frühen 20. Jahrhundert" (medical doctoral dissertation, University of Erlangen-Nuremberg, 1984).
111. AmE 1: 166-68; 2: 72-86. On the overturning of the dominant view, see Victor Cornelius Medvei, A History of Endocrinology (Lancaster, U.K.: MTP Press, 1982), chap. 17; Stefanie Holle, "Die Wederlegung des Postulates von der Gleichzeitigkeit der Ovulation und Menstruation bei der Frau: Klinische und histologische Untersuchungen im frühen 20. Jahrhundert" (medical doctoral dissertation, University of Erlangen-Nuremberg, 1984).
112. See Wilhelm His, "Zur Kritikjüngerer menschlicher Embryonen: Sendschreiben an Herrn Prof. W. Krause in Göttingen," Archiv für Anatomie und Physiologie (Anatomische Abtheilung) (hereafter AAP; before 1877, Archiv für Anatomie, Physiologie und wissenschaftliche Medicin), 1880, pp. 407-20; and AmE 2: 18-22. For an example of skepticism toward a woman's statement, see AmE 2: 90-91.
113. See Wilhelm His, "Zur Kritikjüngerer menschlicher Embryonen: Sendschreiben an Herrn Prof. W. Krause in Göttingen," Archiv für Anatomie und Physiologie (Anatomische Abtheilung) (hereafter AAP; before 1877, Archiv für Anatomie, Physiologie und wissenschaftliche Medicin), 1880, pp. 407-20; and AmE 2: 18-22. For an example of skepticism toward a woman's statement, see AmE 2: 90-91.
114. See Wilhelm His, "Zur Kritikjüngerer menschlicher Embryonen: Sendschreiben an Herrn Prof. W. Krause in Göttingen," Archiv für Anatomie und Physiologie (Anatomische Abtheilung) (hereafter AAP; before 1877, Archiv für Anatomie, Physiologie und wissenschaftliche Medicin), 1880, pp. 407-20; and AmE 2: 18-22. For an example of skepticism toward a woman's statement, see AmE 2: 90-91.
115. Wilhelm His and Ludwig Rütimeyer, Crania Helvetica: Sammlung schweizerischer Schädelformen (Basel: H. Georg, 1864). His had argued that even though the eye varied with the subject, measuring methods remained such that it could not be dispensed with; see Wilhelm His, "Beschreibung einiger Schädel altschweizerischer Bevölkerung nebst Bemerkungen über die Aufstellung von Schädeltypen," Archiv für Anthropologie, 1866, 1: 61-74, on p. 69. He discussed the difficulties of using "measurement as the principle of the determination of norms" in idem, Ober die Aufgaben und Zielpunkte der wissenschaftlichen Anatomie: Rede, gehalten beim Antritt der anatomischen Professur der Universität Leipzig den 4. November 1872 (Leipzig: F. C. W. Vogel, 1872), pp. 9-10. On measuring in anthropology, see Stephen Jay Gould, The Mismeasure of Man (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1984 [1981]).
116. Wilhelm His and Ludwig Rütimeyer, Crania Helvetica: Sammlung schweizerischer Schädelformen (Basel: H. Georg, 1864). His had argued that even though the eye varied with the subject, measuring methods remained such that it could not be dispensed with; see Wilhelm His, "Beschreibung einiger Schädel altschweizerischer Bevölkerung nebst Bemerkungen über die Aufstellung von Schädeltypen," Archiv für Anthropologie, 1866, 1: 61-74, on p. 69. He discussed the difficulties of using "measurement as the principle of the determination of norms" in idem, Ober die Aufgaben und Zielpunkte der wissenschaftlichen Anatomie: Rede, gehalten beim Antritt der anatomischen Professur der Universität Leipzig den 4. November 1872 (Leipzig: F. C. W. Vogel, 1872), pp. 9-10. On measuring in anthropology, see Stephen Jay Gould, The Mismeasure of Man (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1984 [1981]).
117. Wilhelm His and Ludwig Rütimeyer, Crania Helvetica: Sammlung schweizerischer Schädelformen (Basel: H. Georg, 1864). His had argued that even though the eye varied with the subject, measuring methods remained such that it could not be dispensed with; see Wilhelm His, "Beschreibung einiger Schädel altschweizerischer Bevölkerung nebst Bemerkungen über die Aufstellung von Schädeltypen," Archiv für Anthropologie, 1866, 1: 61-74, on p. 69. He discussed the difficulties of using "measurement as the principle of the determination of norms" in idem, Ober die Aufgaben und Zielpunkte der wissenschaftlichen Anatomie: Rede, gehalten beim Antritt der anatomischen Professur der Universität Leipzig den 4. November 1872 (Leipzig: F. C. W. Vogel, 1872), pp. 9-10. On measuring in anthropology, see Stephen Jay Gould, The Mismeasure of Man (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1984 [1981]).
118. Wilhelm His and Ludwig Rütimeyer, Crania Helvetica: Sammlung schweizerischer Schädelformen (Basel: H. Georg, 1864). His had argued that even though the eye varied with the subject, measuring methods remained such that it could not be dispensed with; see Wilhelm His, "Beschreibung einiger Schädel altschweizerischer Bevölkerung nebst Bemerkungen über die Aufstellung von Schädeltypen," Archiv für Anthropologie, 1866, 1: 61-74, on p. 69. He discussed the difficulties of using "measurement as the principle of the determination of norms" in idem, Ober die Aufgaben und Zielpunkte der wissenschaftlichen Anatomie: Rede, gehalten beim Antritt der anatomischen Professur der Universität Leipzig den 4. November 1872 (Leipzig: F. C. W. Vogel, 1872), pp. 9-10. On measuring in anthropology, see Stephen Jay Gould, The Mismeasure of Man (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1984 [1981]).
119. AmE 1: 12-13; 2: 4-5; 3: 240.
120. Georges Canguilhem, "La monstruosité et le monstrueux," in La connaissance de la vie, 2d ed. (Paris: J. Vrin, 1969), pp. 171-84, on pp. 178-79. Further on monstrosities as "epistemic signposts," see Hagner, "Naturalienkabinett" (n. 7); and for His's discussion of malformations, AmE 2: 12-17.
121. Georges Canguilhem, "La monstruosité et le monstrueux," in La connaissance de la vie, 2d ed. (Paris: J. Vrin, 1969), pp. 171-84, on pp. 178-79. Further on monstrosities as "epistemic signposts," see Hagner, "Naturalienkabinett" (n. 7); and for His's discussion of malformations, AmE 2: 12-17.
122. Georges Canguilhem, "La monstruosité et le monstrueux," in La connaissance de la vie, 2d ed. (Paris: J. Vrin, 1969), pp. 171-84, on pp. 178-79. Further on monstrosities as "epistemic signposts," see Hagner, "Naturalienkabinett" (n. 7); and for His's discussion of malformations, AmE 2: 12-17.
123. AmE 1: 148-66.
124. For surveys of anatomists and gynecologists, see Hans-Heinz Eulner, Die Entwicklung der medizinischen Spezialfächer an den Universitäten des deutschen Sprachgebietes (Stuttgart: Ferdinand Enke, 1970); and of anatomists, Nyhart, Biology (n. 11). Most of the scientists and physicians mentioned in this paper have entries in Biographisches Lexikon der hervorragenden Aertzte aller Zeiten und Völker, ed. August Hirsch, 6 vols. (Vienna: Urban & Schwarzenberg, 1884-88); Julius Pagel, Biographisches Lexikon hervorragender Ärzte des neunzehnten Jahrhunderts (Berlin: Urban & Schwarzenberg, 1901); and/or Biographisches Lexikon der hervorragenden Ärtzte der letzten fünfzig Jahre, ed. Isidor Fischer, 2 vols. (Berlin: Urban & Schwarzenberg, 1932-33).
125. For surveys of anatomists and gynecologists, see Hans-Heinz Eulner, Die Entwicklung der medizinischen Spezialfächer an den Universitäten des deutschen Sprachgebietes (Stuttgart: Ferdinand Enke, 1970); and of anatomists, Nyhart, Biology (n. 11). Most of the scientists and physicians mentioned in this paper have entries in Biographisches Lexikon der hervorragenden Aertzte aller Zeiten und Völker, ed. August Hirsch, 6 vols. (Vienna: Urban & Schwarzenberg, 1884-88); Julius Pagel, Biographisches Lexikon hervorragender Ärzte des neunzehnten Jahrhunderts (Berlin: Urban & Schwarzenberg, 1901); and/or Biographisches Lexikon der hervorragenden Ärtzte der letzten fünfzig Jahre, ed. Isidor Fischer, 2 vols. (Berlin: Urban & Schwarzenberg, 1932-33).
126. For surveys of anatomists and gynecologists, see Hans-Heinz Eulner, Die Entwicklung der medizinischen Spezialfächer an den Universitäten des deutschen Sprachgebietes (Stuttgart: Ferdinand Enke, 1970); and of anatomists, Nyhart, Biology (n. 11). Most of the scientists and physicians mentioned in this paper have entries in Biographisches Lexikon der hervorragenden Aertzte aller Zeiten und Völker, ed. August Hirsch, 6 vols. (Vienna: Urban & Schwarzenberg, 1884-88); Julius Pagel, Biographisches Lexikon hervorragender Ärzte des neunzehnten Jahrhunderts (Berlin: Urban & Schwarzenberg, 1901); and/or Biographisches Lexikon der hervorragenden Ärtzte der letzten fünfzig Jahre, ed. Isidor Fischer, 2 vols. (Berlin: Urban & Schwarzenberg, 1932-33).
127. For surveys of anatomists and gynecologists, see Hans-Heinz Eulner, Die Entwicklung der medizinischen Spezialfächer an den Universitäten des deutschen Sprachgebietes (Stuttgart: Ferdinand Enke, 1970); and of anatomists, Nyhart, Biology (n. 11). Most of the scientists and physicians mentioned in this paper have entries in Biographisches Lexikon der hervorragenden Aertzte aller Zeiten und Völker, ed. August Hirsch, 6 vols. (Vienna: Urban & Schwarzenberg, 1884-88); Julius Pagel, Biographisches Lexikon hervorragender Ärzte des neunzehnten Jahrhunderts (Berlin: Urban & Schwarzenberg, 1901); and/or Biographisches Lexikon der hervorragenden Ärtzte der letzten fünfzig Jahre, ed. Isidor Fischer, 2 vols. (Berlin: Urban & Schwarzenberg, 1932-33).
128. For surveys of anatomists and gynecologists, see Hans-Heinz Eulner, Die Entwicklung der medizinischen Spezialfächer an den Universitäten des deutschen Sprachgebietes (Stuttgart: Ferdinand Enke, 1970); and of anatomists, Nyhart, Biology (n. 11). Most of the scientists and physicians mentioned in this paper have entries in Biographisches Lexikon der hervorragenden Aertzte aller Zeiten und Völker, ed. August Hirsch, 6 vols. (Vienna: Urban & Schwarzenberg, 1884-88); Julius Pagel, Biographisches Lexikon hervorragender Ärzte des neunzehnten Jahrhunderts (Berlin: Urban & Schwarzenberg, 1901); and/or Biographisches Lexikon der hervorragenden Ärtzte der letzten fünfzig Jahre, ed. Isidor Fischer, 2 vols. (Berlin: Urban & Schwarzenberg, 1932-33).
129. His to Miescher, 30 December 1879, Miescher Papers.
130. AmE 1: 148. The gynecologists Ahlfeld and Karl Breus had themselves complained about Beigel and Löwe's description; see Karl Breus, "Gynäkologie und Geburtshilfe," Wiener medizinische Wochenschrift;, 1878, 28: 454; Friedrich Ahlfeld, "Beschreibung eines sehr kleinen menschlichen Eies," Archiv für Gynäkologie, 1878, 13: 241-48, on pp. 246-47. Löwe had habilitated in anatomy; see Pagel, Lexikon (n. 48), cols. 126-27.
131. AmE 1: 148. The gynecologists Ahlfeld and Karl Breus had themselves complained about Beigel and Löwe's description; see Karl Breus, "Gynäkologie und Geburtshilfe," Wiener medizinische Wochenschrift;, 1878, 28: 454; Friedrich Ahlfeld, "Beschreibung eines sehr kleinen menschlichen Eies," Archiv für Gynäkologie, 1878, 13: 241-48, on pp. 246-47. Löwe had habilitated in anatomy; see Pagel, Lexikon (n. 48), cols. 126-27.
132. AmE 1: 148. The gynecologists Ahlfeld and Karl Breus had themselves complained about Beigel and Löwe's description; see Karl Breus, "Gynäkologie und Geburtshilfe," Wiener medizinische Wochenschrift;, 1878, 28: 454; Friedrich Ahlfeld, "Beschreibung eines sehr kleinen menschlichen Eies," Archiv für Gynäkologie, 1878, 13: 241-48, on pp. 246-47. Löwe had habilitated in anatomy; see Pagel, Lexikon (n. 48), cols. 126-27.
133. AmE 1: 148. The gynecologists Ahlfeld and Karl Breus had themselves complained about Beigel and Löwe's description; see Karl Breus, "Gynäkologie und Geburtshilfe," Wiener medizinische Wochenschrift;, 1878, 28: 454; Friedrich Ahlfeld, "Beschreibung eines sehr kleinen menschlichen Eies," Archiv für Gynäkologie, 1878, 13: 241-48, on pp. 246-47. Löwe had habilitated in anatomy; see Pagel, Lexikon (n. 48), cols. 126-27.
134. AmE 1: 151-52, 158, 161.
135. AmE 1: 160-61.
136. AmE 1: 149-50, 153. On Thomson, whom His respected and consulted to find out more about the embryos he had described several decades earlier (AmE 2: 34), see L Stephen Jacyna, ed., A Tale of Three Cities: The Correspondence of William Sharpey and Allen Thomson, Supplement 9 to Medical History (London: Wellcome Institute for the History of Medicine, 1989).
137. AmE 1: 149-50, 153. On Thomson, whom His respected and consulted to find out more about the embryos he had described several decades earlier (AmE 2: 34), see L Stephen Jacyna, ed., A Tale of Three Cities: The Correspondence of William Sharpey and Allen Thomson, Supplement 9 to Medical History (London: Wellcome Institute for the History of Medicine, 1989).
138. AmE 1: 149-50, 153. On Thomson, whom His respected and consulted to find out more about the embryos he had described several decades earlier (AmE 2: 34), see L Stephen Jacyna, ed., A Tale of Three Cities: The Correspondence of William Sharpey and Allen Thomson, Supplement 9 to Medical History (London: Wellcome Institute for the History of Medicine, 1989).
139. AmE 1: 158.
140. AmE 2: 23-63. "On Formen vor Eintritt der Nackenkrümmung," see specifically pp. 31-43.
141. Franz Keibel and Curt Elze, with contributions from Ivar Broman, I. August Hammar, and Julius Tandler, Normentafel zur Entwicklungsgeschichte des Menschen (vol. 8, Normentafeln zur Entwicklungsgeschichte der Wirbeltiere, ed. Franz Keibel) (Jena: Gustav Fischer, 1908), p. 23. Franklin P. Mall agreed with Keibel; see his review of Keibel and Elze, Normeltafel, in Anat. Iiec., 1908, 2: 368-71.
142. Franz Keibel and Curt Elze, with contributions from Ivar Broman, I. August Hammar, and Julius Tandler, Normentafel zur Entwicklungsgeschichte des Menschen (vol. 8, Normentafeln zur Entwicklungsgeschichte der Wirbeltiere, ed. Franz Keibel) (Jena: Gustav Fischer, 1908), p. 23. Franklin P. Mall agreed with Keibel; see his review of Keibel and Elze, Normeltafel, in Anat. Iiec., 1908, 2: 368-71.
143. Albert Kölliker, Entwicklungsgeschichte des Menschen und der höheren Thiere, 2d ed., 2 parts (Leipzig: Leipzig: Engelmann, 1876-79), 1: 307. The whole textbook was given the date of the second installment when it appeared, but I wish to keep the chronology clear.
144. AmE 2: 41-43.
145. For this, the closest His came to a definition of "norm," see AmE 2: 2: "Mein Streben ist daraufgerichtet gewesen, die Normen menschlicher Embryonalentwicklung festzustellen, derart, dass für eine jede Stufe die zugehörigen Form- und Grössenverhältnisse bestimmt werden."
146. AmE 3: 6, 236.
147. For norms as essentially collective, see Jacques Maily, La normalisation (Paris: Dunod, 1946), p. 16.
148. The bulk of His's papers appears to have been lost from the Sudhoff Institute in Leipzig during or following World War II: Dr Gottfried Zirnstein, personal communication. The Universitätsbibliothek Basel holds a small collection of manuscripts.
149. On Haeckel and various aspects of the dispute, see Stephen Jay Gould, Ontogeny and Phytogeny (Cambridge: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1977), pp. 186-202; Dietrich von Engelhardt, "Polemik und Kontroversen um Haeckel," Medizinhistorisches Journal, 1980, 15: 284-304; Reinhard Gursch, Die Illustrationen Ernst Haeckels zur Abstammungsund Entwicklungsgeschichte: Diskussion im wissenschaftlichen und nichturissenschaftlichen Schrifttum (Frankfurt am Main: Peter D. Lang, 1981); Erika Krauße, Ernst Haeckel (Leipzig: B.G. Teubner, 1984); Paul Weindling, "Ernst Haeckel, Darwinismus and the Secularization of Nature," in History, Humanity and Evolution: Essays for John C. Greene, ed. James R. Moore (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989), pp. 311-27; Mario Di Gregorio, "Entre Méphistophélès et Luther: Ernst Haeckel et la réforme de l'univers," in Darwinisme et société, ed. Patrick Tort (Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 1992), pp. 237-83; idem, "A Wolf in Sheep's Clothing: Carl Gegenbaur, Ernst Haeckel, the Vertebral Theory of the Skull, and the Survival of Richard Owen," J. Hist. Biol., 1995, 28: 247-80; and Nyhart, Biology (n. 11). See also the literature on the related British controversy over the hippocampus minormost recently, Adrian Desmond, Huxley, 2 vols. (London: Michael Joseph, 1994-97), vol. 1, The Devil's Disciple, pp. 240, 295; and Nicolaas A. Rupke, Richard Owen: Victorian Naturalist (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1994).
150. On Haeckel and various aspects of the dispute, see Stephen Jay Gould, Ontogeny and Phytogeny (Cambridge: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1977), pp. 186-202; Dietrich von Engelhardt, "Polemik und Kontroversen um Haeckel," Medizinhistorisches Journal, 1980, 15: 284-304; Reinhard Gursch, Die Illustrationen Ernst Haeckels zur Abstammungsund Entwicklungsgeschichte: Diskussion im wissenschaftlichen und nichturissenschaftlichen Schrifttum (Frankfurt am Main: Peter D. Lang, 1981); Erika Krauße, Ernst Haeckel (Leipzig: B.G. Teubner, 1984); Paul Weindling, "Ernst Haeckel, Darwinismus and the Secularization of Nature," in History, Humanity and Evolution: Essays for John C. Greene, ed. James R. Moore (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989), pp. 311-27; Mario Di Gregorio, "Entre Méphistophélès et Luther: Ernst Haeckel et la réforme de l'univers," in Darwinisme et société, ed. Patrick Tort (Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 1992), pp. 237-83; idem, "A Wolf in Sheep's Clothing: Carl Gegenbaur, Ernst Haeckel, the Vertebral Theory of the Skull, and the Survival of Richard Owen," J. Hist. Biol., 1995, 28: 247-80; and Nyhart, Biology (n. 11). See also the literature on the related British controversy over the hippocampus minormost recently, Adrian Desmond, Huxley, 2 vols. (London: Michael Joseph, 1994-97), vol. 1, The Devil's Disciple, pp. 240, 295; and Nicolaas A. Rupke, Richard Owen: Victorian Naturalist (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1994).
151. On Haeckel and various aspects of the dispute, see Stephen Jay Gould, Ontogeny and Phytogeny (Cambridge: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1977), pp. 186-202; Dietrich von Engelhardt, "Polemik und Kontroversen um Haeckel," Medizinhistorisches Journal, 1980, 15: 284-304; Reinhard Gursch, Die Illustrationen Ernst Haeckels zur Abstammungsund Entwicklungsgeschichte: Diskussion im wissenschaftlichen und nichturissenschaftlichen Schrifttum (Frankfurt am Main: Peter D. Lang, 1981); Erika Krauße, Ernst Haeckel (Leipzig: B.G. Teubner, 1984); Paul Weindling, "Ernst Haeckel, Darwinismus and the Secularization of Nature," in History, Humanity and Evolution: Essays for John C. Greene, ed. James R. Moore (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989), pp. 311-27; Mario Di Gregorio, "Entre Méphistophélès et Luther: Ernst Haeckel et la réforme de l'univers," in Darwinisme et société, ed. Patrick Tort (Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 1992), pp. 237-83; idem, "A Wolf in Sheep's Clothing: Carl Gegenbaur, Ernst Haeckel, the Vertebral Theory of the Skull, and the Survival of Richard Owen," J. Hist. Biol., 1995, 28: 247-80; and Nyhart, Biology (n. 11). See also the literature on the related British controversy over the hippocampus minormost recently, Adrian Desmond, Huxley, 2 vols. (London: Michael Joseph, 1994-97), vol. 1, The Devil's Disciple, pp. 240, 295; and Nicolaas A. Rupke, Richard Owen: Victorian Naturalist (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1994).
152. On Haeckel and various aspects of the dispute, see Stephen Jay Gould, Ontogeny and Phytogeny (Cambridge: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1977), pp. 186-202; Dietrich von Engelhardt, "Polemik und Kontroversen um Haeckel," Medizinhistorisches Journal, 1980, 15: 284-304; Reinhard Gursch, Die Illustrationen Ernst Haeckels zur Abstammungsund Entwicklungsgeschichte: Diskussion im wissenschaftlichen und nichturissenschaftlichen Schrifttum (Frankfurt am Main: Peter D. Lang, 1981); Erika Krauße, Ernst Haeckel (Leipzig: B.G. Teubner, 1984); Paul Weindling, "Ernst Haeckel, Darwinismus and the Secularization of Nature," in History, Humanity and Evolution:
153. On Haeckel and various aspects of the dispute, see Stephen Jay Gould, Ontogeny and Phytogeny (Cambridge: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1977), pp. 186-202; Dietrich von Engelhardt, "Polemik und Kontroversen um Haeckel," Medizinhistorisches Journal, 1980, 15: 284-304; Reinhard Gursch, Die Illustrationen Ernst Haeckels zur Abstammungsund Entwicklungsgeschichte: Diskussion im wissenschaftlichen und nichturissenschaftlichen Schrifttum (Frankfurt am Main: Peter D. Lang, 1981); Erika Krauße, Ernst Haeckel (Leipzig: B.G. Teubner, 1984); Paul Weindling, "Ernst Haeckel, Darwinismus and the Secularization of Nature," in History, Humanity and Evolution: Essays for John C. Greene, ed. James R. Moore (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989), pp. 311-27; Mario Di Gregorio, "Entre Méphistophélès et Luther: Ernst Haeckel et la réforme de l'univers," in Darwinisme et société, ed. Patrick Tort (Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 1992), pp. 237-83; idem, "A Wolf in Sheep's Clothing: Carl Gegenbaur, Ernst Haeckel, the Vertebral Theory of the Skull, and the Survival of Richard Owen," J. Hist. Biol., 1995, 28: 247-80; and Nyhart, Biology (n. 11). See also the literature on the related British controversy over the hippocampus minormost recently, Adrian Desmond, Huxley, 2 vols. (London: Michael Joseph, 1994-97), vol. 1, The Devil's Disciple, pp. 240, 295; and Nicolaas A. Rupke, Richard Owen: Victorian Naturalist (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1994).
154. On Haeckel and various aspects of the dispute, see Stephen Jay Gould, Ontogeny and Phytogeny (Cambridge: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1977), pp. 186-202; Dietrich von Engelhardt, "Polemik und Kontroversen um Haeckel," Medizinhistorisches Journal, 1980, 15: 284-304; Reinhard Gursch, Die Illustrationen Ernst Haeckels zur Abstammungsund Entwicklungsgeschichte: Diskussion im wissenschaftlichen und nichturissenschaftlichen Schrifttum (Frankfurt am Main: Peter D. Lang, 1981); Erika Krauße, Ernst Haeckel (Leipzig: B.G. Teubner, 1984); Paul Weindling, "Ernst Haeckel, Darwinismus and the Secularization of Nature," in History, Humanity and Evolution: Essays for John C. Greene, ed. James R. Moore (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989), pp. 311-27; Mario Di Gregorio, "Entre Méphistophélès et Luther: Ernst Haeckel et la réforme de l'univers," in Darwinisme et société, ed. Patrick Tort (Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 1992), pp. 237-83; idem, "A Wolf in Sheep's Clothing: Carl Gegenbaur, Ernst Haeckel, the Vertebral Theory of the Skull, and the Survival of Richard Owen," J. Hist. Biol., 1995, 28: 247-80; and Nyhart, Biology (n. 11). See also the literature on the related British controversy over the hippocampus minormost recently, Adrian Desmond, Huxley, 2 vols. (London: Michael Joseph, 1994-97), vol. 1, The Devil's Disciple, pp. 240, 295; and Nicolaas A. Rupke, Richard Owen: Victorian Naturalist (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1994).
155. On Haeckel and various aspects of the dispute, see Stephen Jay Gould, Ontogeny and Phytogeny (Cambridge: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1977), pp. 186-202; Dietrich von Engelhardt, "Polemik und Kontroversen um Haeckel," Medizinhistorisches Journal, 1980, 15: 284-304; Reinhard Gursch, Die Illustrationen Ernst Haeckels zur Abstammungsund Entwicklungsgeschichte: Diskussion im wissenschaftlichen und nichturissenschaftlichen Schrifttum (Frankfurt am Main: Peter D. Lang, 1981); Erika Krauße, Ernst Haeckel (Leipzig: B.G. Teubner, 1984); Paul Weindling, "Ernst Haeckel, Darwinismus and the Secularization of Nature," in History, Humanity and Evolution: Essays for John C. Greene, ed. James R. Moore (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989), pp. 311-27; Mario Di Gregorio, "Entre Méphistophélès et Luther: Ernst Haeckel et la réforme de l'univers," in Darwinisme et société, ed. Patrick Tort (Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 1992), pp. 237-83; idem, "A Wolf in Sheep's Clothing: Carl Gegenbaur, Ernst Haeckel, the Vertebral Theory of the Skull, and the Survival of Richard Owen," J. Hist. Biol., 1995, 28: 247-80; and Nyhart, Biology (n. 11). See also the literature on the related British controversy over the hippocampus minormost recently, Adrian Desmond, Huxley, 2 vols. (London: Michael Joseph, 1994-97), vol. 1, The Devil's Disciple, pp. 240, 295; and Nicolaas A. Rupke, Richard Owen: Victorian Naturalist (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1994).
156. On Haeckel and various aspects of the dispute, see Stephen Jay Gould, Ontogeny and Phytogeny (Cambridge: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1977), pp. 186-202; Dietrich von Engelhardt, "Polemik und Kontroversen um Haeckel," Medizinhistorisches Journal, 1980, 15: 284-304; Reinhard Gursch, Die Illustrationen Ernst Haeckels zur Abstammungsund Entwicklungsgeschichte: Diskussion im wissenschaftlichen und nichturissenschaftlichen Schrifttum (Frankfurt am Main: Peter D. Lang, 1981); Erika Krauße, Ernst Haeckel (Leipzig: B.G. Teubner, 1984); Paul Weindling, "Ernst Haeckel, Darwinismus and the Secularization of Nature," in History, Humanity and Evolution: Essays for John C. Greene, ed. James R. Moore (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989), pp. 311-27; Mario Di Gregorio, "Entre Méphistophélès et Luther: Ernst Haeckel et la réforme de l'univers," in Darwinisme et société, ed. Patrick Tort (Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 1992), pp. 237-83; idem, "A Wolf in Sheep's Clothing: Carl Gegenbaur, Ernst Haeckel, the Vertebral Theory of the Skull, and the Survival of Richard Owen," J. Hist. Biol., 1995, 28: 247-80; and Nyhart, Biology (n. 11). See also the literature on the related British controversy over the hippocampus minormost recently, Adrian Desmond, Huxley, 2 vols. (London: Michael Joseph, 1994-97), vol. 1, The Devil's Disciple, pp. 240, 295; and Nicolaas A. Rupke, Richard Owen: Victorian Naturalist (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1994).
157. On Haeckel and various aspects of the dispute, see Stephen Jay Gould, Ontogeny and Phytogeny (Cambridge: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1977), pp. 186-202; Dietrich von Engelhardt, "Polemik und Kontroversen um Haeckel," Medizinhistorisches Journal, 1980, 15: 284-304; Reinhard Gursch, Die Illustrationen Ernst Haeckels zur Abstammungsund Entwicklungsgeschichte: Diskussion im wissenschaftlichen und nichturissenschaftlichen Schrifttum (Frankfurt am Main: Peter D. Lang, 1981); Erika Krauße, Ernst Haeckel (Leipzig: B.G. Teubner, 1984); Paul Weindling, "Ernst Haeckel, Darwinismus and the Secularization of Nature," in History, Humanity and Evolution: Essays for John C. Greene, ed. James R. Moore (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989), pp. 311-27; Mario Di Gregorio, "Entre Méphistophélès et Luther: Ernst Haeckel et la réforme de l'univers," in Darwinisme et société, ed. Patrick Tort (Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 1992), pp. 237-83; idem, "A Wolf in Sheep's Clothing: Carl Gegenbaur, Ernst Haeckel, the Vertebral Theory of the Skull, and the Survival of Richard Owen," J. Hist. Biol., 1995, 28: 247-80; and Nyhart, Biology (n. 11). See also the literature on the related British controversy over the hippocampus minormost recently, Adrian Desmond, Huxley, 2 vols. (London: Michael Joseph, 1994-97), vol. 1, The Devil's Disciple, pp. 240, 295; and Nicolaas A. Rupke, Richard Owen: Victorian Naturalist (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1994).
158. On Haeckel and various aspects of the dispute, see Stephen Jay Gould, Ontogeny and Phytogeny (Cambridge: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1977), pp. 186-202; Dietrich von Engelhardt, "Polemik und Kontroversen um Haeckel," Medizinhistorisches Journal, 1980, 15: 284-304; Reinhard Gursch, Die Illustrationen Ernst Haeckels zur Abstammungsund Entwicklungsgeschichte: Diskussion im wissenschaftlichen und nichturissenschaftlichen Schrifttum (Frankfurt am Main: Peter D. Lang, 1981); Erika Krauße, Ernst Haeckel (Leipzig: B.G. Teubner, 1984); Paul Weindling, "Ernst Haeckel, Darwinismus and the Secularization of Nature," in History, Humanity and Evolution: Essays for John C. Greene, ed. James R. Moore (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989), pp. 311-27; Mario Di Gregorio, "Entre Méphistophélès et Luther: Ernst Haeckel et la réforme de l'univers," in Darwinisme et société, ed. Patrick Tort (Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 1992), pp. 237-83; idem, "A Wolf in Sheep's Clothing: Carl Gegenbaur, Ernst Haeckel, the Vertebral Theory of the Skull, and the Survival of Richard Owen," J. Hist. Biol., 1995, 28: 247-80; and Nyhart, Biology (n. 11). See also the literature on the related British controversy over the hippocampus minormost recently, Adrian Desmond, Huxley, 2 vols. (London: Michael Joseph, 1994-97), vol. 1, The Devil's Disciple, pp. 240, 295; and Nicolaas A. Rupke, Richard Owen: Victorian Naturalist (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1994).
159. See esp. Keith M. Anderton, "The Limits of Science: A Social, Political, and Moral Agenda for Epistemology in Nineteenth-Century Germany" (Ph.D. diss., Harvard University, 1993).
160. Haeckel, Anthropogenic (n.12); Wilhelm His, Unsere Körperform und das physiologische Problem ihrer Entstehung: Briefe an einen befreundeten Naturforscher (Leipzig: F. C. W. Vogel, 1874; preface dated January 1875), p. 171.
161. Haeckel, Anthropogenic (n.12); Wilhelm His, Unsere Körperform und das physiologische Problem ihrer Entstehung: Briefe an einen befreundeten Naturforscher (Leipzig: F. C. W. Vogel, 1874; preface dated January 1875), p. 171.
162. Ibid., p. 170.
163. See Albert Kölliker, Entwickelungsgeschichte des Menschen und der höheren Thiere (Leipzig: Wilhelm Engelmann, 1861), p. 124. See also Samuel L. Schenk, Lehrbuch der vergleichenden Embryologie der Wirbelthiere (Vienna: Braumüller, 1874), pp. 64, 179. On the earlier history of the allantois, a topic that His called "the most discussed in the whole of human embryology" (AmE 1: 170), see especially Arthur W. Meyer, "The Elusive Human Allantois in Older Literature," in Science, Medicine and History: Essays on the Evolution of Scientific Thought and Medical Practice Written in Honour of Charles Singer, ed. E. Ashworth Underwood, 2 vols. (London: Oxford University Press, 1953), 1: 510-20; Howard B. Adelmann, MarcelloMalpighi and the Evolution of Embryology, 5 vols. (Ithaca: Cornell University Press; London: Oxford University Press, 1966), 4: 1550-1602; and James D. Boyd and William J. Hamilton, The Human Placenta (Cambridge: Heffer, 1970), pp. 1-19. Meyer seems not to have completed the projected second part of his history of the human allantois, but he does here refer briefly to the Krause controversy, suggesting that "its final resolution had to await the invention of new technical methods" ("Elusive Human Allantois" [n. 67], p. 520). My analysis shows that the dispute was as much over, as resolved by, the new methods; and that Krause's embryo was discredited without actually being subjected to them.
164. See Albert Kölliker, Entwickelungsgeschichte des Menschen und der höheren Thiere (Leipzig: Wilhelm Engelmann, 1861), p. 124. See also Samuel L. Schenk, Lehrbuch der vergleichenden Embryologie der Wirbelthiere (Vienna: Braumüller, 1874), pp. 64, 179. On the earlier history of the allantois, a topic that His called "the most discussed in the whole of human embryology" (AmE 1: 170), see especially Arthur W. Meyer, "The Elusive Human Allantois in Older Literature," in Science, Medicine and History: Essays on the Evolution of Scientific Thought and Medical Practice Written in Honour of Charles Singer, ed. E. Ashworth Underwood, 2 vols. (London: Oxford University Press, 1953), 1: 510-20; Howard B. Adelmann, MarcelloMalpighi and the Evolution of Embryology, 5 vols. (Ithaca: Cornell University Press; London: Oxford University Press, 1966), 4: 1550-1602; and James D. Boyd and William J. Hamilton, The Human Placenta (Cambridge: Heffer, 1970), pp. 1-19. Meyer seems not to have completed the projected second part of his history of the human allantois, but he does here refer briefly to the Krause controversy, suggesting that "its final resolution had to await the invention of new technical methods" ("Elusive Human Allantois" [n. 67], p. 520). My analysis shows that the dispute was as much over, as resolved by, the new methods; and that Krause's embryo was discredited without actually being subjected to them.
165. See Albert Kölliker, Entwickelungsgeschichte des Menschen und der höheren Thiere (Leipzig: Wilhelm Engelmann, 1861), p. 124. See also Samuel L. Schenk, Lehrbuch der vergleichenden Embryologie der Wirbelthiere (Vienna: Braumüller, 1874), pp. 64, 179. On the earlier history of the allantois, a topic that His called "the most discussed in the whole of human embryology" (AmE 1: 170), see especially Arthur W. Meyer, "The Elusive Human Allantois in Older Literature," in Science, Medicine and History: Essays on the Evolution of Scientific Thought and Medical Practice Written in Honour of Charles Singer, ed. E. Ashworth Underwood, 2 vols. (London: Oxford University Press, 1953), 1: 510-20; Howard B. Adelmann, MarcelloMalpighi and the Evolution of Embryology, 5 vols. (Ithaca: Cornell University Press; London: Oxford University Press, 1966), 4: 1550-1602; and James D. Boyd and William J. Hamilton, The Human Placenta (Cambridge: Heffer, 1970), pp. 1-19. Meyer seems not to have completed the projected second part of his history of the human allantois, but he does here refer briefly to the Krause controversy, suggesting that "its final resolution had to await the invention of new technical methods" ("Elusive Human Allantois" [n. 67], p. 520). My analysis shows that the dispute was as much over, as resolved by, the new methods; and that Krause's embryo was discredited without actually being subjected to them.
166. See Albert Kölliker, Entwickelungsgeschichte des Menschen und der höheren Thiere (Leipzig: Wilhelm Engelmann, 1861), p. 124. See also Samuel L. Schenk, Lehrbuch der vergleichenden Embryologie der Wirbelthiere (Vienna: Braumüller, 1874), pp. 64, 179. On the earlier history of the allantois, a topic that His called "the most discussed in the whole of human embryology" (AmE 1: 170), see especially Arthur W. Meyer, "The Elusive Human Allantois in Older Literature," in Science, Medicine and History: Essays on the Evolution of Scientific Thought and Medical Practice Written in Honour of Charles Singer, ed. E. Ashworth Underwood, 2 vols. (London: Oxford University Press, 1953), 1: 510-20; Howard B. Adelmann, MarcelloMalpighi and the Evolution of Embryology, 5 vols. (Ithaca: Cornell University Press; London: Oxford University Press, 1966), 4: 1550-1602; and James D. Boyd and William J. Hamilton, The Human Placenta (Cambridge: Heffer, 1970), pp. 1-19. Meyer seems not to have completed the projected second part of his history of the human allantois, but he does here refer briefly to the Krause controversy, suggesting that "its final resolution had to await the invention of new technical methods" ("Elusive Human Allantois" [n. 67], p. 520). My analysis shows that the dispute was as much over, as resolved by, the new methods; and that Krause's embryo was discredited without actually being subjected to them.
167. See Albert Kölliker, Entwickelungsgeschichte des Menschen und der höheren Thiere (Leipzig: Wilhelm Engelmann, 1861), p. 124. See also Samuel L. Schenk, Lehrbuch der vergleichenden Embryologie der Wirbelthiere (Vienna: Braumüller, 1874), pp. 64, 179. On the earlier history of the allantois, a topic that His called "the most discussed in the whole of human embryology" (AmE 1: 170), see especially Arthur W. Meyer, "The Elusive Human Allantois in Older Literature," in Science, Medicine and History: Essays on the Evolution of Scientific Thought and Medical Practice Written in Honour of Charles Singer, ed. E. Ashworth Underwood, 2 vols. (London: Oxford University Press, 1953), 1: 510-20; Howard B. Adelmann, MarcelloMalpighi and the Evolution of Embryology, 5 vols. (Ithaca: Cornell University Press; London: Oxford University Press, 1966), 4: 1550-1602; and James D. Boyd and William J. Hamilton, The Human Placenta (Cambridge: Heffer, 1970), pp. 1-19. Meyer seems not to have completed the projected second part of his history of the human allantois, but he does here refer briefly to the Krause controversy, suggesting that "its final resolution had to await the invention of new technical methods" ("Elusive Human Allantois" [n. 67], p. 520). My analysis shows that the dispute was as much over, as resolved by, the new methods; and that Krause's embryo was discredited without actually being subjected to them.
168. See Albert Kölliker, Entwickelungsgeschichte des Menschen und der höheren Thiere (Leipzig: Wilhelm Engelmann, 1861), p. 124. See also Samuel L. Schenk, Lehrbuch der vergleichenden Embryologie der Wirbelthiere (Vienna: Braumüller, 1874), pp. 64, 179. On the earlier history of the allantois, a topic that His called "the most discussed in the whole of human embryology" (AmE 1: 170), see especially Arthur W. Meyer, "The Elusive Human Allantois in Older Literature," in Science, Medicine and History: Essays on the Evolution of Scientific Thought and Medical Practice Written in Honour of Charles Singer, ed. E. Ashworth Underwood, 2 vols. (London: Oxford University Press, 1953), 1: 510-20; Howard B. Adelmann, MarcelloMalpighi and the Evolution of Embryology, 5 vols. (Ithaca: Cornell University Press; London: Oxford University Press, 1966), 4: 1550-1602; and James D. Boyd and William J. Hamilton, The Human Placenta (Cambridge: Heffer, 1970), pp. 1-19. Meyer seems not to have completed the projected second part of his history of the human allantois, but he does here refer briefly to the Krause controversy, suggesting that "its final resolution had to await the invention of new technical methods" ("Elusive Human Allantois" [n. 67], p. 520). My analysis shows that the dispute was as much over, as resolved by, the new methods; and that Krause's embryo was discredited without actually being subjected to them.
169. See Albert Kölliker, Entwickelungsgeschichte des Menschen und der höheren Thiere (Leipzig: Wilhelm Engelmann, 1861), p. 124. See also Samuel L. Schenk, Lehrbuch der vergleichenden Embryologie der Wirbelthiere (Vienna: Braumüller, 1874), pp. 64, 179. On the earlier history of the allantois, a topic that His called "the most discussed in the whole of human embryology" (AmE 1: 170), see especially Arthur W. Meyer, "The Elusive Human Allantois in Older Literature," in Science, Medicine and History: Essays on the Evolution of Scientific Thought and Medical Practice Written in Honour of Charles Singer, ed. E. Ashworth Underwood, 2 vols. (London: Oxford University Press, 1953), 1: 510-20; Howard B. Adelmann, MarcelloMalpighi and the Evolution of Embryology, 5 vols. (Ithaca: Cornell University Press; London: Oxford University Press, 1966), 4: 1550-1602; and James D. Boyd and William J. Hamilton, The Human Placenta (Cambridge: Heffer, 1970), pp. 1-19. Meyer seems not to have completed the projected second part of his history of the human allantois, but he does here refer briefly to the Krause controversy, suggesting that "its final resolution had to await the invention of new technical methods" ("Elusive Human Allantois" [n. 67], p. 520). My analysis shows that the dispute was as much over, as resolved by, the new methods; and that Krause's embryo was discredited without actually being subjected to them.
170. †," Internationale Monatsschrift für Anatomie und Physiologie, 1910, 27: frontispiece (which names Anderson as author of the BAIJobituary); and Paul Bartels, "Wilhelm Krauses Schriften," AA, 1911, 39: 266-72. On the troubles at Göttingen, see Johannes Alfers, Die pathologische Anatomie in Göttingen unter Förster, Beckmann, W. Krause und Ponfick (1852-1878) (Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1935); and for discussion of Krause's personality and his move to Göttingen, see Hans-Heinz Eulner and Hermann Hoepke, eds., Georg Meissners Briefe an Jacob Henle 1855-1878 (Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1975), pp. 48-49, 79, 82-83. Robert Koch carried out a prizewinning anatomical study under Krause's direction; see Thomas D. Brock, Robert Koch: A Life in Medicine and Bacteriology (Madison, Wise.: Science Tech Publishers, 1988), p. 11.
171. †," Internationale Monatsschrift für Anatomie und Physiologie, 1910, 27: frontispiece (which names Anderson as author of the BAIJobituary); and Paul Bartels, "Wilhelm Krauses Schriften," AA, 1911, 39: 266-72. On the troubles at Göttingen, see Johannes Alfers, Die pathologische Anatomie in Göttingen unter Förster, Beckmann, W. Krause und Ponfick (1852-1878) (Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1935); and for discussion of Krause's personality and his move to Göttingen, see Hans-Heinz Eulner and Hermann Hoepke, eds., Georg Meissners Briefe an Jacob Henle 1855-1878 (Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1975), pp. 48-49, 79, 82-83. Robert Koch carried out a prizewinning anatomical study under Krause's direction; see Thomas D. Brock, Robert Koch: A Life in Medicine and Bacteriology (Madison, Wise.: Science Tech Publishers, 1988), p. 11.
172. †," Internationale Monatsschrift für Anatomie und Physiologie, 1910, 27: frontispiece (which names Anderson as author of the BAIJobituary); and Paul Bartels, "Wilhelm Krauses Schriften," AA, 1911, 39: 266-72. On the troubles at Göttingen, see Johannes Alfers, Die pathologische Anatomie in Göttingen unter Förster, Beckmann, W. Krause und Ponfick (1852-1878) (Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1935); and for discussion of Krause's personality and his move to Göttingen, see Hans-Heinz Eulner and Hermann Hoepke, eds., Georg Meissners Briefe an Jacob Henle 1855-1878 (Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1975), pp. 48-49, 79, 82-83. Robert Koch carried out a prizewinning anatomical study under Krause's direction; see Thomas D. Brock, Robert Koch: A Life in Medicine and Bacteriology (Madison, Wise.: Science Tech Publishers, 1988), p. 11.
173. †," Internationale Monatsschrift für Anatomie und Physiologie, 1910, 27: frontispiece (which names Anderson as author of the BAIJobituary); and Paul Bartels, "Wilhelm Krauses Schriften," AA, 1911, 39: 266-72. On the troubles at Göttingen, see Johannes Alfers, Die pathologische Anatomie in Göttingen unter Förster, Beckmann, W. Krause und Ponfick (1852-1878) (Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1935); and for discussion of Krause's personality and his move to Göttingen, see Hans-Heinz Eulner and Hermann Hoepke, eds., Georg Meissners Briefe an Jacob Henle 1855-1878 (Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1975), pp. 48-49, 79, 82-83. Robert Koch carried out a prizewinning anatomical study under Krause's direction; see Thomas D. Brock, Robert Koch: A Life in Medicine and Bacteriology (Madison, Wise.: Science Tech Publishers, 1988), p. 11.
174. †," Internationale Monatsschrift für Anatomie und Physiologie, 1910, 27: frontispiece (which names Anderson as author of the BAIJobituary); and Paul Bartels, "Wilhelm Krauses Schriften," AA, 1911, 39: 266-72. On the troubles at Göttingen, see Johannes Alfers, Die pathologische Anatomie in Göttingen unter Förster, Beckmann, W. Krause und Ponfick (1852-1878) (Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1935); and for discussion of Krause's personality and his move to Göttingen, see Hans-Heinz Eulner and Hermann Hoepke, eds., Georg Meissners Briefe an Jacob Henle 1855-1878 (Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1975), pp. 48-49, 79, 82-83. Robert Koch carried out a prizewinning anatomical study under Krause's direction; see Thomas D. Brock, Robert Koch: A Life in Medicine and Bacteriology (Madison, Wise.: Science Tech Publishers, 1988), p. 11.
175. †," Internationale Monatsschrift für Anatomie und Physiologie, 1910, 27: frontispiece (which names Anderson as author of the BAIJobituary); and Paul Bartels, "Wilhelm Krauses Schriften," AA, 1911, 39: 266-72. On the troubles at Göttingen, see Johannes Alfers, Die pathologische Anatomie in Göttingen unter Förster, Beckmann, W. Krause und Ponfick (1852-1878) (Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1935); and for discussion of Krause's personality and his move to Göttingen, see Hans-Heinz Eulner and Hermann Hoepke, eds., Georg Meissners Briefe an Jacob Henle 1855-1878 (Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1975), pp. 48-49, 79, 82-83. Robert Koch carried out a prizewinning anatomical study under Krause's direction; see Thomas D. Brock, Robert Koch: A Life in Medicine and Bacteriology (Madison, Wise.: Science Tech Publishers, 1988), p. 11.
176. †," Internationale Monatsschrift für Anatomie und Physiologie, 1910, 27: frontispiece (which names Anderson as author of the BAIJobituary); and Paul Bartels, "Wilhelm Krauses Schriften," AA, 1911, 39: 266-72. On the troubles at Göttingen, see Johannes Alfers, Die pathologische Anatomie in Göttingen unter Förster, Beckmann, W. Krause und Ponfick (1852-1878) (Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1935); and for discussion of Krause's personality and his move to Göttingen, see Hans-Heinz Eulner and Hermann Hoepke, eds., Georg Meissners Briefe an Jacob Henle 1855-1878 (Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1975), pp. 48-49, 79, 82-83. Robert Koch carried out a prizewinning anatomical study under Krause's direction; see Thomas D. Brock, Robert Koch: A Life in Medicine and Bacteriology (Madison, Wise.: Science Tech Publishers, 1988), p. 11.
177. Ernst Haeckel, Ziele und Wege der heutigen Entwickelungsgeschichte (Jena: Hermann Dufft, 1875), pp. 36-37.
178. Carus Sterne to Ernst Haeckel, 13 September 1877, Best. A, Abt. 1, Ernst-Haeckel-Haus, Jena. For the gift of the book, see Sterne to Haeckel, 5 December 1876, ibid. On Sterne, a pseudonym of Ernst Krause (unrelated to Wilhelm), see Andreas Daum, "Naturwissenschaftlicher Journalismus im Dienst der darwinistischen Weltanschauung: Ernst Krause alias Carus Sterne, Ernst Haeckel und die Zeitschrift Kosmos. Eine Fallstudie zum spāten 19. Jahrhundert," Mauritiana (Altenburg), 1995, 15: 227-45.
179. "K.," Kosmos, 1877, 1: 275-76, discussing Ernst Haeckel, Anthropogenie, 3d ed. (Leipzig: Wilhelm Engelmann, 1877), pp. 307-8.
180. "K.," Kosmos, 1877, 1: 275-76, discussing Ernst Haeckel, Anthropogenie, 3d ed. (Leipzig: Wilhelm Engelmann, 1877), pp. 307-8.
181. Kölliker, Entwicklungsgeschichte (n. 57), 1: 306-7; 2: 1013; Wilhelm Krause, "Ueber die Allantois des Menschen," AAP, 1876, pp. 204-7.
182. Kölliker, Entwicklungsgeschichte (n. 57), 1: 306-7; 2: 1013; Wilhelm Krause, "Ueber die Allantois des Menschen," AAP, 1876, pp. 204-7.
183. Friedrich Ahlfeld, in "Die Allantois des Menschen und ihr Verhältniss zur Nabelschnur," Archiv für Gynäkologie, 1876, 10: 81-117, was, however, much more disposed than Kölliker to accept older descriptions of embryos with a free allantois. See also Victor Hensen, "Beitrag zur Morphologie der Körperform und des Gehirns des menschlichen Embryos," AAP, 1877, pp. 1-8; Victor v. Ebner, "Ueber die erste Anlage der Allantois beim Menschen. Vortrag, gehalten in der Versammlung vom 28. Mai 1877," Mittheilungen des Vereins der Aerzte in Steiermark, 1877, pp. 28-29.
184. Friedrich Ahlfeld, in "Die Allantois des Menschen und ihr Verhältniss zur Nabelschnur," Archiv für Gynäkologie, 1876, 10: 81-117, was, however, much more disposed than Kölliker to accept older descriptions of embryos with a free allantois. See also Victor Hensen, "Beitrag zur Morphologie der Körperform und des Gehirns des menschlichen Embryos," AAP, 1877, pp. 1-8; Victor v. Ebner, "Ueber die erste Anlage der Allantois beim Menschen. Vortrag, gehalten in der Versammlung vom 28. Mai 1877," Mittheilungen des Vereins der Aerzte in Steiermark, 1877, pp. 28-29.
185. Friedrich Ahlfeld, in "Die Allantois des Menschen und ihr Verhältniss zur Nabelschnur," Archiv für Gynäkologie, 1876, 10: 81-117, was, however, much more disposed than Kölliker to accept older descriptions of embryos with a free allantois. See also Victor Hensen, "Beitrag zur Morphologie der Körperform und des Gehirns des menschlichen Embryos," AAP, 1877, pp. 1-8; Victor v. Ebner, "Ueber die erste Anlage der Allantois beim Menschen. Vortrag, gehalten in der Versammlung vom 28. Mai 1877," Mittheilungen des Vereins der Aerzte in Steiermark, 1877, pp. 28-29.
186. Carl Semper, the Würzburg zoologist campaigning against "Haeckelismus" in zoology, mobilized Kölliker's objection in order to criticize Haeckel's continued deployment of Krause's embryo in the third edition of the Anthropogenie. Haeckel had used the new edition of Kölliker's textbook, but selectively ignored his reservations about this embryo: another example of picking and choosing facts to suit theories. See Offener Brief an Herrn Prof. Haeckel in Jena (Hamburg: W. Mauke's Söhne, 1877), pp. 27-28.
187. His, "Kritik" (n. 43), p. 407.
188. His, "Menschl. Embryonen" (n. 35). Note that this claim was not made in one of the widely reported general sessions, but among anatomists.
189. AmE 1: 68.
190. AmE 1: 68-72, quotations on pp. 70, 72.
191. AmE 1: 169-73; 3: 222-26. Kölliker stuck to his guns through the early 1880s-see Albert Kölliker, Crundriss der Entwickelungsgeschichte des Menschen und der höheren Tiere, 2d ed. (Leipzig: Wilhelm Engelmann, 1884), p. 140-but His's view came widely to be accepted as a human, or more generally primate, peculiarity.
192. AmE 1: 169-73; 3: 222-26. Kölliker stuck to his guns through the early 1880s-see Albert Kölliker, Crundriss der Entwickelungsgeschichte des Menschen und der höheren Tiere, 2d ed. (Leipzig: Wilhelm Engelmann, 1884), p. 140-but His's view came widely to be accepted as a human, or more generally primate, peculiarity.
193. Wilhelm Krause, "Über einen frühzeitigen menschlichen Embryo,"Zoologischer Anzeiger, 1880, 5: 283-84; idem, "Über zwei frühzeitige menschliche Embryonen," Zeitschrift für wissenschaftliche Zoologie, 1880,35: 130-40. Krause did not oppose sectioning per se - like dozens of scientists in the 1870s, he had himself designed a microtome - but for him, as for many others whom His was trying to persuade, sectioning a specimen that could easily be replaced was a completely different matter from trusting an irreplaceable object to the knife. See Wilhelm Krause, "Der ventriculus terminalis des Rückenmarks," Archiv für mikroskopische Anatomie, 1875, 11: 216-30, on pp. 227-29; idem, "Ueber Mikrotome," ibid., 1877, 13: 180.
194. Wilhelm Krause, "Über einen frühzeitigen menschlichen Embryo,"Zoologischer Anzeiger, 1880, 5: 283-84; idem, "Über zwei frühzeitige menschliche Embryonen," Zeitschrift für wissenschaftliche Zoologie, 1880,35: 130-40. Krause did not oppose sectioning per se - like dozens of scientists in the 1870s, he had himself designed a microtome - but for him, as for many others whom His was trying to persuade, sectioning a specimen that could easily be replaced was a completely different matter from trusting an irreplaceable object to the knife. See Wilhelm Krause, "Der ventriculus terminalis des Rückenmarks," Archiv für mikroskopische Anatomie, 1875, 11: 216-30, on pp. 227-29; idem, "Ueber Mikrotome," ibid., 1877, 13: 180.
195. Wilhelm Krause, "Über einen frühzeitigen menschlichen Embryo,"Zoologischer Anzeiger, 1880, 5: 283-84; idem, "Über zwei frühzeitige menschliche Embryonen," Zeitschrift für wissenschaftliche Zoologie, 1880,35: 130-40. Krause did not oppose sectioning per se - like dozens of scientists in the 1870s, he had himself designed a microtome - but for him, as for many others whom His was trying to persuade, sectioning a specimen that could easily be replaced was a completely different matter from trusting an irreplaceable object to the knife. See Wilhelm Krause, "Der ventriculus terminalis des Rückenmarks," Archiv für mikroskopische Anatomie, 1875, 11: 216-30, on pp. 227-29; idem, "Ueber Mikrotome," ibid., 1877, 13: 180.
196. Wilhelm Krause, "Über einen frühzeitigen menschlichen Embryo,"Zoologischer Anzeiger, 1880, 5: 283-84; idem, "Über zwei frühzeitige menschliche Embryonen," Zeitschrift für wissenschaftliche Zoologie, 1880,35: 130-40. Krause did not oppose sectioning per se - like dozens of scientists in the 1870s, he had himself designed a microtome - but for him, as for many others whom His was trying to persuade, sectioning a specimen that could easily be replaced was a completely different matter from trusting an irreplaceable object to the knife. See Wilhelm Krause, "Der ventriculus terminalis des Rückenmarks," Archiv für mikroskopische Anatomie, 1875, 11: 216-30, on pp. 227-29; idem, "Ueber Mikrotome," ibid., 1877, 13: 180.
197. Friedrich Ahlfeld, review of Krause, "Über zwei frühzeitige menschliche Embryonen," Centralblatt für Gynäkologie, 1880, 4: 603; Alexander Ecker, "Beiträge zur Kenntniss der äusseren Formen jüngster menschlicher Embryonen," AAP, 1880, pp. 403-6; Francis M. Balfour, A Treatise on Comparative Embryology, 2 vols. (London: Macmillan, 1880-81), 2: 224-26. In an earlier review of AmE 1, however, Ahlfeld had stated that his colleague had proven Krause's embryo to be a bird; see Friedrich Ahlfeld, review of AmE 1, Centralblalt für Gynäkologie, 1880, 4: 223-25, on p. 224; and also Ahlfeld, review of Krause, "Über einen frühzeitigen menschlichen Embryo," ibid., p. 367. For Krause's rebuttal, see "Über die Allantois des Menschen," ibid., 1881, 5: 1-2. Friedrich Merkel also implied agreement with His: see Friedrich Merkel, "Entwickelungsgeschichte," Jahresbericht über die Leistungen und Fortschritte in der gesummten Medicin (hereafter JLFM), 1881, 15 (1): 78-105, on p. 94.
198. Friedrich Ahlfeld, review of Krause, "Über zwei frühzeitige menschliche Embryonen," Centralblatt für Gynäkologie, 1880, 4: 603; Alexander Ecker, "Beiträge zur Kenntniss der äusseren Formen jüngster menschlicher Embryonen," AAP, 1880, pp. 403-6; Francis M. Balfour, A Treatise on Comparative Embryology, 2 vols. (London: Macmillan, 1880-81), 2: 224-26. In an earlier review of AmE 1, however, Ahlfeld had stated that his colleague had proven Krause's embryo to be a bird; see Friedrich Ahlfeld, review of AmE 1, Centralblalt für Gynäkologie, 1880, 4: 223-25, on p. 224; and also Ahlfeld, review of Krause, "Über einen frühzeitigen menschlichen Embryo," ibid., p. 367. For Krause's rebuttal, see "Über die Allantois des Menschen," ibid., 1881, 5: 1-2. Friedrich Merkel also implied agreement with His: see Friedrich Merkel, "Entwickelungsgeschichte," Jahresbericht über die Leistungen und Fortschritte in der gesummten Medicin (hereafter JLFM), 1881, 15 (1): 78-105, on p. 94.
199. Friedrich Ahlfeld, review of Krause, "Über zwei frühzeitige menschliche Embryonen," Centralblatt für Gynäkologie, 1880, 4: 603; Alexander Ecker, "Beiträge zur Kenntniss der äusseren Formen jüngster menschlicher Embryonen," AAP, 1880, pp. 403-6; Francis M. Balfour, A Treatise on Comparative Embryology, 2 vols. (London: Macmillan, 1880-81), 2: 224-26. In an earlier review of AmE 1, however, Ahlfeld had stated that his colleague had proven Krause's embryo to be a bird; see Friedrich Ahlfeld, review of AmE 1, Centralblalt für Gynäkologie, 1880, 4: 223-25, on p. 224; and also Ahlfeld, review of Krause, "Über einen frühzeitigen menschlichen Embryo," ibid., p. 367. For Krause's rebuttal, see "Über die Allantois des Menschen," ibid., 1881, 5: 1-2. Friedrich Merkel also implied agreement with His: see Friedrich Merkel, "Entwickelungsgeschichte," Jahresbericht über die Leistungen und Fortschritte in der gesummten Medicin (hereafter JLFM), 1881, 15 (1): 78-105, on p. 94.
200. Friedrich Ahlfeld, review of Krause, "Über zwei frühzeitige menschliche Embryonen," Centralblatt für Gynäkologie, 1880, 4: 603; Alexander Ecker, "Beiträge zur Kenntniss der äusseren Formen jüngster menschlicher Embryonen," AAP, 1880, pp. 403-6; Francis M. Balfour, A Treatise on Comparative Embryology, 2 vols. (London: Macmillan, 1880-81), 2: 224-26. In an earlier review of AmE 1, however, Ahlfeld had stated that his colleague had proven Krause's embryo to be a bird; see Friedrich Ahlfeld, review of AmE 1, Centralblalt für Gynäkologie, 1880, 4: 223-25, on p. 224; and also Ahlfeld, review of Krause, "Über einen frühzeitigen menschlichen Embryo," ibid., p. 367. For Krause's rebuttal, see "Über die Allantois des Menschen," ibid., 1881, 5: 1-2. Friedrich Merkel also implied agreement with His: see Friedrich Merkel, "Entwickelungsgeschichte," Jahresbericht über die Leistungen und Fortschritte in der gesummten Medicin (hereafter JLFM), 1881, 15 (1): 78-105, on p. 94.
201. Friedrich Ahlfeld, review of Krause, "Über zwei frühzeitige menschliche Embryonen," Centralblatt für Gynäkologie, 1880, 4: 603; Alexander Ecker, "Beiträge zur Kenntniss der äusseren Formen jüngster menschlicher Embryonen," AAP, 1880, pp. 403-6; Francis M. Balfour, A Treatise on Comparative Embryology, 2 vols. (London: Macmillan, 1880-81), 2: 224-26. In an earlier review of AmE 1, however, Ahlfeld had stated that his colleague had proven Krause's embryo to be a bird; see Friedrich Ahlfeld, review of AmE 1, Centralblalt für Gynäkologie, 1880, 4: 223-25, on p. 224; and also Ahlfeld, review of Krause, "Über einen frühzeitigen menschlichen Embryo," ibid., p. 367. For Krause's rebuttal, see "Über die Allantois des Menschen," ibid., 1881, 5: 1-2. Friedrich Merkel also implied agreement with His: see Friedrich Merkel, "Entwickelungsgeschichte," Jahresbericht über die Leistungen und Fortschritte in der gesummten Medicin (hereafter JLFM), 1881, 15 (1): 78-105, on p. 94.
202. Friedrich Ahlfeld, review of Krause, "Über zwei frühzeitige menschliche Embryonen," Centralblatt für Gynäkologie, 1880, 4: 603; Alexander Ecker, "Beiträge zur Kenntniss der äusseren Formen jüngster menschlicher Embryonen," AAP, 1880, pp. 403-6; Francis M. Balfour, A Treatise on Comparative Embryology, 2 vols. (London: Macmillan, 1880-81), 2: 224-26. In an earlier review of AmE 1, however, Ahlfeld had stated that his colleague had proven Krause's embryo to be a bird; see Friedrich Ahlfeld, review of AmE 1, Centralblalt für Gynäkologie, 1880, 4: 223-25, on p. 224; and also Ahlfeld, review of Krause, "Über einen frühzeitigen menschlichen Embryo," ibid., p. 367. For Krause's rebuttal, see "Über die Allantois des Menschen," ibid., 1881, 5: 1-2. Friedrich Merkel also implied agreement with His: see Friedrich Merkel, "Entwickelungsgeschichte," Jahresbericht über die Leistungen und Fortschritte in der gesummten Medicin (hereafter JLFM), 1881, 15 (1): 78-105, on p. 94.
203. Friedrich Ahlfeld, review of Krause, "Über zwei frühzeitige menschliche Embryonen," Centralblatt für Gynäkologie, 1880, 4: 603; Alexander Ecker, "Beiträge zur Kenntniss der äusseren Formen jüngster menschlicher Embryonen," AAP, 1880, pp. 403-6; Francis M. Balfour, A Treatise on Comparative Embryology, 2 vols. (London: Macmillan, 1880-81), 2: 224-26. In an earlier review of AmE 1, however, Ahlfeld had stated that his colleague had proven Krause's embryo to be a bird; see Friedrich Ahlfeld, review of AmE 1, Centralblalt für Gynäkologie, 1880, 4: 223-25, on p. 224; and also Ahlfeld, review of Krause, "Über einen frühzeitigen menschlichen Embryo," ibid., p. 367. For Krause's rebuttal, see "Über die Allantois des Menschen," ibid., 1881, 5: 1-2. Friedrich Merkel also implied agreement with His: see Friedrich Merkel, "Entwickelungsgeschichte," Jahresbericht über die Leistungen und Fortschritte in der gesummten Medicin (hereafter JLFM), 1881, 15 (1): 78-105, on p. 94.
204. His, "Kritik" (n. 43), p. 410.
205. Ibid., p. 413.
206. Ibid., p. 414. His had not yet rejected Müller's embryo, and his only objection to Coste's most famous specimen was that its exact magnification was not known.
207. Ibid.
208. Ibid., p. 420.
209. Wilhelm Krause, "Über die Allantois des Menschen," Zoologischer Anzeiger, 1881, 4: 185; idem, "Über die Allantois des Menschen," Zeitschrift für wissenschaftliche Zoologie, 1881, 36:175-79. Gustav Born (Breslau) gave a fairly even-handed summary of these exchanges, but praised His's "Kritik"; see "Entwicklungsgeschichte: Sāuger, "Jahresbericht über die Fortschritte der Anatomie und Physiologie, 1882, 10(1): 454-62, on pp. 458-59.
210. Wilhelm Krause, "Über die Allantois des Menschen," Zoologischer Anzeiger, 1881, 4: 185; idem, "Über die Allantois des Menschen," Zeitschrift für wissenschaftliche Zoologie, 1881, 36:175-79. Gustav Born (Breslau) gave a fairly even-handed summary of these exchanges, but praised His's "Kritik"; see "Entwicklungsgeschichte: Sāuger, "Jahresbericht über die Fortschritte der Anatomie und Physiologie, 1882, 10(1): 454-62, on pp. 458-59.
211. Wilhelm Krause, "Über die Allantois des Menschen," Zoologischer Anzeiger, 1881, 4: 185; idem, "Über die Allantois des Menschen," Zeitschrift für wissenschaftliche Zoologie, 1881, 36:175-79. Gustav Born (Breslau) gave a fairly even-handed summary of these exchanges, but praised His's "Kritik"; see "Entwicklungsgeschichte: Sāuger, "Jahresbericht über die Fortschritte der Anatomie und Physiologie, 1882, 10(1): 454-62, on pp. 458-59.
212. Wilhelm Krause, "Über die Allantois des Menschen," Zoologischer Anzeiger, 1881, 4: 185; idem, "Über die Allantois des Menschen," Zeitschrift für wissenschaftliche Zoologie, 1881, 36:175-79. Gustav Born (Breslau) gave a fairly even-handed summary of these exchanges, but praised His's "Kritik"; see "Entwicklungsgeschichte: Sāuger, "Jahresbericht über die Fortschritte der Anatomie und Physiologie, 1882, 10(1): 454-62, on pp. 458-59.
213. His, "Kritik" (n. 43), p. 412. See also Krause, "Embryonen" (n. 80), p. 133.
214. His, "Kritik" (n. 43), p. 412. See also Krause, "Embryonen" (n. 80), p. 133.
215. Frankfurter Zeitung, 8 April 1882, Abendblatt, p. 2; Beiträge zur Anatomie und Embryologie als Festgabe: Jacob Henle zum 4. April 1882 dargebracht von seinen Schülern (Bonn: Max Cohen & Sohn, 1882); Friedrich Merkel, Jacob Henle: Ein deutsches Gelehrtenleben. Nach Aufzeichnungen und Erinnerungen erzählt (Braunschweig: F. Vieweg & Sohn, 1891), pp. 349-52. On the exceptional success of the celebration, see Waldeyer to Henle, 3 May 1882 and 29 April 1883, in Hermann Hoepke, ed., "Wilhelm Waldeyer. Briefe an Jakob Henle 1863-1885. Dritter Teil (1881-1885)," Ruperto Carola, 1976, 57: 43-54, on pp. 45, 47 (hanks to Paul Weindling for a copy of this article). Controversies over "tailed people," with an embryological dimension that His addressed in AmE 1: 89-96, were widely reported in these years, but I have yet to find newspaper references to the more esoteric dispute over the allantois. On those controversies, see Andrew Zimmerman, "Anthropology and the Place of Knowledge in Imperial Berlin" (Ph.D. diss., University of California, San Diego, 1998), pp. 140-47.
216. Frankfurter Zeitung, 8 April 1882, Abendblatt, p. 2; Beiträge zur Anatomie und Embryologie als Festgabe: Jacob Henle zum 4. April 1882 dargebracht von seinen Schülern (Bonn: Max Cohen & Sohn, 1882); Friedrich Merkel, Jacob Henle: Ein deutsches Gelehrtenleben. Nach Aufzeichnungen und Erinnerungen erzählt (Braunschweig: F. Vieweg & Sohn, 1891), pp. 349-52. On the exceptional success of the celebration, see Waldeyer to Henle, 3 May 1882 and 29 April 1883, in Hermann Hoepke, ed., "Wilhelm Waldeyer. Briefe an Jakob Henle 1863-1885. Dritter Teil (1881-1885)," Ruperto Carola, 1976, 57: 43-54, on pp. 45, 47 (hanks to Paul Weindling for a copy of this article). Controversies over "tailed people," with an embryological dimension that His addressed in AmE 1: 89-96, were widely reported in these years, but I have yet to find newspaper references to the more esoteric dispute over the allantois. On those controversies, see Andrew Zimmerman, "Anthropology and the Place of Knowledge in Imperial Berlin" (Ph.D. diss., University of California, San Diego, 1998), pp. 140-47.
217. Frankfurter Zeitung, 8 April 1882, Abendblatt, p. 2; Beiträge zur Anatomie und Embryologie als Festgabe: Jacob Henle zum 4. April 1882 dargebracht von seinen Schülern (Bonn: Max Cohen & Sohn, 1882); Friedrich Merkel, Jacob Henle: Ein deutsches Gelehrtenleben. Nach Aufzeichnungen und Erinnerungen erzählt (Braunschweig: F. Vieweg & Sohn, 1891), pp. 349-52. On the exceptional success of the celebration, see Waldeyer to Henle, 3 May 1882 and 29 April 1883, in Hermann Hoepke, ed., "Wilhelm Waldeyer. Briefe an Jakob Henle 1863-1885. Dritter Teil (1881-1885)," Ruperto Carola, 1976, 57: 43-54, on pp. 45, 47 (hanks to Paul Weindling for a copy of this article). Controversies over "tailed people," with an embryological dimension that His addressed in AmE 1: 89-96, were widely reported in these years, but I have yet to find newspaper references to the more esoteric dispute over the allantois. On those controversies, see Andrew Zimmerman, "Anthropology and the Place of Knowledge in Imperial Berlin" (Ph.D. diss., University of California, San Diego, 1998), pp. 140-47.
218. Frankfurter Zeitung, 8 April 1882, Abendblatt, p. 2; Beiträge zur Anatomie und Embryologie als Festgabe: Jacob Henle zum 4. April 1882 dargebracht von seinen Schülern (Bonn: Max Cohen & Sohn, 1882); Friedrich Merkel, Jacob Henle: Ein deutsches Gelehrtenleben. Nach Aufzeichnungen und Erinnerungen erzählt (Braunschweig: F. Vieweg & Sohn, 1891), pp. 349-52. On the exceptional success of the celebration, see Waldeyer to Henle, 3 May 1882 and 29 April 1883, in Hermann Hoepke, ed., "Wilhelm Waldeyer. Briefe an Jakob Henle 1863-1885. Dritter Teil (1881-1885)," Ruperto Carola, 1976, 57: 43-54, on pp. 45, 47 (hanks to Paul Weindling for a copy of this article). Controversies over "tailed people," with an embryological dimension that His addressed in AmE 1: 89-96, were widely reported in these years, but I have yet to find newspaper references to the more esoteric dispute over the allantois. On those controversies, see Andrew Zimmerman, "Anthropology and the Place of Knowledge in Imperial Berlin" (Ph.D. diss., University of California, San Diego, 1998), pp. 140-47.
219. Frankfurter Zeitung, 8 April 1882, Abendblatt, p. 2; Beiträge zur Anatomie und Embryologie als Festgabe: Jacob Henle zum 4. April 1882 dargebracht von seinen Schülern (Bonn: Max Cohen & Sohn, 1882); Friedrich Merkel,
220. Albert Kölliker, "Der W. Krause'sche menschliche Embryo mit einer Allantois: Ein Schreiben an Hrn. Prof. His," AAP, 1882, pp. 109-10; Carl Hasse, "Erklärung über den Krause'schen Embryo," ibid., p. 203. For Merkel's presence during the viewing and his light sarcasm expressing exasperation with Krause, see Friedrich Merkel, "Entwicklungsgeschichte," JLFM, 1882, 16 (1): 94-118, on p. 103; and for the Leipzig representatives, Merkel, Henle (n. 89), p. 350.
221. Albert Kölliker, "Der W. Krause'sche menschliche Embryo mit einer Allantois: Ein Schreiben an Hrn. Prof. His," AAP, 1882, pp. 109-10; Carl Hasse, "Erklärung über den Krause'schen Embryo," ibid., p. 203. For Merkel's presence during the viewing and his light sarcasm expressing exasperation with Krause, see Friedrich Merkel, "Entwicklungsgeschichte," JLFM, 1882, 16 (1): 94-118, on p. 103; and for the Leipzig representatives, Merkel, Henle (n. 89), p. 350.
222. Albert Kölliker, "Der W. Krause'sche menschliche Embryo mit einer Allantois: Ein Schreiben an Hrn. Prof. His," AAP, 1882, pp. 109-10; Carl Hasse, "Erklärung über den Krause'schen Embryo," ibid., p. 203. For Merkel's presence during the viewing and his light sarcasm expressing exasperation with Krause, see Friedrich Merkel, "Entwicklungsgeschichte," JLFM, 1882, 16 (1): 94-118, on p. 103; and for the Leipzig representatives, Merkel, Henle (n. 89), p. 350.
223. Albert Kölliker, "Der W. Krause'sche menschliche Embryo mit einer Allantois: Ein Schreiben an Hrn. Prof. His," AAP, 1882, pp. 109-10; Carl Hasse, "Erklärung über den Krause'schen Embryo," ibid., p. 203. For Merkel's presence during the viewing and his light sarcasm expressing exasperation with Krause, see Friedrich Merkel, "Entwicklungsgeschichte," JLFM, 1882, 16 (1): 94-118, on p. 103; and for the Leipzig representatives, Merkel, Henle (n. 89), p. 350.
224. Kölliker, "Der W. Krause'sche menschliche Embryo" (n. 90); Hasse, "Erklärung" (n. 90).
225. Kölliker, "Der W. Krause'sche menschliche Embryo" (n. 90); Hasse, "Erklärung" (n. 90).
226. Waldeyer to Ehlers, 13 May 1882 (and see also the letter of 23 April 1882), Ehlers Papers, Niedersächsische Staats- und Universitätsbibliothek Göttingen.
227. "Sobald der Embryo zerschnitten wird, ist ja seine Natur sehr leicht festzustellen. Aber dann lassen sich obige Punkte . . . nicht wie bisher mehr entscheiden" (Krause to [unidentified] Herr College, 29 May 1882, Archiv, Autographen K9, Germanisches Nationalmuseum Nuremberg).
228. The memoirs of the anatomist Hans Strahl, then ayoung Privatdozent in Lieberkühn's institute, include an ironic recollection of Krause's Marburg demonstration, which Strahl dates "about the end of 1882"; it is certainly likely that it followed the Göttingen viewing, and so the Marburg anatomists will have been inclined to disbelieve Krause's claim. In preparation for the visit, Strahl reported, Lieberkühn had the staff collect together the rather wide range of vertebrate embryos of that stage which they had to hand, and compare them to Krause's illustrations. They excluded the possibility that his embryo was mammalian or reptilian, but found it to agree "quite well, perhaps not perfectly," with the forms of a chick embryo; however, it resembled one of the canary embryos which Privatdozent Emil Gasser had collected "like two peas in a pod" (literally, "as one egg to the other"). When Krause arrived, Lieberkühn, his prosector Richard Wagner, Gasser, and Strahl all assembled, and "the precious specimen was unpacked with the greatest conceivable care and inspected by everyone under the magnifying glass." When Lieberkühn declared his agreement with His, Krause became very agitated and "sought to counter his objections. Then Gasser came over with a dish and a very wily face . . . and presented his embryo. Krause was very affected by the absolute identity of the object with his own, and attempted to identify the new one as a human embryo too; whereupon Gasser intimated that he had a canary before him. In view of these facts Krause had to capitulate and went home with his glass and the embryo, which by the way was probably not even a canary but a somewhat distorted [veränderter] chick embryo. He never reported publicly on the Marburg visit and his experiences, however, and took nothing back. It also never came out whether the whole thing was based on an error of some kind or if Krause . . . had perhaps become the victim of a conscious deception." Strahl's memoirs are quoted in Bruno Henneberg, "Professor Hans Strahl," AA, 1922, 55: 211-20, on pp. 215-16. The most parsimonious hypothesis is that the letter quoted in n. 93 was addressed to Lieberkühn and led to Krause's visit to Marburg.
229. I am not aware that Krause had a scientific-political axe to grind in the dispute, and anatomists later assisted the already blighted career of this Henle protégé. He went on to review - of all fields! - Entuwickelungsgeschichte for Virchow and Hirsch's Jahresberichte, and in 1892 Waldeyer took him on as "laboratory director" in Berlin. For a hint of Krause's not being reconciled, see Wilhelm Krause, "Entwickelungsgeschichte," JLFM, 1888, 22(1): 67-111, on p. 88. Report of lack of information on the fate of Krause's embryo from Prof. Gerd Steding, Institut für Anatomie, University of Göttingen, to the author, 2 September 1997.
230. Haeckel excised the reference to the embryo from the much less polemical 4th edition of the Anthropogenie (Leipzig: Wilhelm Engelmann, 1891). On the later controversies over the pictures, see esp. Gursch, Illustrationen (n. 63).
231. Haeckel excised the reference to the embryo from the much less polemical 4th edition of the Anthropogenie (Leipzig: Wilhelm Engelmann, 1891). On the later controversies over the pictures, see esp. Gursch, Illustrationen (n. 63).
232. On anatomical politics and Darwinism, see Paul Julian Weindling, Darwinism and Social Darwinism in Imperial Germany: The Contribution of the Cell Biologist Oscar Hertwig (1849-1922) (Stuttgart: Gustav Fischer, 1991), pp. 195-213.
233. Julius Kollmann, "Die Anatomie menschlicher Embryonen von W. His in Leipzig," Verhandlungen der Naturforschenden Gesellschaft in Basel, 1890, 8: 647-71, on p. 665. By contrast, Harvard anatomist Charles Sedgwick Minot, in Human Embryology (New York: William Wood, 1892), p. 355, accused Haeckel of making a mistake "through hasty and unfounded speculation."
234. Julius Kollmann, "Die Anatomie menschlicher Embryonen von W. His in Leipzig," Verhandlungen der Naturforschenden Gesellschaft in Basel, 1890, 8: 647-71, on p. 665. By contrast, Harvard anatomist Charles Sedgwick Minot, in Human Embryology (New York: William Wood, 1892), p. 355, accused Haeckel of making a mistake "through hasty and unfounded speculation."
235. Jan Janošík, "Zwei junge menschliche Embryonen," Archiv für mikroskopische Anatomie, 1887, 30: 559-95, on p. 579.
236. Having recognized the technical advances of the first installment of His's work over Coste's, and having praised it as "the foundation of a special anatomy of the human embryo," Ahlfeld included the many rejected embryos of his gynecological colleagues in lists assigning embryos to stages; see Ahlfeld, review of AmE 1 (n. 81).
237. In the condensed 1884 edition of his textbook (n. 79), the already critical Kölliker signaled the importance of His's work in the preface (p. iii), and from the 1876 edition (n. 57) he kept the Coste embryo, against which His's only objection was the lack of magnification evidence; but he excluded the Müller and Wagner embryos that His said were abnormal. Oscar Hertwig, Lehrbuch der Entwicklungsgeschichte des Menschen und der Wirbelthiere, 2d ed. (Jena: Gustav Fischer, 1888), pp. 177-202, still listed the Beigel and Löwe specimen (as well as discussing the Krause case and the views on the human allantois of His and Kölliker).
238. See Franz von Preuschen, "Vorlāufige Mittheilung über die Ergebnisse der anatomischen Untersuchung eines frischen menschlichen Embryo mit freier blasenförmiger Allantois (3,7 mm Lānge)," Mittheilungen aus dem naturwissenschaftlichen Vereine von NeuVorpommern und Rügen, 1884, 12: 25-37; idem, Die Allantois des Menschen: Eine entwickelungsgeschichtliche Studie auf Grund eigener Beobachtung (Wiesbaden: Bergmann, 1887); and, actually intervening to moderate anatomical objections to von Preuschen's work, "Ein Brief von Professor W. His, betreffend Professor von Preuschen's 'blasenförmige Allantois' beim Menschen. Mitgeteilt von Karl Bardeleben,"AA, 1889, 4: 17-21.
239. See Franz von Preuschen, "Vorlāufige Mittheilung über die Ergebnisse der anatomischen Untersuchung eines frischen menschlichen Embryo mit freier blasenförmiger Allantois (3,7 mm Lānge)," Mittheilungen aus dem naturwissenschaftlichen Vereine von NeuVorpommern und Rügen, 1884, 12: 25-37; idem, Die Allantois des Menschen: Eine entwickelungsgeschichtliche Studie auf Grund eigener Beobachtung (Wiesbaden: Bergmann, 1887); and, actually intervening to moderate anatomical objections to von Preuschen's work, "Ein Brief von Professor W. His, betreffend Professor von Preuschen's 'blasenförmige Allantois' beim Menschen. Mitgeteilt von Karl Bardeleben,"AA, 1889, 4: 17-21.
240. See Franz von Preuschen, "Vorlāufige Mittheilung über die Ergebnisse der anatomischen Untersuchung eines frischen menschlichen Embryo mit freier blasenförmiger Allantois (3,7 mm Lānge)," Mittheilungen aus dem naturwissenschaftlichen Vereine von NeuVorpommern und Rügen, 1884, 12: 25-37; idem, Die Allantois des Menschen: Eine entwickelungsgeschichtliche Studie auf Grund eigener Beobachtung (Wiesbaden: Bergmann, 1887); and, actually intervening to moderate anatomical objections to von Preuschen's work, "Ein Brief von Professor W. His, betreffend Professor von Preuschen's 'blasenförmige Allantois' beim Menschen. Mitgeteilt von Karl Bardeleben,"AA, 1889, 4: 17-21.
241. Carl Heinrich Stratz, Die Entwicklung der menschlichen Keimblase (Stuttgart: Ferdinand Enke, 1904), p. 2.
242. Hopwood, "'Giving Body'" (n. 20).
243. On the history of the Carnegie department, see especially Florence Rena Sabin, Franklin Paine Mall: The Story of a Mind (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press, 1934); George W. Corner, The Seven Ages of a Medical Scientist: An Autobiography (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1981), chap. 13; Loretta McLaughlin, The Pill, John Rock, and the Church: The Biography of a Revolution (Boston: Little, Brown, 1982), pp. 58-71; Donald D. Brown, "The Department of Embryology of the Carnegie Institution of Washington," BioEssays, 1987, 6: 92-96; Clarke, "Research Materials" (n. 17); O'Rahilly, "One Hundred Years" (n. 10); and Lynn M. Morgan, "Materializing the Fetal Body, Or, What Are Those Corpses Doing in Biology's Basement?"in Morgan and Michaels, Fetal Subjects, Feminist Positions (n. 6), pp. 43-60. The Carnegie department was the dominant institution, but anatomist Erich Blechschmidt at Göttingen also built up a major collection; see his Vom Ei zum Embryo: Die Gestaltungskraft des menschlichen Keims (Stuttgart: Deutsche Verlags-Anstalt, 1968); and Klaus V. Hinrichsen, "In memoriam des Anatomen und Embryologen Erich Blechschmidt (1904-1992),"Ann. Anat., 1992, 174: 479-84.
244. On the history of the Carnegie department, see especially Florence Rena Sabin, Franklin Paine Mall: The Story of a Mind (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press, 1934); George W. Corner, The Seven Ages of a Medical Scientist: An Autobiography (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1981), chap. 13; Loretta McLaughlin, The Pill, John Rock, and the Church: The Biography of a Revolution (Boston: Little, Brown, 1982), pp. 58-71; Donald D. Brown, "The Department of Embryology of the Carnegie Institution of Washington," BioEssays, 1987, 6: 92-96; Clarke, "Research Materials" (n. 17); O'Rahilly, "One Hundred Years" (n. 10); and Lynn M. Morgan, "Materializing the Fetal Body, Or, What Are Those Corpses Doing in Biology's Basement?"in Morgan and Michaels, Fetal Subjects, Feminist Positions (n. 6), pp. 43-60. The Carnegie department was the dominant institution, but anatomist Erich Blechschmidt at Göttingen also built up a major collection; see his Vom Ei zum Embryo: Die Gestaltungskraft des menschlichen Keims (Stuttgart: Deutsche Verlags-Anstalt, 1968); and Klaus V. Hinrichsen, "In memoriam des Anatomen und Embryologen Erich Blechschmidt (1904-1992),"Ann. Anat., 1992, 174: 479-84.
245. On the history of the Carnegie department, see especially Florence Rena Sabin, Franklin Paine Mall: The Story of a Mind (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press, 1934); George W. Corner, The Seven Ages of a Medical Scientist: An Autobiography (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1981), chap. 13; Loretta McLaughlin, The Pill, John Rock, and the Church: The Biography of a Revolution (Boston: Little, Brown, 1982), pp. 58-71; Donald D. Brown, "The Department of Embryology of the Carnegie Institution of Washington," BioEssays, 1987, 6: 92-96; Clarke, "Research Materials" (n. 17); O'Rahilly, "One Hundred Years" (n. 10); and Lynn M. Morgan, "Materializing the Fetal Body, Or, What Are Those Corpses Doing in Biology's Basement?"in Morgan and Michaels, Fetal Subjects, Feminist Positions (n. 6), pp. 43-60. The Carnegie department was the dominant institution, but anatomist Erich Blechschmidt at Göttingen also built up a major collection; see his Vom Ei zum Embryo: Die Gestaltungskraft des menschlichen Keims (Stuttgart: Deutsche Verlags-Anstalt, 1968); and Klaus V. Hinrichsen, "In memoriam des Anatomen und Embryologen Erich Blechschmidt (1904-1992),"Ann. Anat., 1992, 174: 479-84.
246. On the history of the Carnegie department, see especially Florence Rena Sabin, Franklin Paine Mall: The Story of a Mind (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press, 1934); George W. Corner, The Seven Ages of a Medical Scientist: An Autobiography (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1981), chap. 13; Loretta McLaughlin, The Pill, John Rock, and the Church: The Biography of a Revolution (Boston: Little, Brown, 1982), pp. 58-71; Donald D. Brown, "The Department of Embryology of the Carnegie Institution of Washington," BioEssays, 1987, 6: 92-96; Clarke, "Research Materials" (n. 17); O'Rahilly, "One Hundred Years" (n. 10); and Lynn M. Morgan, "Materializing the Fetal Body, Or, What Are Those Corpses Doing in Biology's Basement?"in Morgan and Michaels, Fetal Subjects, Feminist Positions (n. 6), pp. 43-60. The Carnegie department was the dominant institution, but anatomist Erich Blechschmidt at Göttingen also built up a major collection; see his Vom Ei zum Embryo: Die Gestaltungskraft des menschlichen Keims (Stuttgart: Deutsche Verlags-Anstalt, 1968); and Klaus V. Hinrichsen, "In memoriam des Anatomen und Embryologen Erich Blechschmidt (1904-1992),"Ann. Anat., 1992, 174: 479-84.
247. On the history of the Carnegie department, see especially Florence Rena Sabin, Franklin Paine Mall: The Story of a Mind (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press, 1934); George W. Corner, The Seven Ages of a Medical Scientist: An Autobiography (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1981), chap. 13; Loretta McLaughlin, The Pill, John Rock, and the Church: The Biography of a Revolution (Boston: Little, Brown, 1982), pp. 58-71; Donald D. Brown, "The Department of Embryology of the Carnegie Institution of Washington," BioEssays, 1987, 6: 92-96; Clarke, "Research Materials" (n. 17); O'Rahilly, "One Hundred Years" (n. 10); and Lynn M. Morgan, "Materializing the Fetal Body, Or, What Are Those Corpses Doing in Biology's Basement?"in Morgan and Michaels, Fetal Subjects, Feminist Positions (n. 6), pp. 43-60. The Carnegie department was the dominant institution, but anatomist Erich Blechschmidt at Göttingen also built up a major collection; see his Vom Ei zum Embryo: Die Gestaltungskraft des menschlichen Keims (Stuttgart: Deutsche Verlags-Anstalt, 1968); and Klaus V. Hinrichsen, "In memoriam des Anatomen und Embryologen Erich Blechschmidt (1904-1992),"Ann. Anat., 1992, 174: 479-84.
248. On the history of the Carnegie department, see especially Florence Rena Sabin, Franklin Paine Mall: The Story of a Mind (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press, 1934); George W. Corner, The Seven Ages of a Medical Scientist: An Autobiography (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1981), chap. 13; Loretta McLaughlin, The Pill, John Rock, and the Church: The Biography of a Revolution (Boston: Little, Brown, 1982), pp. 58-71; Donald D. Brown, "The Department of Embryology of the Carnegie Institution of Washington," BioEssays, 1987, 6: 92-96; Clarke, "Research Materials" (n. 17); O'Rahilly, "One Hundred Years" (n. 10); and Lynn M. Morgan, "Materializing the Fetal Body, Or, What Are Those Corpses Doing in Biology's Basement?"in Morgan and Michaels, Fetal Subjects, Feminist Positions (n. 6), pp. 43-60. The Carnegie department was the dominant institution, but anatomist Erich Blechschmidt at Göttingen also built up a major collection; see his Vom Ei zum Embryo: Die Gestaltungskraft des menschlichen Keims (Stuttgart: Deutsche Verlags-Anstalt, 1968); and Klaus V. Hinrichsen, "In memoriam des Anatomen und Embryologen Erich Blechschmidt (1904-1992),"Ann. Anat., 1992, 174: 479-84.
249. On the history of the Carnegie department, see especially Florence Rena Sabin, Franklin Paine Mall: The Story of a Mind (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press, 1934); George W. Corner, The Seven Ages of a Medical Scientist: An Autobiography (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1981), chap. 13; Loretta McLaughlin, The Pill, John Rock, and the Church: The Biography of a Revolution (Boston: Little, Brown, 1982), pp. 58-71; Donald D. Brown, "The Department of Embryology of the Carnegie Institution of Washington," BioEssays, 1987, 6: 92-96; Clarke, "Research Materials" (n. 17); O'Rahilly, "One Hundred Years" (n. 10); and Lynn M. Morgan, "Materializing the Fetal Body, Or, What Are Those Corpses Doing in Biology's Basement?"in Morgan and Michaels, Fetal Subjects, Feminist Positions (n. 6), pp. 43-60. The Carnegie department was the dominant institution, but anatomist Erich Blechschmidt at Göttingen also built up a major collection; see his Vom Ei zum Embryo: Die Gestaltungskraft des menschlichen Keims (Stuttgart: Deutsche Verlags-Anstalt, 1968); and Klaus V. Hinrichsen, "In memoriam des Anatomen und Embryologen Erich Blechschmidt (1904-1992),"Ann. Anat., 1992, 174: 479-84.
250. On the history of the Carnegie department, see especially Florence Rena Sabin, Franklin Paine Mall: The Story of a Mind (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press, 1934); George W. Corner, The Seven Ages of a Medical Scientist: An Autobiography (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1981), chap. 13; Loretta McLaughlin, The Pill, John Rock, and the Church: The Biography of a Revolution (Boston: Little, Brown, 1982), pp. 58-71; Donald D. Brown, "The Department of Embryology of the Carnegie Institution of Washington," BioEssays, 1987, 6: 92-96; Clarke, "Research Materials" (n. 17); O'Rahilly, "One Hundred Years" (n. 10); and Lynn M. Morgan, "Materializing the Fetal Body, Or, What Are Those Corpses Doing in Biology's Basement?"in Morgan and Michaels, Fetal Subjects, Feminist Positions (n. 6), pp. 43-60. The Carnegie department was the dominant institution, but anatomist Erich Blechschmidt at Göttingen also built up a major collection; see his Vom Ei zum Embryo: Die Gestaltungskraft des menschlichen Keims (Stuttgart: Deutsche Verlags-Anstalt, 1968); and Klaus V. Hinrichsen, "In memoriam des Anatomen und Embryologen Erich Blechschmidt (1904-1992),"Ann. Anat., 1992, 174: 479-84.
251. On the history of the Carnegie department, see especially Florence Rena Sabin, Franklin Paine Mall: The Story of a Mind (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press, 1934); George W. Corner, The Seven Ages of a Medical Scientist: An Autobiography (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1981), chap. 13; Loretta McLaughlin, The Pill, John Rock, and the Church: The Biography of a Revolution (Boston: Little, Brown, 1982), pp. 58-71; Donald D. Brown, "The Department of Embryology of the Carnegie Institution of Washington," BioEssays, 1987, 6: 92-96; Clarke, "Research Materials" (n. 17); O'Rahilly, "One Hundred Years" (n. 10); and Lynn M. Morgan, "Materializing the Fetal Body, Or, What Are Those Corpses Doing in Biology's Basement?"in Morgan and Michaels, Fetal Subjects, Feminist Positions (n. 6), pp. 43-60. The Carnegie department was the dominant institution, but anatomist Erich Blechschmidt at Göttingen also built up a major collection; see his Vom Ei zum Embryo: Die Gestaltungskraft des menschlichen Keims (Stuttgart: Deutsche Verlags-Anstalt, 1968); and Klaus V. Hinrichsen, "In memoriam des Anatomen und Embryologen Erich Blechschmidt (1904-1992),"Ann. Anat., 1992, 174: 479-84.
252. Karl Peter, "Franz Keibel: Ein Nachruf," AA, 1929-30, 68: 201-20, on p. 215. See also Rudolf Fick, "Gedächtnisrede auf Franz Keibel," Sitzungsberichte der Preussischen Akademie der Wissenschaften. Physikalisch-Mathematische Klasse, 1929, pp. cvii-cxxii; and Ernst Theodor Nauck, Franz Keibel: Zugleich eine Untersuchung über das Problem des wissenschaftlichen Nachwuchses (Jena: Gustav Fischer, 1937).
253. Karl Peter, "Franz Keibel: Ein Nachruf," AA, 1929-30, 68: 201-20, on p. 215. See also Rudolf Fick, "Gedächtnisrede auf Franz Keibel," Sitzungsberichte der Preussischen Akademie der Wissenschaften. Physikalisch-Mathematische Klasse, 1929, pp. cvii-cxxii; and Ernst Theodor Nauck, Franz Keibel: Zugleich eine Untersuchung über das Problem des wissenschaftlichen Nachwuchses (Jena: Gustav Fischer, 1937).
254. Karl Peter, "Franz Keibel: Ein Nachruf," AA, 1929-30, 68: 201-20, on p. 215. See also Rudolf Fick, "Gedächtnisrede auf Franz Keibel," Sitzungsberichte der Preussischen Akademie der Wissenschaften. Physikalisch-Mathematische Klasse, 1929, pp. cvii-cxxii; and Ernst Theodor Nauck, Franz Keibel: Zugleich eine Untersuchung über das Problem des wissenschaftlichen Nachwuchses (Jena: Gustav Fischer, 1937).
255. Franz Keibel, "Ein sehr junges menschliches Ei," AAP, 1890, pp. 250-67. See also idem, "Ein menschlicher Embryo mit scheinbar bläschenförmiger Allantois," AAP, 1891, pp. 352-55.
256. Franz Keibel, "Ein sehr junges menschliches Ei," AAP, 1890, pp. 250-67. See also idem, "Ein menschlicher Embryo mit scheinbar bläschenförmiger Allantois," AAP, 1891, pp. 352-55.
257. Franz Keibel, "Zur Entwickelungsgeschichte des menschlichen Urogenitalapparates," AAP, 1896, pp. 55-156.
258. See esp. Keibel and Mall, Manual (n. 9); and also Julius Kollmann, Handatlas der Entwicklungsgeschichte des Menschen, 2 vols. (Jena: Gustav Fischer, 1907).
259. See esp. Keibel and Mall, Manual (n. 9); and also Julius Kollmann, Handatlas der Entwicklungsgeschichte des Menschen, 2 vols. (Jena: Gustav Fischer, 1907).
260. †," AA, 1976, 140: 1-8. On the evolutionary significance of Keibel's Normentafel project, see Gould, Ontogeny (n. 63), pp. 174-75.
261. †," AA, 1976, 140: 1-8. On the evolutionary significance of Keibel's Normentafel project, see Gould, Ontogeny (n. 63), pp. 174-75.
262. †," AA, 1976, 140: 1-8. On the evolutionary significance of Keibel's Normentafel project, see Gould, Ontogeny (n. 63), pp. 174-75.
263. Daston and Galison, "Image" (n. 13).
264. On the design of the Keibel Normentafeln, see Franz Keibel, "Normentafeln zur Entwicklungsgeschichte der Wirbeltiere," AA, 1895, 11: 225-34.
265. Keibel and Elze, Normentafel (n. 56), p. 89.
266. Ibid., p. 120.
267. Ibid., p. 128.
268. Franz Keibel, "Summary of the Development of the Human Embryo and the Differentiation of Its External Form,"in Keibel and Mall, Manual (n. 9), pp. 59-90.
269. O'Rahilly, "One Hundred Years" (n. 10).
270. Ronan O'Rahilly and Fabiola Müller, Developmental Stages in Human Embryos, Including a Revision of Streeter's "Horizons" and a Survey of the Carnegie Collection (Washington, D.C.: Carnegie Institution of Washington, 1987).
271. See Pickstone, "Museological Science?" (n. 3).
272. For examples of normal stages or normal tables by famous experimentalists, see Viktor Hamburger and Howard L. Hamilton, "A Series of Normal Stages in the Development of the Chick Embryo," J. Morphol., 1951, 88: 49-92; Pieter D. Nieuwkoop and Job Faber, eds., Normal Table of Xenopus laevis (Daudin): A Systematical and Chronological Survey of the Development from the Fertilized Egg till the End of Metamorphosis (Amsterdam: North-Holland Publishing, 1956, and later eds.). Others are cited by contributors to Jonathan B. L. Bard, ed., Embryos: Color Atlas of Development (London: Wolfe, 1994). On the history of the genre, see Nick Hopwood, "Standards of Development: A History of the Normal Table," paper presented at the ISHPSSB meeting in Oaxaco, Mexico, 10 July 1999.
273. For examples of normal stages or normal tables by famous experimentalists, see Viktor Hamburger and Howard L. Hamilton, "A Series of Normal Stages in the Development of the Chick Embryo," J. Morphol., 1951, 88: 49-92; Pieter D. Nieuwkoop and Job Faber, eds., Normal Table of Xenopus laevis (Daudin): A Systematical and Chronological Survey of the Development from the Fertilized Egg till the End of Metamorphosis (Amsterdam: North-Holland Publishing, 1956, and later eds.). Others are cited by contributors to Jonathan B. L. Bard, ed., Embryos: Color Atlas of Development (London: Wolfe, 1994). On the history of the genre, see Nick Hopwood, "Standards of Development: A History of the Normal Table," paper presented at the ISHPSSB meeting in Oaxaco, Mexico, 10 July 1999.
274. For examples of normal stages or normal tables by famous experimentalists, see Viktor Hamburger and Howard L. Hamilton, "A Series of Normal Stages in the Development of the Chick Embryo," J. Morphol., 1951, 88: 49-92; Pieter D. Nieuwkoop and Job Faber, eds., Normal Table of Xenopus laevis (Daudin): A Systematical and Chronological Survey of the Development from the Fertilized Egg till the End of Metamorphosis (Amsterdam: North-Holland Publishing, 1956, and later eds.). Others are cited by contributors to Jonathan B. L. Bard, ed., Embryos: Color Atlas of Development (London: Wolfe, 1994). On the history of the genre, see Nick Hopwood, "Standards of Development: A History of the Normal Table," paper presented at the ISHPSSB meeting in Oaxaco, Mexico, 10 July 1999.
275. For examples of normal stages or normal tables by famous experimentalists, see Viktor Hamburger and Howard L. Hamilton, "A Series of Normal Stages in the Development of the Chick Embryo," J. Morphol., 1951, 88: 49-92; Pieter D. Nieuwkoop and Job Faber, eds., Normal Table of Xenopus laevis (Daudin): A Systematical and Chronological Survey of the Development from the Fertilized Egg till the End of Metamorphosis (Amsterdam: North-Holland Publishing, 1956, and later eds.). Others are cited by contributors to Jonathan B. L. Bard, ed., Embryos: Color Atlas of Development (London: Wolfe, 1994). On the history of the genre, see Nick Hopwood, "Standards of Development: A History of the Normal Table," paper presented at the ISHPSSB meeting in Oaxaco, Mexico, 10 July 1999.
276. Margaret Shea Gilbert, Biography of the Unborn(London: John Murray, 1939 [1938]). See also George W. Corner, Ourselves Unborn: An Embryologist's Essay on Man (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1944); and on Nilsson's images see, e.g., Duden, Disembodying Women (n. 7), pp. 11-24; Franklin, "Fetal Fascinations"(n. 6). On communicating human embryology in the United States in the 1930s and 1940s, see Catherine Cole, "Sex and Death on Display: Women, Reproduction, and Fetuses at Chicago's Museum of Science and Industry," Drama Rev., 1993, 37(1): 43-60; and Morgan, "Materializing the Fetal Body" (n. 105).
277. Margaret Shea Gilbert, Biography of the Unborn(London: John Murray, 1939 [1938]). See also George W. Corner, Ourselves Unborn: An Embryologist's Essay on Man (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1944); and on Nilsson's images see, e.g., Duden, Disembodying Women (n. 7), pp. 11-24; Franklin, "Fetal Fascinations"(n. 6). On communicating human embryology in the United States in the 1930s and 1940s, see Catherine Cole, "Sex and Death on Display: Women, Reproduction, and Fetuses at Chicago's Museum of Science and Industry," Drama Rev., 1993, 37(1): 43-60; and Morgan, "Materializing the Fetal Body" (n. 105).
278. Margaret Shea Gilbert, Biography of the Unborn(London: John Murray, 1939 [1938]). See also George W. Corner, Ourselves Unborn: An Embryologist's Essay on Man (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1944); and on Nilsson's images see, e.g., Duden, Disembodying Women (n. 7), pp. 11-24; Franklin, "Fetal Fascinations"(n. 6). On communicating human embryology in the United States in the 1930s and 1940s, see Catherine Cole, "Sex and Death on Display: Women, Reproduction, and Fetuses at Chicago's Museum of Science and Industry," Drama Rev., 1993, 37(1): 43-60; and Morgan, "Materializing the Fetal Body" (n. 105).
279. Margaret Shea Gilbert, Biography of the Unborn(London: John Murray, 1939 [1938]). See also George W. Corner, Ourselves Unborn: An Embryologist's Essay on Man (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1944); and on Nilsson's images see, e.g., Duden, Disembodying Women (n. 7), pp. 11-24; Franklin, "Fetal Fascinations"(n. 6). On communicating human embryology in the United States in the 1930s and 1940s, see Catherine Cole, "Sex and Death on Display: Women, Reproduction, and Fetuses at Chicago's Museum of Science and Industry," Drama Rev., 1993, 37(1): 43-60; and Morgan, "Materializing the Fetal Body" (n. 105).
280. Margaret Shea Gilbert, Biography of the Unborn(London: John Murray, 1939 [1938]). See also George W. Corner, Ourselves Unborn: An Embryologist's Essay on Man (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1944); and on Nilsson's images see, e.g., Duden, Disembodying Women (n. 7), pp. 11-24; Franklin, "Fetal Fascinations"(n. 6). On communicating human embryology in the United States in the 1930s and 1940s, see Catherine Cole, "Sex and Death on Display: Women, Reproduction, and Fetuses at Chicago's Museum of Science and Industry," Drama Rev., 1993, 37(1): 43-60; and Morgan, "Materializing the Fetal Body" (n. 105).
281. Margaret Shea Gilbert, Biography of the Unborn(London: John Murray, 1939 [1938]). See also George W. Corner, Ourselves Unborn: An Embryologist's Essay on Man (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1944); and on Nilsson's images see, e.g., Duden, Disembodying Women (n. 7), pp. 11-24; Franklin, "Fetal Fascinations"(n. 6). On communicating human embryology in the United States in the 1930s and 1940s, see Catherine Cole, "Sex and Death on Display: Women, Reproduction, and Fetuses at Chicago's Museum of Science and Industry," Drama Rev., 1993, 37(1): 43-60; and Morgan, "Materializing the Fetal Body" (n. 105).
282. On which, see Gursch, Illustrationen (n. 63), pp. 84-136.
283. Max Hodann, Bringt uns wirklich der Klapperstorch? Ein Lehrbuch für Kinder lesbar, 2d ed. (Rudolstadt: Greifenverlag, 1928), p. 13. On Hodann, see Wilfried Wolff, Max Hodann (1894-1946): Sozialist und Sexualreformer (Hamburg: von Bockel, 1993); and on the sexreform movement in which he was active, Cornelie Usborne, The Politics of the Body in Weimar Germany: Women's Reproductive Rights and Duties (Basingstoke, U.K.: Macmillan, 1992); and Atina Grossmann, Reforming Sex: The German Movement for Birth Control and Abortion Reform, 1920-1950 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1995).
284. Max Hodann, Bringt uns wirklich der Klapperstorch? Ein Lehrbuch für Kinder lesbar, 2d ed. (Rudolstadt: Greifenverlag, 1928), p. 13. On Hodann, see Wilfried Wolff, Max Hodann (1894-1946): Sozialist und Sexualreformer (Hamburg: von Bockel, 1993); and on the sexreform movement in which he was active, Cornelie Usborne, The Politics of the Body in Weimar Germany: Women's Reproductive Rights and Duties (Basingstoke, U.K.: Macmillan, 1992); and Atina Grossmann, Reforming Sex: The German Movement for Birth Control and Abortion Reform, 1920-1950 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1995).
285. Max Hodann, Bringt uns wirklich der Klapperstorch? Ein Lehrbuch für Kinder lesbar, 2d ed. (Rudolstadt: Greifenverlag, 1928), p. 13. On Hodann, see Wilfried Wolff, Max Hodann (1894-1946): Sozialist und Sexualreformer (Hamburg: von Bockel, 1993); and on the sexreform movement in which he was active, Cornelie Usborne, The Politics of the Body in Weimar Germany: Women's Reproductive Rights and Duties (Basingstoke, U.K.: Macmillan, 1992); and Atina Grossmann, Reforming Sex: The German Movement for Birth Control and Abortion Reform, 1920-1950 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1995).
286. Max Hodann, Bringt uns wirklich der Klapperstorch? Ein Lehrbuch für Kinder lesbar, 2d ed. (Rudolstadt: Greifenverlag, 1928), p. 13. On Hodann, see Wilfried Wolff, Max Hodann (1894-1946): Sozialist und Sexualreformer (Hamburg: von Bockel, 1993); and on the sexreform movement in which he was active, Cornelie Usborne, The Politics of the Body in Weimar Germany: Women's Reproductive Rights and Duties (Basingstoke, U.K.: Macmillan, 1992); and Atina Grossmann, Reforming Sex: The German Movement for Birth Control and Abortion Reform, 1920-1950 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1995).
287. On modeling embryos, see Hopwood, "'Giving Body'" (n. 20). For Liepmann's use of His's models, see Das Volksmuseum für Frauenkunde Berlin (Berlin: Deutsches Institut für Frauenkunde, [1929]), p. 33; Peter Schneck, "Zur Geschichte der sozialgynäkologischen Ideen, Projekte und Institutionen in Deutschland wāhrend des ersten Drittels des 20. Jahrhunderts" (Dr. sc. med. diss., Humboldt University Berlin, 1983), pp. 120-23; Monika von Oertzen, "Das Volksmuseum für Frauenkunde (1929-1933) in Berlin: Eine Position zur Abtreibungsfrage in der Weimarer Republik," in Staupe and Vieth, Unter anderen Umstānden (n. 7), pp. 51-57; and idem, "'Gesunde Mütter, gesundes Volk!': Das Volksmuseum für Frauenkunde - eine sozialgynākologische Einrichtung der Weimarer Zeit," Mitteilungen der Magnus-Hirschfeld-Gesellschaft, June 1993, 18: 41-52.
288. On modeling embryos, see Hopwood, "'Giving Body'" (n. 20). For Liepmann's use of His's models, see Das Volksmuseum für Frauenkunde Berlin (Berlin: Deutsches Institut für Frauenkunde, [1929]), p. 33; Peter Schneck, "Zur Geschichte der sozialgynäkologischen Ideen, Projekte und Institutionen in Deutschland wāhrend des ersten Drittels des 20. Jahrhunderts" (Dr. sc. med. diss., Humboldt University Berlin, 1983), pp. 120-23; Monika von Oertzen, "Das Volksmuseum für Frauenkunde (1929-1933) in Berlin: Eine Position zur Abtreibungsfrage in der Weimarer Republik," in Staupe and Vieth, Unter anderen Umstānden (n. 7), pp. 51-57; and idem, "'Gesunde Mütter, gesundes Volk!': Das Volksmuseum für Frauenkunde - eine sozialgynākologische Einrichtung der Weimarer Zeit," Mitteilungen der Magnus-Hirschfeld-Gesellschaft, June 1993, 18: 41-52.
289. On modeling embryos, see Hopwood, "'Giving Body'" (n. 20). For Liepmann's use of His's models, see Das Volksmuseum für Frauenkunde Berlin (Berlin: Deutsches Institut für Frauenkunde, [1929]), p. 33; Peter Schneck, "Zur Geschichte der sozialgynäkologischen Ideen, Projekte und Institutionen in Deutschland wāhrend des ersten Drittels des 20. Jahrhunderts" (Dr. sc. med. diss., Humboldt University Berlin, 1983), pp. 120-23; Monika von Oertzen, "Das Volksmuseum für Frauenkunde (1929-1933) in Berlin: Eine Position zur Abtreibungsfrage in der Weimarer Republik," in Staupe and Vieth, Unter anderen Umstānden (n. 7), pp. 51-57; and idem, "'Gesunde Mütter, gesundes Volk!': Das Volksmuseum für Frauenkunde - eine sozialgynākologische Einrichtung der Weimarer Zeit," Mitteilungen der Magnus-Hirschfeld-Gesellschaft, June 1993, 18: 41-52.
290. On modeling embryos, see Hopwood, "'Giving Body'" (n. 20). For Liepmann's use of His's models, see Das Volksmuseum für Frauenkunde Berlin (Berlin: Deutsches Institut für Frauenkunde, [1929]), p. 33; Peter Schneck, "Zur Geschichte der sozialgynäkologischen Ideen, Projekte und Institutionen in Deutschland wāhrend des ersten Drittels des 20. Jahrhunderts" (Dr. sc. med. diss., Humboldt University Berlin, 1983), pp. 120-23; Monika von Oertzen, "Das Volksmuseum für Frauenkunde (1929-1933) in Berlin: Eine Position zur Abtreibungsfrage in der Weimarer Republik," in Staupe and Vieth, Unter anderen Umstānden (n. 7), pp. 51-57; and idem, "'Gesunde Mütter, gesundes Volk!': Das Volksmuseum für Frauenkunde - eine sozialgynākologische Einrichtung der Weimarer Zeit," Mitteilungen der Magnus-Hirschfeld-Gesellschaft, June 1993, 18: 41-52.
291. On modeling embryos, see Hopwood, "'Giving Body'" (n. 20). For Liepmann's use of His's models, see Das Volksmuseum für Frauenkunde Berlin (Berlin: Deutsches Institut für Frauenkunde, [1929]), p. 33; Peter Schneck, "Zur Geschichte der sozialgynäkologischen Ideen, Projekte und Institutionen in Deutschland wāhrend des ersten Drittels des 20. Jahrhunderts" (Dr. sc. med. diss., Humboldt University Berlin, 1983), pp. 120-23; Monika von Oertzen, "Das Volksmuseum für Frauenkunde (1929-1933) in Berlin: Eine Position zur Abtreibungsfrage in der Weimarer Republik," in Staupe and Vieth, Unter anderen Umstānden (n. 7), pp. 51-57; and idem, "'Gesunde Mütter, gesundes Volk!': Das Volksmuseum für Frauenkunde - eine sozialgynākologische Einrichtung der Weimarer Zeit," Mitteilungen der Magnus-Hirschfeld-Gesellschaft, June 1993, 18: 41-52.