An examination of sexual orientation- and transgender-based hate crimes in the post-Matthew Shepard era

Psychology, Public Policy, and Law

Volumn 19, Issue 3, 2013, Pages 355-368

  Cramer, Robert J ^a   Kehn, Andre ^b   Pennington, Charlotte R ^a   Wechsler, Hayley J ^a   Clark, John W ^c   Nagle, Jacklyn ^d  

^a SAM HOUSTON STATE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^b UNIVERSITY OF NORTH DAKOTA   (United States)

^c UNIVERSITY OF TEXAS AT TYLER   (United States)

^d UNIVERSITY OF ALABAMA   (United States)

Author keywords

Gay; Hate crimes; Need for affect; Need for cognition; Transgender

Indexed keywords

EID: 84898664629     PISSN: 10768971     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1037/a0031404     Document Type: Article

References (80)

1. Adams, D. M. (2005). Punishing hate and achieving equality. Criminal Justice Ethics, 25, 19-30. doi:10.1080/0731129X.2005.9992177
2. Adams, D., Neal, T., Titcomb, C., & Griffin, M. (2010, March). Let emotions be the judge: Graphic evidence and need for affect in legal decision-making. Poster session presented at the annual meeting of the American Psychology-Law Society, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada. Apprendi v. New Jersey. No. 99-478. (2000).
3. Ballinger, G. A. (2004). Using Generalized Estimating Equations for longitudinal data analysis. Organizational Research Methods, 7, 127-150. doi:10.1177/1094428104263672
4. Bantley, K. A. (2008). Judicial activism and progressive legislation: A step towards decreasing hate attacks. Albany Law Review, 71, 545-564.
5. Berard, T. J. (2010). Hate crimes and their criminalization. Research in Social Problems and Public Policy, 17, 15-40. doi:10.1108/S0196-1152(2010)0000017004
6. Bessel, A. L. (2010). Preventing hate crimes without restricting constitutionally protected speech: Evaluating the impact of the Matthew Shepard and James Byrd, Jr. Hate Crimes Prevention Act on First Amendment free speech rights. Journal of Public Law & Policy, 31, 735-775.
7. Bornstein, B. H., & Wiener, R. L. (2010). Emotion and the law: Psychological Perspectives. New York, NY: Springer Science-Business Media.
8. Bright, D. A., & Goodman-Delahunty, J. (2006). Gruesome evidence and emotion: Anger, blame, and jury decision-making. Law and Human Behavior, 30, 183-202. doi:10.1007/s10979-006-9027-y
9. Brodsky, S. L. (2009). Principles and practice of trial consultation, New York, NY: Guilford Press.
10. Cacioppo, J. T., & Petty, R. E. (1982). The need for cognition. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 42, 116-131. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.42.1.116
11. Cacioppo, J. T., Petty, R. E., & Kao, C. F. (1984). The efficient assessment of need for cognition. Journal of Personality Assessment, 48, 306-307. doi:10.1207/s15327752jpa4803_13
12. Cacioppo, J. T., Petty, R. E., Kao, C. F., & Rodriguez, R. (1986). Central and peripheral routes to persuasion: An individual difference perspective. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 51, 1032-1043. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.51.5.1032
13. Cacioppo, J. T., Petty, R. E., & Morris, K. J. (1983). Effects of need for cognition on message evaluation, recall, and persuasion. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 45, 805-818. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.45.4.805
14. California Penal Code § 422.6 (1987).
15. Cheng, Z. (2004). Hate crimes, posttraumatic stress disorder and implications for counseling lesbians and gay men. Journal of Applied Rehabilitation Counseling, 35, 8-9. doi:10.1177/1077801209360861
16. Chockler, H., & Halpern, J. Y. (2004). Responsibility and blame: A structural model approach. Journal of Artificial Intelligence Research, 22, 93-115. doi:10.1613/jair.1391
17. Code of Alabama § 121-5-13.
18. Corwin, E. P., Cramer, R. J., Griffin, D. A., & Brodsky, S. L. (2012). Defendant remorse, need for affect, and juror sentencing decisions. The Journal of the American Academy of Psychiatry and the Law, 40, 41-49.
19. Cramer, R. J., Adams, D. D., & Brodsky, S. L. (2009). Jury selection in child sex abuse trials: A case analysis. Journal of Child Sexual Abuse, 18, 1-16.
20. Cramer, R. J., Chandler, J. F., & Wakeman, E. E. (2010). Blame attribution as a moderator of perceptions of sexual orientation-based hate crimes. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 25, 848-862. doi:10.1177/0886260509336962
21. Cramer, R. J., Wakeman, E. E., Chandler, J. F., Mohr, J. J., & Griffin, M. P. (in press). Hate crimes on trial: Judgments about violent crime against gay men. Psychiatry, Psychology, and Law.
22. Dunton, B. C., & Fazio, R. H. (1997). An individual difference measure of motivation to control prejudiced reactions. Personality and Social Psychology, 23, 316-326. doi:10.1177/0146167297233009
23. Epstein, S. (1990). Cognitive-experiential self-theory. In L. Pervin (Ed.) Handbook of personality theory and research (pp. 165-192). New York, NY: Guilford Press.
24. Federal Bureau of Investigation. (2009). 2008 hate crimes statistics: Incidents and offense. Retrieved from http://www.fbi.gov/ucr/hc2008/incidents.html
25. Federal Bureau of Investigation. (2011). Hate crimes statistics 2010. Retrieved from http://www.fbi.gov/about-us/cjis/ucr/hate-crime/2010
26. Fiegenson, N., & Park, J. (2006). Emotions and attributions of legal responsibility and blame: A research review. Law and Human Behavior, 30, 143-161. doi:10.1007/s10979-006-9026-z
27. Florida Statutes § 775.085 (2002).
28. Gerstenfeld, P. B. (2011). Hate crimes: Causes, controls, and controversies. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
29. Glaser, J. (2005). Intergroup bias and inequity: Legitimizing beliefs and policy attitudes. Social Justice Research, 18, 257-282. doi:10.1007/s11211-005-6825-1
30. Green, E. G. T., Staerkle, C., & Sears, D. O. (2006). Symbolic racism and whites' attitudes towards punitive and preventive crime policies. Law and Human Behavior, 30, 435-454.
31. Griffin, D. A., & Patty, E. (2010). Emotions in the courtroom: "Need for affect" in juror decision-making. The Jury Expert, 61-67.
32. Gunnell, J. J., & Ceci, S. J. (2010). When emotionality trumps reason: A study of individual processing style and juror bias. Behavioral Sciences & the Law, 28, 850-877. doi:10.1002/bsl.939
33. Haddock, G., Maio, G. R., Arnold, K., & Huskinson, T. (2008). Should persuasion be affective or cognitive? The moderating effects of need for affect and need for cognition. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin Online First, 1-10. doi:10.1177/0146167208314871
34. Haider-Markel, D. P. (2001). Implementing controversial policy: Results from a national survey of law enforcement department activity on hate crime. Justice Research and Policy, 3, 29-61. doi:10.3818/JRP.3.1.2001.29
35. Hanley, J. A., Negassa, A., Edwardes, M. D., & Forrester, J. E. (2003). Statistical analysis of correlated data using Generalized Estimating Equations: An orientation. American Journal of Epidemiology, 157, 364-375. doi:10.1093/aje/kwf215
36. Hate Crimes Prevention Act, Public Law Number 111-84 (2009).
37. Hate Crimes Sentencing Enhancement Act, 28 U.S. C. 994 (1994).
38. Hate Crime Statistics Act, 28 U.S. C. 534 (1990).
39. Herek, G. M. (1989). Hate crimes against lesbian and gay men: Issues for research and policy. American Psychologist, 44, 948-955.
40. Herek, G. M. (1993). Documenting prejudice against lesbians and gay men on campus: The Yale sexual orientation survey. Journal of Homosexuality, 25, 15-30.
41. Herek, G. M. (2007). Confronting sexual stigma and prejudice: Theory and practice. Journal of Social Issues, 63, 905-925. doi:10.1111/j.1540-4560.2007.00544.x
42. Herek, G. M. (2009). Hate crimes and stigma-related experiences among sexual minority adults in the United States. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 24, 54-74. doi:10.1177/0886260508316477
43. Human Rights Campaign. (2009). Matthew Shepard and James Byrd Jr., Hate Crimes Prevention Act. Retrieved from http://www.hrc.org/laws_and_elections/5660.htm
44. Jacobs, J. B., & Potter, K. (1998). Hate crimes: Criminal law and identity politics. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
45. Johnson, S. D., & Byers, B. D. (2003). Attitudes toward hate crime laws. Journal of Criminal Justice, 31, 227-235. doi:10.1016/S0047-2352(03)00004-7
46. Kerr, N. L. (2010). Explorations in juror emotion and juror judgment. In B. H. Bornstein & R. Weiner (Eds.), Emotion and the law: Psychological perspectives. New York, NY: Springer Publishing.
47. Kirkpatrick, L. A., & Epstein, S. (1992). Cognitive-Experiential Self-Theory and subjective probability: Further evidence of two conceptual systems. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 63, 534-544. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.63.4.534
48. Krauss, D. A., Lieberman, J. D., & Olson, J. (2004). The effects of rational and experiential information processing of expert testimony in death penalty cases. Behavioral Sciences and the Law, 22, 801-822. doi: 10.1002/bsl.621
49. Leadership Council on Civil Rights. (2009). Confronting the new faces of hate: Hate crimes in America. Retrieved from http://www.civilrights.org/publications/hatecrimes/lccref_hate_crimes_report.pdf
50. Legal Information Institution. (n.d.). Apprendi vs. New Jersey (99-478)
51. 530 U.S. 466 (2000). Retrieved from http://www.law.cornell.edu/supct/html/99-478.ZS.html
52. Leippe, M. R., Eisenstadt, D., Rauch, S. M., & Seib, H. M. (2004). Timing of eyewitness expert testimony, jurors' need for cognition, and case strength as determinants of trial verdicts. Journal of Applied Psychology, 89, 524-541. doi:10.1037/0021-9010.89.3.524
53. Lieberman, J. D., & Krauss, D. A. (2009). The Effects of labeling, expert testimony, and information processing mode on juror decisions in SVP civil commitment trials. Journal of Investigative Psychology and Offender Profiling, 6, 25-41. doi:10.1002/jip.91
54. Lieberman, J. D., Krauss, D. A., Kyger, M., & Lehoux, M. (2007). Determining dangerousness in sexually violent predator violations: Cognitiveexperiential self-theory and juror judgments of expert testimony. Behavioral Sciences & the Law, 25, 507-526. doi:10.1002/bsl.771
55. Lyons, C. J. (2006). Stigma or sympathy? Attributions of fault to hate crime victims and offenders. Social Psychology Quarterly, 69, 39-59. doi:10.1177/019027250606900104
56. Maio, G. R., & Esses, V. M. (2001). The need for affect: Individual differences in the motivation to approach or avoid emotions. Journal of Personality, 69, 583-615. doi:10.1111/1467-6494.694156
57. Mathew Shepard Foundation. (2010). Our story. Retrieved from http://www.matthewshepard.org/ourstory
58. McAuliff, B. D., & Kovera, M. B. (2008). Juror need for cognition and sensitivity to methodological flaws in expert evidence. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 38, 385-408. doi:10.1111/j.1559-1816.2007.00310.x
59. Michigan Compiled Laws § 750.147b (1931).
60. Nagoshi, J. L., Adams, K. A., Terrell, H. K., Hill, E. D., Brzuzy, S., & Nagoshi, C. T. (2008). Gender differences in correlates of homophobia and transphobia. Sex Roles, 59, 521-531.
61. National Coalition of Anti-Violence Programs. (2009). Hate violence against lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgendered people in the United States: 2008. Retrieved from http://ncavp.org/common/document_files/Reports/2008%20HV%20Report%20maller%20file.pdf
62. Perry, B., & Alvi, S. (2012). "We are all vulnerable": The in terrorem effects of hate crimes. International Review of Victimology, 18, 57-71. doi:10.1177/0269758011422475
63. Petty, R. E., Fleming, M. A., & White, P. H. (1999). Stigmatized sources and persuasion: Prejudice as a determinant of argument scrutiny. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 76, 19-34.
64. Plumm, K. M., & Terrance, C. A. (in press). Gender-bias hate crimes: What constitutes a hate crime from a potential juror's perspective? Journal of Applied Social Psychology.
65. Plumm, K. M., Terrance, C. A., Henderson, V. R., & Ellingson, H. (2010). Victim blame in a hate crime motivated by sexual orientation. Journal of Homosexuality, 57, 267-286. doi:10.1080/00918360903489101
66. Rayburn, N., & Davison, G. C. (2002). Articulated thoughts about antigay hate crimes. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 26, 431-447. doi: 10.1023/A:1016214632062
67. Rayburn, N., Mendoza, M., & Davison, G. C. (2003). Bystanders' perceptions of perpetrators and victims of hate crime: An investigation using the person perception paradigm. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 18, 1055-1074. doi:10.1177/0886260503254513
68. Salerno, J. M., & McCauley, M. R. (2009). Mock jurors' judgments about opposing scientific experts: Do cross-examination, deliberation and need for cognition matter? American Journal of Forensic Psychology, 27, 37-60.
69. Sargent, M. (2004). Less thought, more punishment: Need for cognition predicts support for punitive responses to crime. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 30, 1485-1493. doi:10.1177/0146167204264481
70. Saucier, D. A., Hockett, J. M., & Wallenberg, A. S. (2008). The impact of racial slurs and racism on the perceptions and punishment of violent crime. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 23, 685-701. doi:10.1177/0886260507313774
71. Saucier, D. A., Hockett, J. M., Zanotti, D. C., & Heffel, S. (2010). Effects of racism on perceptions and punishment of intra-and interracial crimes. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 25, 1767-1784. doi:10.1177/0886260509358386
72. Sears, D. O. (1988). Symbolic racism. In P. A. Katz & D. A. Taylor (Eds.), Eliminating racism: Profiles in controversy (pp. 53-84). New York, NY: Plenum Press.
73. Stacey, M. (2011). Distinctive characteristics of sexual orientation bias crimes. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 26, 3013-3032. doi:10.1177/0886260510390950
74. Sullaway, M. (2004). Psychological perspectives on hate crime laws. Psychology, Public Policy, and the Law, 10, 250-292.
75. Swim, J. K., Aikin, K. J., Hall, W. S., & Hunter, B. A. (1995). Sexism and racism: Old-fashioned and modern prejudices. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 68, 199-214.
76. Taylor, J. K. (2007). Transgender identities and public policy in the United States: The relevance for public administration. Administration & Society, 39, 833-856. doi:10.1177/0095399707305548
77. Texas Code of Criminal Procedure Article 42.014 (1993).
78. Violence against Women Act of 1994, Title IV of the Violent Crime Control and Law Enforcement Act, Public Law Number 103-322 (1994).
79. Wiener, R. L., Krauss, D. A., & Lieberman, J. D. (2011). Mock jury research: Where do we go from here? Behavioral Sciences and the Law, 29, 467-479.
80. Wiley, J. S. (1999). Not guilty by reason of blamelessness: Culpability in federal criminal interpretation. Virginia Law Review, 85, 1021-1162.