When courts and congress collide: The struggle for control of America's judicial system

When Courts and Congress Collide: The Struggle for Control of America's Judicial System

Volumn , Issue , 2008, Pages 1-332

  Geyh, Charles Gardner ^a  

^a NONE

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EID: 84898234517     PISSN: None     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book    
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References (564)

1. Joan Biskupic, Bork, Uncorked: The Judge Holds Supreme Court in Contempt, WASHINGTON POST, Mar. 16, 1997, at C01.
2. Vincent Bugliosi, None Dare Call It Treason, THE NATION, Feb. 5, 2001, available at http://www.thenation.com/doc.mhtml?i=20010205&s=bugliosi.
3. Ralph Z. Hallow, Republicans out to Impeach "Activist" Jurists, WASHINGTON TIMES, Mar. 12, 1997, at A1.
4. Sean Hannity & Alan Colmes, Hannity & Colmes (Fox News television broadcast, July 9, 2003).
5. Oregon Moves to Impeach Justices; Democrats Seek a Query Into High Court's Recount Ruling, WASHINGTON POST, July 24, 2001, at A07.
6. Stephan Dinan, DeLay Threatens to Curb Courts' Jurisdiction; Vents Ire Over Pledge of Allegiance, WASHINGTON TIMES, Mar. 6, 2003, at A04.
7. Megan Garvey, The Recall Campaign; 9th Circuit Fires Up Conservatives Again; the Ruling on the Recall Election May Provide More Ammunition for Republican Efforts in Congress to Split Up the Appeals Court, LOS ANGELES TIMES, Sept. 17, 2003, at A22.
8. Stephen Dinan, House Targets Judicial 'Errors' with a New Strategy; Votes to Stop Enforcement of Rulings on Pledge, Posting, WASHINGTON TIMES, July 29, 2003, at 1.
9. Todd Gillman, GOP Group Plans to Turn Up Scrutiny on Federal Judges, DALLAS MORNING NEWS, July 27, 2003.
10. Larry D. Kramer, The Supreme Court v. Balance of Powers, NEW YORK TIMES, Mar. 3, 2001, at A13.
11. LARRY D. KRAMER, THE PEOPLE THEMSELVES: POPULAR CONSTITUTIONALISM AND JUDICIAL REVIEW (2004).
12. Larry D. Kramer, The Arrogance of the Court, WASHINGTON POST, May 23, 2000, at A29.
13. Charles Gardner Geyh, The Elastic Nature of Judicial Independence and Judicial Accountability, in THE IMPROVEMENT OF THE ADMINISTRATION OF JUSTICE 167 (7th ed. 2001).
14. Terri Jennings Peretti, Does Judicial Independence Exist? The Lessons of Social Science Research, in JUDICIAL INDEPENDENCE AT THE CROSSROADS: AN INTERDISCIPLINARY APPROACH 103 (2002).
15. U. S. CONST. art. III, § 1.
16. Stephen Burbank, The Architecture of Judicial Independence, 72 S. CAL. L. REV. 315, 339 (1999).
17. William H. Rehnquist, Keynote Address, 46 AM. U. L. REV. 267, 274 (1996).
18. Calvin R. Massey, Rule of Law and the Age of Aquarius, 41 HASTINGS L. J. 757, 760 (1990)
19. L. Ralph Mecham, Introduction to Mercer Law Review Symposium on Federal Judicial Independence, 46 MERCER L. REV. 637, 638 (1995)
20. William C. Whitford, The Rule of Law, 2000 WIS. L. REV. 723, 728 (judicial independence is "widely seen as critically necessary to the effective implementation" of a rule of law);
21. Frances Kahn Zemans, The Accountable Judge: Guardian of Judicial Independence, 72 S. CAL. L. REV. 625, 631 (1999) ("an independent judiciary" is a "necessity" for the rule of law).
22. Public Hearing of the Commission on the Separation of Powers and Judicial Independence, American Bar Association 171-72, Dec. 13, 1996 (testimony of Prof. Daniel Meador), available at http://www.abanet.org/govaffairs/judiciary.
23. Charles Gardner Geyh & Emily Field Van Tassel, The Independence of the Judicial Branch in the New Republic, 74 CHI.-KENT L. REV. 31, 32-33 (1998).
24. John Ferejohn & Larry Kramer, Independent Judges, Dependant Judiciary: Institutionalizing Judicial Restraint, 77 N. Y. U. L. REV. 962 (2002).
25. Satoshi Kanazawa & Mary Still, The Emergence of Marriage Norms: An Evolutionary Psychological Perspective, in SOCIAL NORMS 274, 278 (Michael Hechter & Karl-Dieter Opp eds., 2001).
26. MICHAEL J. GERHARDT, THE FEDERAL APPOINTMENTS PROCESS: A CONSTITUTIONAL AND HISTORICAL ANALYSIS 255 (2000).
27. (H. L. A. HART, THE CONCEPT OF LAW 79-99 (2d ed. 1994)).
28. EDNA ULLMANN-MARGALIT, THE EMERGENCE OF NORMS 8 (1977).
29. Michael J. Glennon, The Use of Custom in Resolving Separation of Powers Disputes, 64 B. U. L. REV. 109, 128-33, 147 (1984).
30. James G. Wilson, American Constitutional Conventions: The Judicially Unenforceable Rules That Combine with Judicial Doctrine and Public Opinion to Regulate Political Behavior, 40 BUFF. L. REV. 645 (1992).
31. Charles Cameron in JUDICIAL INDEPENDENCE AT THE CROSSROADS, supra note 17, at 134.
32. Robert A. Katzmann. JUDGES AND LEGISLATORS: TOWARD INSTITUTIONAL COMITY (Robert A. Katzmann ed., 1989);
33. ROBERT A. KATZMANN, COURTS AND CONGRESS (1997).
34. JEFFREY SEGAL & HAROLD SPAETH, THE SUPREME COURT AND THE ATTITUDINAL MODEL (1993). Segal and Spaeth, in turn, credit the work of Glendon Schubert.
35. GLENDON SCHUBERT, THE JUDICIAL MIND: THE ATTITUDES AND IDEOLOGIES OF SUPREME COURT JUSTICES, 1946-1963 (1965).
36. Jeffrey A. Segal, Supreme Court Deference to Congress: An Examination of the Marksist Model, in SUPREME COURT DECISION-MAKING: NEW INSTITUTIONAL APPROACHES 234 (Cornell Clayton & Howard Gillman eds., 1999).
37. LEE EPSTEIN & JACK KNIGHT, THE CHOICES JUSTICES MAKE xiii (1998);
38. Lee Epstein, Jack Knight, & Andrew D. Martin, The Supreme Court as a Strategic National Policy Maker, 50 EMORY L. J. 583 (2001).
39. FORREST MALTZMAN, JAMES F. SPRIGGS II, & PAUL J. WAHLBECK, CRAFTING LAW ON THE SUPREME COURT: THE COLLEGIAL GAME (2000);
40. WALTER F. MURPHY, ELEMENTS OF JUDICIAL STRATEGY (1964).
41. Howard Gillman & Cornell Clayton, Beyond Judicial Attitudes: Institutional Approaches to Supreme Court Decision-Making, in SUPREME COURT DECISION-MAKING: NEW INSTITUTIONAL APPROACHES 6-7 (Cornell Clayton & Howard Gillman eds., 1999).
42. Rogers Smith, Political Jurisprudence, the "New Institutionalism", and the Future of Public Law, 82 AM. POL. SCI. REV. 89 (1988);
43. THE SUPREME COURT IN AMERICAN POLITICS: NEW INSTITUTIONALIST APPROACHES (Howard Gillman & Cornell Clayton eds., 1999);
44. Howard Gillman, The Court as an Idea, Not a Building (or a Game): Interpretive Institutionalism and the Analysis of Supreme Court Decision-Making, in SUPREME COURT DECISION-MAKING: NEW INSTITUTIONAL APPROACHES 6-7 (Cornell Clayton & Howard Gillman eds., 1999).
45. Howard Gillman & Cornell Clayton, Beyond Judicial Attitudes: Institutional Approaches to Supreme Court Decision-Making, in SUPREME COURT DECISION-MAKING: NEW INSTITUTIONAL APPROACHES 6-7 (Cornell Clayton & Howard Gillman eds., 1999).
46. Introduction to Symposium, Federal Judicial Independence, 46 MERCER L. REV. 637 (1995);
47. Symposium, Perspectives on Judicial Independence 64 OHIO ST. L. J. (2003);
48. Symposium, Independence of the Judiciary 38 U. RICH. L. REV. 565 (2003);
49. Symposium, Judicial Independence, 25 HOFSTRA L. REV. 703 (1997);
50. Symposium, Judicial Independence, 29 FORDHAM URB. L. J. 791 (2002);
51. Symposium, Judicial Independence 14 GA. ST. U. L. REV. 737 (1998);
52. Symposium, Judicial Independence and Accountability, 72 S. CAL. L. REV. 311 (1999).
53. MICHAEL GERHARDT, THE IMPEACHMENT PROCESS: A CONSTITUTIONAL AND HISTORICAL ANALYSIS (2d ed. 2000);
54. MICHAEL GERHARDT, THE APPOINTMENTS PROCESS: A CONSTITUTIONAL AND HISTORICAL ANALYSIS (2003);
55. BRUCE ACKERMAN, WE THE PEOPLE (1991).
56. Michael J. Gerhardt, Rediscovering Nonjusticiability: Judicial Review of Impeachments after Nixon, 44 DUKE L. J. 231 (1994) (defending nonreviewability of impeachment decisions as political questions);
57. Mark Tushnet, Principles, Politics, and Constitutional Law, 88 MICH. L. REV. 49 (1989) (arguing that appointments are best characterized as giving rise to political questions).
58. Public Hearing of the Commission on the Separation of Powers and Judicial Independence, American Bar Association 6-7, Feb. 21, 1997 (testimony of acting professor of law John Yoo), available at http://www.abanet.org/govaffairs/ judiciary.
59. Willy v. Coastal Corp., 503 U. S. 131, 137 (1992)
60. Peter M. Shane, Who May Discipline or Remove Federal Judges? A Constitutional Analysis, 142 U. PA. L. REV. 209, 216 (1993).
61. RICHARD E. ELLIS, THE JEFFERSONIAN CRISIS: COURTS AND POLITICS IN THE YOUNG REPUBLIC 6 (1971);
62. Joseph H. Smith, An Independent Judiciary: The Colonial Background, 124 U. PA. L. REV. 1104, 1112-13 (1976).
63. EDWARD DUMBAULD, THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE AND WHAT IT MEANS TODAY 115 (1950).
64. THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE para. 11 (U. S. 1776).
65. DUMBAULD, supra note 3, at 108-12.
66. THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE para. 10.
67. JOHN ADAMS, THOUGHTS ON GOVERNMENT (1776)
68. 4 THE WORKS OF JOHN ADAMS, SECOND PRESIDENT OF THE UNITED STATES 189, 198 (Charles Francis Adams ed., Charles C. Little & James Brown 1851).
69. GORDON S. WOOD, THE CREATION OF THE AMERICAN REPUBLIC, 1776-1787, at 161 (1969).
70. WOOD, supra note 9, at 161.
71. JULIUS GOEBEL, JR., 1 HISTORY OF THE SUPREME COURT OF THE UNITED STATES: ANTECEDENTS AND BEGINNINGS TO 1801, at 97 (1971).
72. 4 THE FOUNDERS' CONSTITUTION 139, 139 (Philip B. Kurland & Ralph Lerner eds., 1987).
73. GOEBEL, supra note 12, at 129 n. 120.
74. 3 THE DEBATES IN THE SEVERAL STATE CONVENTIONS ON THE ADOPTION OF THE FEDERAL CONSTITUTION 313, 325 (Jonathan Elliot ed., J. B. Lippincott & Co. 1863)
75. 5 U. S. (1 Cranch) 137 (1803).
76. Ninth Virginia Resolution, in WILLIAM M. MEIGS, THE GROWTH OF THE CONSTITUTION IN THE FEDERAL CONVENTION OF 1787, at 234-35 (1900).
77. James Madison, Notes (Aug. 27, 1787), in 2 THE RECORDS OF THE FEDERAL CONVENTION OF 1787, at 426, 428 (Max Farrand ed., 1911) [hereinafter FARRAND].
78. WOOD, supra note 9, at 160-61.
79. 2 FARRAND, supra note 29, at 428.
80. U. S. CONST. art. III, § 1.
81. Willy v. Coastal Corp., 503 U. S. 131, 136 (1992).
82. Ninth Virginia Resolution, supra note 28, at 234-35.
83. 1 FARRAND, supra note 29, at 96, 104-5.
84. GOEBEL, supra note 12, at 206.
85. Martin H. Redish, Federal Judicial Independence: Constitutional and Political Perspectives, 46 MERCER L. REV. 697, 703 (1995).
86. 2 FARRAND, supra note 29, at 344
87. James Madison, Notes (July 20, 1787), in id. at 66-67.
88. James Madison, Notes (Aug. 20, 1787), in id. at 344.
89. James Madison, Notes (July 20, 1787), in id. at 64.
90. James Madison, Notes (July 20, 1787), in id. at 67.
91. James Madison, Notes (July 20, 1787), in id. at 69.
92. James Madison, Notes (June 1, 1787), in 1 id. at 69.
93. James Madison, Notes (Sept. 8, 1787), in id. at 547, 550.
94. MICHAEL GERHARDT, THE FEDERAL IMPEACHMENT PROCESS: A CONSTITUTIONAL AND HISTORICAL ANALYSIS 10 (2d ed. 2000).
95. THE FEDERALIST NO. 78, at 469 (Alexander Hamilton) (Clinton Rossiter ed., 1961).
96. THE FEDERALIST NO. 79, at 472 (Alexander Hamilton) (Clinton Rossiter ed., 1961).
97. BRUTUS, THE POWER OF THE JUDICIARY (pt. 1) (Mar. 20, 1788)
98. THE ANTIFEDERALIST PAPERS 222, 223 (Morton Borden ed., 1965)
99. THE FEDERAL FARMER, LETTER XV (Jan. 18, 1788)
100. LETTERS FROM THE FEDERAL FARMER TO THE REPUBLICAN 97, 99 (Walter Hartwell Bennett ed., 1978)
101. BRUTUS, supra note 73, at 223-24.
102. THE FEDERALIST NO. 78, supra note 71, at 466.
103. A NATIVE OF VIRGINIA, OBSERVATIONS UPON THE PROPOSED PLAN OF FEDERAL GOVERNMENT (May 17, 1788)
104. 9 THE DOCUMENTARY HISTORY OF THE RATIFICATION OF THE CONSTITUTION 655, 686-87 (John P. Kaminski & Gaspare J. Saladino eds., 1990)
105. THE FEDERAL FARMER, supra note 73, at 99. The Federal Farmer elaborated
106. JAMES MONROE, SOME OBSERVATIONS ON THE CONSTITUTION (ca. May 25, 1788)
107. 9 THE DOCUMENTARY HISTORY OF THE RATIFICATION OF THE CONSTITUTION, supra note 81, at 844, 872.
108. WILLIAM H. REHNQUIST, 1996 YEAR-END REPORT ON THE FEDERAL JUDICIARY 1 (Jan. 1, 1997), available at http://www.uscourts.gov/cj96.htm
109. 4 THE DOCUMENTARY HISTORY OF THE SUPREME COURT OF THE UNITED STATES, 1789-1800, at 364, 364 (Maeva Marcus ed., 1992) [hereinafter DOCUMENTARY HISTORY OF THE SUPREME COURT].
110. 11 DOCUMENTARY HISTORY OF THE FIRST FEDERAL CONGRESS OF THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA, MARCH 4, 1789-MARCH 3, 1791, at 1348, 1348 (Charlene Bangs Bickford et al. eds., 1992) [hereinafter DOCUMENTARY HISTORY OF THE FIRST CONGRESS];
111. Michael G. Collins, Article III Cases, State Court Duties, and the Madisonian Compromise, 1995 WIS. L. REV. 39, 43.
112. 11 DOCUMENTARY HISTORY OF THE FIRST CONGRESS, supra note 87, at 1380, 1385
113. BRUTUS, THE POWER OF THE JUDICIARY (pt. 4) (Mar. 6, 1788)
114. THE ANTIFEDERALIST PAPERS, supra note 73, at 236, 237
115. THE FEDERAL FARMER, LETTER III (Oct. 10, 1787)
116. LETTERS FROM THE FEDERAL FARMER TO THE REPUBLICAN, supra note 73, at 13, 23
117. Letter from Edmund Pendleton to James Madison (July 3, 1789)
118. 4 DOCUMENTARY HISTORY OF THE SUPREME COURT, supra note 86, at 444
119. GOEBEL, supra note 12, at 473
120. Letter from David Sewall to George Thatcher (Apr. 11, 1789)
121. 4 DOCUMENTARY HISTORY OF THE SUPREME COURT, supra note 86, at 374, 374.
122. Letter from Nathaniel Peaslea Sargeant to John Adams (Apr. 25, 1789)
123. GOEBEL, supra note 12, at 472.
124. SIR MATTHEW HALE, THE HISTORY OF THE COMMON LAW OF ENGLAND 162 (Charles M. Gray ed., University of Chicago Press photo. reprint 1971) (3d ed. 1739).
125. WILFRED J. RITZ, REWRITING THE HISTORY OF THE JUDICIARY ACT OF 1789, at 3 (1990)
126. Letter from Fisher Ames to William Tudor (July 12, 1789)
127. 4 DOCUMENTARY HISTORY OF THE SUPREME COURT, supra note 86, at 461, 461.
128. Letter from Edward Shippen to Robert Morris (July 13, 1789)
129. Letter from Robert Livingston to Oliver Ellsworth (June 24, Z 1789)
130. Letter from Edmund Pendleton to James Madison (July 3, 1789)
131. Letter from James Madison to Samuel Johnson (July 31, 1789)
132. Letter from Thomas FitzSimons to Benjamin Rush (June 2, 1789)
133. Letter from Edmund Randolph to James Madison (June 30, 1789)
134. Letter from William Giles to Thomas Jefferson, Mar. 16, 1801
135. DICE ROBINS ANDERSON, WILLIAM B. GILES: A STUDY IN THE POLITICS OF VIRGINIA AND THE NATION FROM 1790 to 1830, at 77 (1914).
136. 5 U. S. (1 Cranch) 137 (1803).
137. MARY VOLCANSEK & JACQUELINE LUCIENNE LAFON, JUDICIAL SELECTION: THE CROSS-EVOLUTION OF FRENCH AND AMERICAN PRACTICES 90 (1988).
138. Barry Friedman, The History of the Countermajoritarian Difficulty (pt. 1), 73 N. Y. U. L. REV. 333, 396 (1998).
139. 17 ANNALS OF CONG. 114 (1808) (statement of William Giles).
140. FELIX FRANKFURTER & JAMES M. LANDIS, THE BUSINESS OF THE SUPREME COURT 32 (1927).
141. Charles Gardner Geyh & Emily Field Van Tassel, The Independence of the Judicial Branch in the New Republic, 74 CHI.-KENT L. REV. 31, 57-58 (1998).
142. ERWIN C. SURRENCY, HISTORY OF THE FEDERAL COURTS 36 (1987).
143. 40 ANNALS OF CONG. 1173 (1823).
144. 2 REG. DEB. 502 (1826).
145. 6 REG. DEB. 571 (1830).
146. 2 REG. DEB. 916-17 (1826).
147. (2 REG. DEB. 487 (1826)).
148. EDWIN SURRENCY, HISTORY OF THE FEDERAL COURTS 24 (1987)
149. 2 REG. DEB. 414 (1826).
150. 6 REG. DEB. 543 (1830). Senator Woodbury made a similar point four years earlier
151. (2 REG. DEB. 465 (1826)).
152. 2 REG. DEB. 497-98 (1826).
153. Paul Finkelman, The Dred Scott Case, Slavery, and the Politics of Law, 20 HAMLINE L. REV. 1, 9-10 (1996).
154. Scott v. Sandford, 60 U. S. 393, 406, 450-51 (1856).
155. N. Y. DAILY TRIB., Mar. 10, 1857, at 6.
156. N. Y. DAILY TRIB., Mar. 7, 1857, at 4.
157. CONG. GLOBE, 39th Cong., 2d Sess. 501-2 (1867).
158. David P. Currie, The Constitution in the Supreme Court: Civil War and Reconstruction, 1865-73, 51 U. CHI. L. REV. 131, 144 (1984).
159. William W. Van Alstyne, A Critical Guide to Ex parte McCardle, 15 ARIZ. L. REV. 229 (1973).
160. Ex parte McCardle, 74 U. S. (7 Wall.) 506 (1868).
161. ERWIN CHEMERINSKY, FEDERAL JURISDICTION 181 (3d ed. 1999) (summarizing the arguments in favor of jurisdiction stripping).
162. Barry Friedman, The History of the Countermajoritarian Difficulty (pt. 2), 91 GEO. L. J. 1 (2002).
163. CHEMERINSKY, supra note 49, at 177.
164. CHARLES FAIRMAN, HISTORY OF THE SUPREME COURT OF THE UNITED STATES: RECONSTRUCTION AND REUNION, 1864-88 (pt. 1), at 167-68 (Paul A. Freund ed., 1971).
165. CONG. GLOBE, 39th Cong., 1st Sess. 3698 (1866).
166. James H. Chadbourn & A. Leo Levin, Original Jurisdiction of Federal Questions, 90 U. PA. L. REV. 639, 642-43 (1942) (characterizing the 1875 act as "sneak" legislation).
167. 2 CHARLES WARREN, THE SUPREME COURT IN UNITED STATES HISTORY 423 n. 1 (1937).
168. CONG. GLOBE, 41st Cong., 1st Sess. 208 (1869).
169. PETER G. FISH, THE POLITICS OF FEDERAL JUDICIAL ADMINISTRATION 18 (1973).
170. WILLIAM S. CARPENTER, JUDICIAL TENURE IN THE UNITED STATES 81 (1918).
171. George Dix, Death of the Commerce Court: A Study in Institutional Weakness, 8 AM. J. LEGAL HIST. 238, 251-52 (1964).
172. 50 CONG. REC. 4206 (1913) (statement of Representative Murdock quoting President Taft).
173. Stephen O. Kline, Revisiting FDR's Court-Packing Plan: Are the Current Attacks on Judicial Independence So Bad? 30 MCGEORGE L. REV. 863 (1999).
174. WILLIAM G. ROSS, A MUTED FURY: POPULISTS, PROGRESSIVES, AND LABOR UNIONS CONFRONT THE COURTS, 1890-1937 (1994).
175. 50 CONG. REC. 4541 (1913).
176. 50 CONG. REC. 4208 (1913).
177. 25 I. C. C. 59 (1911).
178. 50 CONG. REC. 4540 (1913).
179. EDWIN WITTE, THE GOVERNMENT IN LABOR DISPUTES 84 (1932).
180. 38 Stat 731 (1914).
181. Duplex Printing Press Co. v. Deering, 254 U. S. 443, 470 (1921).
182. Reorganization of the Fed. Judiciary: Hearings on S. 1392 before the Senate Comm. on the Judiciary, 75th Cong. 760, 763 (1937).
183. John A. Ferejohn & Larry D. Kramer, Independent Judges, Dependent Judiciary: Institutionalizing Judicial Restraint, 77 N. Y. U. L. REV. 962, 981 (2002).
184. DEBORAH J. BARROW, GARY ZUK, & GERARD S. GRYSKI, THE FEDERAL JUDICIARY AND INSTITUTIONAL CHANGE (1996).
185. John M. De Figueiredo & Emerson H. Tiller, Congressional Control of the Courts: A Theoretical and Empirical Analysis of Expansion of the Federal Judiciary, 39 J. L. & ECON. 435, 459-60 (1996).
186. Ann Pelham, Circuit Conference: At Work and Play, LEGAL TIMES, May 28, 1990, at 7.
187. 13 CONG. REC. 3464 (1882).
188. 13 CONG. REC. 3504 (1882).
189. 21 CONG. REC. 10, 224 (1890).
190. 13 CONG. REC. 3546 (1882).
191. 13 CONG. REC. 3605 (1882).
192. 21 CONG. REC. 10, 305 (1890).
193. 13 CONG. REC. 3788 (1882).
194. 21 CONG. REC. 10, 231 (1890).
195. M. A. MUSMANNO, PROPOSED AMENDMENTS TO THE CONSTITUTION 82 (1929).
196. 13 CONG. REC. 3830 (1882).
197. 96 U. S. 369 (1877).
198. James Chadbourn & A. Leo Levin, Original Jurisdiction of Federal Questions, 90 U. PA. L. REV. 639, 642-43 (1942)
199. 10 CONG. REC. 850 (1880).
200. 13 CONG. REC. 3546 (1882).
201. 21 CONG. REC. 3404 (1890).
202. JURISDICTION OF THE COURTS OF THE UNITED STATES, H. R. REP. NO. 50-942, at 3-4 (1888).
203. 21 CONG. REC. 3403-4 (1890).
204. Roscoe Pound, The Causes of Popular Dissatisfaction with the Administration of Justice (1906), reprinted in 46 J. AM. JUDICATURE SOC'Y 55, 55 (Aug. 1962).
205. 62 CONG. REC. 200 (1921).
206. 62 CONG. REC. 4863 (1922).
207. Additional Judges, United States Dist. Courts: Hearings on S. 2432, S. 2433, and S. 2523 before the Senate Comm. on the Judiciary, 67th Cong. 14 (1921).
208. 62 CONG. REC. 4863 (1922).
209. Additional Judges, United States Dist. Courts: Hearings on S. 2432, S. 2433, and S. 2523 before the Senate Comm. on the Judiciary, 67th Cong. 14 (1921).
210. 62 CONG. REC. 4853 (1922).
211. S. REP. NO. 70-440, pt. 2, at 9 (1928) (minority views).
212. Stephen Yeazell, The Misunderstood Consequences of Modern Civil Process, 1994 WIS. L. REV. 631.
213. Admin. Office of the United States Courts: Hearings on S. 3212 before the Senate Comm. on the Judiciary, 75th Cong., 3d Sess. 8 (1938).
214. 84 CONG. REC. 9807 (1939).
215. Admin. Office of the United States Courts: Hearings on S. 3212, supra n. 214, at 11.
216. 84 CONG. REC. 9310 (1939).
217. BERNARD SCHWARTZ, SUPER CHIEF 280 (1983).
218. 116 CONG. REC. 11, 913 (1970)
219. EMILY FIELD VAN TASSEL & PAUL FINKELMAN, IMPEACHABLE OFFENSES 91-96 (1999).
220. Paul Brest, Congress as Constitutional Decisionmaker and Its Power to Counter Judicial Doctrine, 21 GA. L. REV. 57, 79 (1986).
221. CLIFFORD LYTLE, THE WARREN COURT AND ITS CRITICS 2 4 (1961).
222. 28 U. S. C. §§ 620, 623 (2000);
223. Russel Wheeler, Empirical Research and the Politics of Judicial Administration: Creating the Federal Judicial Center, 51 LAW & CONTEMP. PROBS. 31, 41-43 (1988).
224. 28 U. S. C. § 372 (2000 & Supp. 2002).
225. Irving R. Kaufman, The Essence of Judicial Independence, 80 COLUM. L. REV. 671, 699-700 (1980).
226. Stephen Burbank, Procedural Rulemaking under the Judicial Councils Reform and Judicial Conduct and Disability Act of 1980, 131 U. PA. L. REV. 283 (1982).
227. THE NATIONAL COMMISSION REPORT ON JUDICIAL DISCIPLINE AND REMOVAL 14 (1993)
228. JACK HARRISON POLLACK, EARL WARREN: THE JUDGE WHO CHANGED AMERICA 289 (1979)
229. MICHAEL GERHARDT, THE FEDERAL IMPEACHMENT PROCESS: A CONSTITUTIONAL AND HISTORICAL ANALYSIS 109-10 (2d ed. 2000).
230. ASHER C. HINDS, HINDS' PRECEDENTS OF THE HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES (1907);
231. CLARENCE CANNON, CANNON'S PRECEDENTS OF THE HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES (1935);
232. LEWIS DESCHLER, DESCHLER'S PRECEDENTS OF THE HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES (1979).
233. EMILY FIELD VAN TASSEL & PAUL FINKELMAN, IMPEACHABLE OFFENSES: A DOCUMENTARY HISTORY FROM 1787 TO THE PRESENT 93-95 (1999)
234. ELEANORE BUSHNELL, CRIMES, FOLLIES, AND MISFORTUNES: THE FEDERAL IMPEACHMENT TRIALS 59 (1992).
235. Letter from Roger Griswold to John Rutledge (Dec. 14, 1801)
236. RICHARD E. ELLIS, THE JEFFERSONIAN CRISIS: COURTS AND POLITICS IN THE YOUNG REPUBLIC 43 (1971).
237. ANNALS OF CONG., 7th Cong., 2d Sess. 460 (1803).
238. Lynn Turner, The Impeachment of John Pickering, 54 AM. HIST. REV. 485, 489 (1949).
239. BUSHNELL, supra note 5, at 45.
240. ANNALS OF CONG., 7th Cong., 2d Sess. 642 (1803).
241. S5360, U. S. President, Message from the President of the United States, Enclosing Sundry Documents, Relative to John Pickering (Feb. 18, 1803).
242. ANNALS OF CONG., 8th Cong., 1st Sess. 341 (1804).
243. 2 Stat. 97 (1801).
244. ANNALS OF CONG., 8th Cong., 1st Sess. 342 (1804).
245. ANNALS OF CONG., supra note 18, at 328-29.
246. VAN TASSEL & FINKELMAN, supra note 4, at 92.
247. 3 ALBERT BEVERIDGE, THE LIFE OF JOHN MARSHALL 160 (1919).
248. GEORGE LEE HASKINS, FOUNDATIONS OF POWER: JOHN MARSHALL, 1801-1805, at 91 (1981).
249. 4 DUMAS MALONE, JEFFERSON THE PRESIDENT: FIRST TERM, 1801-1805, at 465 (1970).
250. 1 CHARLES WARREN, THE SUPREME COURT IN UNITED STATES HISTORY 156 (1923).
251. WILLIAM H. REHNQUIST, GRAND INQUESTS 60-61 (1992).
252. ANNALS OF CONG., 8th Cong., 1st Sess. 806 (1804).
253. HINDS, supra note 2, at § 2342.
254. ANNALS OF CONG., 8th Cong., 1st Sess. 1171 (1804).
255. ANNALS OF CONG., 8th Cong., 1st Sess. 680, 728 (1804).
256. Letter from John Marshall to Samuel Chase (Jan. 23, 1805)
257. JOHN MARSHALL, 6 THE PAPERS OF JOHN MARSHALL 347 (1990).
258. 2 TRIAL OF SAMUEL CHASE 9 (1805) (statement of Mr. Hopkinson).
259. 1 TRIAL OF SAMUEL CHASE at 102 (statement of Justice Chase).
260. BUSHNELL, supra note 5, at 53
261. WARREN, supra note 29, at 273
262. BUSHNELL, supra note 5, at 85.
263. 2 TRIAL OF SAMUEL CHASE 18-19 (1805).
264. REHNQUIST, supra note 32, at 134.
265. BUSHNELL, supra note 5, at 92-96.
266. BUSHNELL, supra note 5, at 98.
267. ARTHUR STANSBURY, REPORT OF THE TRIAL OF JAMES H. PECK 290 (1833).
268. 39 CONG. REC. 219 (1904) (statement of Henry Palmer).
269. 39 CONG. REC. 245 (1904) (statement of Congressman Charles Littlefield).
270. PROCEEDINGS IN THE SENATE OF THE UNITED STATES IN THE MATTER OF THE IMPEACHMENT OF CHARLES SWAYNE 394 (1905).
271. H. R. MISC. DOC. No. 12-300 (1811).
272. CONG. GLOBE, 35th Cong., 2d Sess. 60 (1858) (statement of Mr. Taylor).
273. 77 CONG. REC. 2417 (1933).
274. 78 CONG. REC. 7061 (1934).
275. David Kendell, John Field Simms Memorial Lecture Series: Constitutional Vandalism, 30 N. M. L. REV. 155, 167-69 (article by President Clinton's lawyer, opposing the use of a probable cause standard);
276. Jonathan Turley, Congress as Grand Jury: The Role of the House of Representatives in the Impeachment of an American President, 67 GEO. WASH. L. REV. 735-90 (article by an outspoken supporter of Clinton impeachment, favoring the use of a probable cause standard).
277. STANSBURY, supra note 69, at 476.
278. CONG. GLOBE, 35th Cong., 2d Sess. 37 (1858).
279. CONG. GLOBE, 35th Cong., 2d Sess. 85 (1858).
280. Conduct of Emory Speer: Hearings before a Subcommittee of the House Committee on the Judiciary, 63rd Cong. 11 (1914).
281. CONG. GLOBE, 35th Cong., 2d Sess. 66 (1858) (statement of Mr. Taylor).
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284. Letter from Peter Rodino to Charles Hatcher (Oct. 14, 1986) (on file with author).
285. Pub. L. No. 96-458, 94 Stat. 2035 (1980).
286. VAN TASSEL & FINKELMAN, supra note 4, at 115.
287. Official Conduct of Judge Ferdinand A. Geiger: Hearing before the House Committee on the Judiciary, 75th Cong. 138, 140 (1938).
288. Emily Field Van Tassel, Resignations and Removals: A History of Federal Judicial Service- and Disservice-1789-1992, 142 U. PA. L. REV. 333 (1993).
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290. 116 CONG. REC. 11, 913 (1970)
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293. 1 THE RECORDS OF THE FEDERAL CONVENTION OF 1787, at 119 (Max Farrand ed., 1911) [hereinafter Farrand].
294. THE FEDERALIST No. 38 (James Madison), available at http://www.yale.edu/ lawweb/avalon/federal/fed38.htm.
295. THE ANTIFEDERALIST Nos. 76-77 (Richard Henry Lee), available at http://www.wepin.com/articles/afp/afp76-77.html.
296. THE FEDERALIST No. 76 (Alexander Hamilton), available at http://www.yale.edu/lawweb/avalon/federal/fed33.htm.
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300. HENRY ABRAHAM, JUSTICES AND PRESIDENTS: A POLITICAL HISTORY OF APPOINTMENTS TO THE SUPREME COURT (3d ed. 1992).
301. Letter from Timothy Pickering to George Washington (July 31, 1795)
302. in 1 THE DOCUMENTARY HISTORY OF THE SUPREME COURT OF THE UNITED STATES, 1789-1800, at 774 (Maeva Marcus & James R. Perry eds., 1985).
303. Letter from Edmund Randolph to George Washington (July 29, 1795), in id. at 773.
304. Letter from Thomas Jefferson to William Giles (Dec. 31, 1795), in id. at 821.
305. Letter from John Adams to Abigail Adams (Dec. 16, 1795), in id. at 812.
306. EXECUTIVE JOURNAL-SENATE, Feb. 4, 1811, at 165.
307. CONNECTICUT COURANT, Feb. 13, 1811 (emphasis in original).
308. COLUMBIAN CENTINEL, Feb. 20, 1811.
309. NEW ENGLAND PALLADIUM, Feb. 19, 1811.
310. CHARLES WARREN, THE SUPREME COURT IN UNITED STATES HISTORY 798-99 (Fred B. Rothman & Co. 1987) (1926).
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313. 4 THE PAPERS OF DANIEL WEBSTER, CORRESPONDENCE 100 (Charles M. Wiltse & Harold D. Moser eds., 1980).
314. HARPER'S WEEKLY, Jan. 1, 1870, at 3
315. N. Y. TIMES, Jan. 8, 1870, at 1
316. THE NATION, Feb. 10, 1870, at 81.
317. Letter from Former Senator Edwin D. Morgan to Ulysses S. Grant (Dec. 23, 1869)
318. in 20 THE PAPERS OF ULYSSES S. GRANT 54 (John Y. Simon ed., 1995).
319. 1 GEORGE F. HOAR, AUTOBIOGRAPHY OF SEVENTY YEARS 306 (1903).
320. MOORFIELD STOREY & EDWARD W. EMERSON, EBENEZER ROCKWOOD HOAR 197 (1911).
321. Letter from John Marshall to Henry Clay (Nov. 28, 1828)
322. in 7 THE PAPERS OF HENRY CLAY 550 (Robert Seager II ed., 1982).
323. United States Telegraph, Jan. 22, 1829.
324. Letter from Henry Clay to John J. Crittenden (Jan. 6, 1829)
325. 3 JOURNAL OF THE EXECUTIVE PROCEEDINGS OF THE SENATE OF THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA 637 (Jan. 29, 1829) (Senator Chambers).
326. 3 JOURNAL OF THE EXECUTIVE PROCEEDINGS OF THE SENATE OF THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA 644 (1829).
327. Joseph P. Harris, THE ADVICE AND CONSENT OF THE SENATE: A STUDY OF THE CONFIRMATION OF APPOINTMENTS BY THE UNITED STATES SENATE 66-67 (1953);
328. Letter from Henry Clay to John Crittenden (Jan. 24, 1844)
329. Letter from Thurlow Weed to John J. Crittenden (Mar. 17, 1844)
330. Letter from Robert Tyler to John Calhoun (Nov. 8, 1844)
331. in 19 THE PAPERS OF JOHN C. CALHOUN 12 (Clyde N. Wilson ed., 1990)
332. Letter from James Buchanan to Governor Shunk (Dec. 18, 1844)
333. in 6 THE WORKS OF JAMES BUCHANAN 77 (John Bassett Moore, ed. 1909)
334. N. Y. DAILY TIMES, Feb. 16, 1853, at 4.
335. SHELBY CULLOM, FIFTY YEARS OF PUBLIC SERVICE 153 (1911).
336. Philip B. Kurland, The Appointment and Disappointment of Supreme Court Justices, 1972 ARIZ. ST. L. J. 183, 208.
337. N. Y. TRIBUNE, Jan. 29, 1861, at 5.
338. N. Y. TIMES, Apr. 17, 1866, at 1.
339. Letter from Francis Wharton to John C. Calhoun (Dec. 24, 1845)
340. Letter from Benjamin Brewster to John C. Calhoun (Jan. 14, 1846), in id. at 441-42.
341. THE DIARY OF JAMES K. POLK 185 (Jan. 22, 1846) (Milo Milton Quaife ed., 1910).
342. Letter from James Buchanan to Louis McLane (Feb. 26, 1846)
343. MICHAEL J. GERHARDT, THE FEDERAL APPOINTMENTS PROCESS: A CONSTITUTIONAL AND HISTORICAL ANALYSIS 145-46 (2003)
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345. 28 AMER. L. REV. 274 (1894)
346. N. Y. TIMES, Jan. 14, 1894, at 1.
347. 2 GEORGE F. HOAR, AUTOBIOGRAPHY OF SEVENTY YEARS 172 (1903).
348. HERBERT J. BASS, "I AM A DEMOCRAT": THE POLITICAL CAREER OF DAVID BENNETT HILL 241 (1961).
349. 1 GEORGE S. BOUTWELL, REMINISCENCES OF SIXTY YEARS IN PUBLIC AFFAIRS 122 (1902).
350. N. Y. TIMES, Jan. 14, 1874, at 1.
351. N. Y. TIMES, Jan. 11, 1874, at 1.
352. N. Y. HERALD, Jan. 13, 1874, at 3
353. Letter from Charles Sumner to Francis W. Bird (Jan. 15, 1874)
354. in 2 THE SELECTED LETTERS OF CHARLES SUMNER 627 (Beverly Wilson Palmer ed., 1990)
355. Harold Helfman, The Contested Confirmation of Stanley Matthews to the United States Supreme Court, 8 BULL. OF THE HIST. & PHIL. SOC'Y OF OHIO 155, 160-61 (1950).
356. 72 CONG. REC. 7950 (1930).
357. Hearings before the Subcommittee of the Committee of the Judiciary, U. S. Senate, on the Confirmation of John J. Parker to Be an Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States, 71st Cong., 2d Sess. 75 (1930).
358. 72 CONG. REC. 8192 (1930).
359. ROBERT KATZMANN, COURTS AND CONGRESS 19-24 (1997).
360. CRS Report RL31948, Evolution of the Senate's Role in the Nomination and Confirmation Process: A Brief History, by Betsy Palmer 10 (June 5, 2003).
361. SHELDON GOLDMAN, PICKING FEDERAL JUDGES: LOWER COURT SELECTION FROM ROOSEVELT THROUGH REAGAN 198 (1997).
362. (116 CONG. REC. 7498 (1970)).
363. 133 CONG. REC. 10, 884 (1987).
364. Robert Bork, THE TEMPTING OF AMERICA: THE POLITICAL SEDUCTION OF THE LAW 347 (1990).
365. STEPHEN CARTER, THE CONFIRMATION MESS: CLEANING UP THE FEDERAL APPOINTMENTS PROCESS 81-82 (1994).
366. Michael J. Gerhardt, Divided Justice: A Commentary on the Nomination and Confirmation of Clarence Thomas, 60 G. W. L. REV. 969 (1992).
367. The Thomas Nomination: Excerpts from Senate's Hearings on the Thomas Nomination, N. Y. TIMES, Oct. 12, 1991, at A12.
368. Neil Lewis, Conservatives Set for Fight on Supreme Court Nominees, N. Y. TIMES, Nov. 13, 1992, at B16.
369. MICHAEL GERHARDT, THE FEDERAL APPOINTMENTS PROCESS 296 (2000).
370. Harriet Chang, Election Could Shape Supreme Court for Years to Come, SAN FRANCISCO CHRONICLE, Oct. 2, 2004, at A4.
371. Peter Baker, Parties Gear Up for High Court Battle, WASHINGTON POST, June 27, 2005.
372. Bush's Choice of Miers for High Court Stuns Activists, NEW JERSEY RECORD, Aug. 4, 2005, at A01;
373. Joan Biskupic, Toni Locy, and Richard Willing, Next Question on Nominee: What Does He Really Think? USA TODAY, July 21, 2005, at 01A;
374. Charlie Savage, Miers Has Backed Wide Executive Role, BOSTON GLOBE, Oct. 5, 2005, at A22.
375. Meet the Press, Oct. 9, 2005.
376. Barry Friedman & Anna Harvey, Electing the Supreme Court, 78 IND. L. J. 123, 137 (2003).
377. KERMIT HALL, THE POLITICS OF JUSTICE: LOWER FEDERAL JUDICIAL SELECTION AND THE SECOND PARTY SYSTEM 1829-61 (1979).
378. Stephen Burbank, Politics, Privilege, and Power: The Senate's Role in the Appointment of Federal Judges, 86 JUDICATURE 24, 25-26 (2002).
379. EVAN HAYNES, SELECTION AND TENURE OF JUDGES 23 (1944).
380. HAROLD CHASE, FEDERAL JUDGES: THE APPOINTING PROCESS 11 (1972).
381. Brannon Denning, The "Blue-slip": Enforcing the Norms of the Judicial Confirmation Process, 10 WM & MARY BILL RTS. J. 75, 76 (2001).
382. Elliott Slotnick, Reforms in Judicial Selection: Will They Affect the Senate's Role? 64 JUDICATURE 60, 69 (1980).
383. Ben Miller, Federal Judicial Appointments: The Continuing Struggle for Good Judges, 41 A. B. A. J. 125 (1955).
384. Burke Shartel, Federal Judges-Appointment, Supervision, and Removal: Some Possibilities under the Constitution, 15 J. AM. JUD. SOC'Y 21, 22 (1931).
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386. Sheldon Goldman, Unpicking Pickering in 2002: Some Thoughts on Lower Court Selection and Confirmation, 36 U. C. DAVIS L. REV. 695, 698 (2003)
387. HARRY P. STUMPF, AMERICAN JUDICIAL POLITICS 185 (2d ed. 1998).
388. G. Calvin MacKenzie, Starting Over: The Presidential Appointments Process in 1997 (The Century Foundation, 1998).
389. MARK SILVERSTEIN, JUDICIOUS CHOICES: THE NEW POLITICS OF SUPREME COURT CONFIRMATIONS 175 (1994)
390. Robert Cohen, Dole Attacks Clinton on Judicial Appointments, STAR LEDGER, Apr. 20, 1996.
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392. Judicial Misconduct and Discipline: Hearings before the Subcomm. on Courts and Intellectual Property of the House Judiciary Comm., 105th Cong. (1997).
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395. Sarah Binder & Forrest Maltzman, Senatorial Delay in Confirming Federal Judges, 1947-1998, 46 AM. J. POL. SCI. 190, 195 (2002).
396. Stephanie Seymour, The Judicial Appointment Process: How Broken Is It? 39 TULSA L. REV. 691, 702 (2004).
397. Michael J. Gerhardt, Federal Judicial Selection as War (pt. 3), 15 REGENT U. L. REV. 15, 31 (2002).
398. Charles Hurt, Four Judicial Nominees Get Hearings despite "Blue-slips", WASHINGTON TIMES, July 15, 2003;
399. Pink Slip for Blue-slip, FORT WORTH STAR-TELEGRAM, Apr. 5, 2003.
400. John Nowacki, Leahy Presides over Judicial Vacancy Crisis, INSIGHT ON THE NEWS, June 3, 2002, at 46.
401. Jesse Holland, Senators Mull Getting Rid of Secret Holds, WASHINGTON POST, June 17, 2003.
402. David Von Drehle, Turmoil over Court Nominees, WASHINGTON POST, Jan. 3, 2004
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404. Russell Feingold, Executive Business Meeting, Mar. 27, 2003, available at http://judiciary.senate.gov/print-member-statement.cfm?&wit-id=85.
405. 149 CONG. REC. S9951 (2003).
406. David Greene & Thomas Healy, Battle Looms over Judges, BALTIMORE SUN, May 6, 2001, at Al.
407. Darryl Fears, Bush Urges Confirmation of Estrada; Democrats Cite Latino Nominees Blocked by GOP in Past, WASHINGTON POST, Feb. 23, 2003.
408. Mary Orndorf US Claims Putting Pryor on Bench Constitutional, BIRMINGHAM NEWS, Aug. 3, 2004.
409. John Cornyn, The Constitution and the Judiciary, OpinionJournal.com, May 6, 2003.
410. Joan Biskupic, Hostile Senate Not Part of Bush Strategy, USA TODAY, Mar. 10, 2002.
411. Dahlia Lithwick, Confirmation Consternation, SLATE, Apr. 14, 2003.
412. Nan Aron, The Problem with "Strict Constructionist" Judges, THE HILL, Apr. 17, 2002.
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414. Jeffrey A. Segal, Supreme Court Deference to Congress: An Examination of the Marksist Model, in SUPREME COURT DECISION-MAKING: NEW INSTITUTIONALIST APPROACHES 255 (Cornell Clayton & Howard Gillman eds., 1999).
415. John A. Ferejohn & Larry D. Kramer, Independent Judges, Dependent Judiciary: Institutionalizing Judicial Restraint, 77 N. Y. U. L. REV. 962 (2002).
416. ERWIN CHEMERINSKY, FEDERAL JURISDICTION 49-50 (3d ed. 1999);
417. Maeva Marcus & Emily Van Tassel, Judges and Legislators in the New Federal System, 1789-1800, in JUDGES AND LEGISLATORS: TOWARD INSTITUTIONAL COMITY 31 (Robert A. Katzmann ed., 1988).
418. U. S. CONST. art. III, § 2.
419. Vander Jagt v. O'Beill, 699 F.2d 1166, 1178-79 (1983)
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421. Poe v. Ullman, 367 U. S. 497, 502-03 (1961)
422. Ashwander v. Tennessee Valley Authority, 297 U. S. 288, 345 (1936)
423. Valley Forge Christian College v. Americans United for Separation of Church and State, 454 U. S. 464, 471 (1982).
424. CHARLES ALAN WRIGHT, ARTHUR MILLER, & EDWARD COOPER, FEDERAL PRACTICE AND PROCEDURE: JURISDICTION § 3531 (1984)
425. Ashwander, 297 U. S. 346-49 (1936)
426. Frederick Schauer, Ashwander Revisited, 1995 SUP. CT. REV. 71, 73.
427. ERWIN CHEMERINSKY, FEDERAL JURISDICTION 395 (3d ed. 1999).
428. 28 U. S. C. § 1332 (2000).
429. Strawbridge v. Curtiss, 7 U. S. (3 Cranch) 267 (1806).
430. Ex parte Burrus, 136 U. S. 586 (1890).
431. 28 U. S. C. § 1331 (2000).
432. Louisville & Nashville Railroad v. Mottley, 211 U. S. 149 (1908).
433. Erie Railroad v. Tompkins, 304 U. S. 64 (1938).
434. Swift v. Tyson, 41 U. S. (16 Pet.) 1 (1842)
435. (28 U. S. C. § 1652)).
436. Hans v. Louisiana, 134 U. S. 1 (1890).
437. Younger v. Harris, 401 U. S. 37 (1971);
438. Railroad Comm'n of Texas v. Pullman Co., 312 U. S. 496 (1941).
439. Louisiana Power & Light Company v. City of Thibodaux, 360 U. S. 25 (1959).
440. Burford v. Sun Oil, 319 U. S. 315 (1943).
441. Pub. L. No. 100-352, 102 Stat. 662 (1988).
442. Charles R. Epp, External Pressure and the Supreme Court's Agenda, in SUPREME COURT DECISION-MAKING: NEW INSTITUTIONALIST APPROACHES 255 (Cornell Clayton & Howard Gillman eds., 1999)
443. JEFFREY A. SEGAL & HAROLD J. SPAETH, THE SUPREME COURT AND THE ATTITUDINAL MODEL 165-207 (1993)
444. Ratchford v. Gay Lib, 434 U. S. 1080 (1978) (Rehnquist, J., dissenting)
445. 435 U. S. 981 (1978).
446. Alexander Bickel, The Supreme Court 1960 Term Foreword: The Passive Virtues, 75 HARV. L. REV. 40 (1961).
447. Gerald Gunther, The Subtle Vices of the "Passive Virtues": A Comment on Principle and Expediency in Judicial Review, 64 COLUM. L. REV. 1, 25 (1964).
448. Anthony Kronman, Alexander Bickel's Philosophy of Prudence, 94 YALE L. J. 1567, 1585-86 (1985).
449. 5 U. S. (1 Cranch) 137 (1803).
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452. LEON FRIEDMAN & FRED ISRAEL, 1 JUSTICES OF THE SUPREME COURT 197 (1969).
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458. 28 U. S. C. § 331 (2000).
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460. (Court Reform and Access to Justice Act: Hearings on H. R. 3152 before the Subcomm. on Courts, Civil Liberties, and the Administration of Justice of the House Comm. on the Judiciary, 100th Cong., 1st & 2d Sess. 901-17 (1987-88)).
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505. Benjamin Cardozo, The Nature of the Judicial Process (1921), in AMERICAN LEGAL REALISM, supra note 8, at 176-77.
506. Max Radin, The Theory of Judicial Decision: Or How Judges Think (1925), in AMERICAN LEGAL REALISM, supra note 8, at 196.
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508. G. Alan Tarr, Rethinking the Selection of State Supreme Court Justices, 39 WILLAMETTE L. REV. 1445, 1460 (2003)
509. Frances Kahn Zemens, The Accountable Judge: Guardian of Judicial Independence, 72 S. CAL. L. REV. 625, 640 (1999)).
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511. Greenberg, Quinlan, Rosner Research Inc., Justice at Stake Frequency Questionnaire (Nov. 7, 2001), available at http://faircourts.org/files/ JASNationalSurvey Results.pdf.
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514. Jack M. Balkin & Sanford Levinson, Understanding the Constitutional Revolution, 87 VA. L. REV. 1045 (2001).
515. Paul Kane, Parties Reach Agreement on Judicial Nominations, ROLL CALL, May 19, 2004.
516. 110 Stat. 3009-546 et seq. §§ 304-6, 381, 604.
517. 110 Stat. 1321-66.
518. Pub. L. No. 104-132, 110 Stat. 1214 (1996).
519. Patrick J. McDonnell, Panel Upholds Deadline for Amnesty Seekers, L. A. TIMES, May 1, 1997, at A3 (statement of Ira Mehlman of the Federation for American Immigration Reform).
520. John Sullivan, States and Cities Removing Prisons from Courts' Grip, N. Y. TIMES, Jan. 30, 2000, at A1 (quoting "one of its chief legislative proponents").
521. 142 CONG. REC. S3352-01 (Apr. 16, 1996).
522. Vicki C. Jackson, Introduction: Congressional Control of Jurisdiction and the Future of Federal Courts-Opposition, Agreement, and Hierarchy, 86 Geo. L. J. 2445, 2448-53 (1998).
523. Alexander Bolton, Courts May Be Stripped on Pledge, The Hill, Sept. 16, 2004, pat 1.
524. David M. Zlotnick, The War within the War on Crime: The Congressional Assault on Judicial Sentencing Discretion, 57 SMU L. Rev. 211, 215-18;
525. David Margolick, Judicial Dissent, AUSTIN AMERICAN-STATESMAN, May 24, 1992, at E1.
526. Mandatory Minimums in Drug Sentencing: A Valuable Weapon in the War on Drugs or a Handcuff on Judicial Decision, 36 AM. CRIM. L. REV. 1279, 1298 (1999).
527. Sentencing Reform Act of 1984, 28 U. S. C. § 992;
528. Anti-Drug Abuse Act of 1986, 21 U. S. C. § 841.
529. REPORT OF THE FEDERAL COURTS STUDY COMMITTEE 133-36 (1990).
530. Philip Oliss, Mandatory Minimum Sentencing: Discretion, the Safety Valve, and the Sentencing Guidelines, 63 U. CIN. L. REV. 1851, 1851-52 (1995).
531. Editorial, War against Civil Liberties, St. LOUIS POST-DISPATCH, Oct. 31, 1992, at 2B
532. David Rubenstein, Rosenbaum Inquisition, THE NATION, Dec. 29, 2003.
533. Tony Mauro, Rehnquist Begins New Year with Stern Words, LEGAL INTELLIGENCER, Jan. 6, 2004, at National News 4.
534. Tom Feeney, Rep. Feeney Defends Measure to Thwart Sentencing by Whim, PALM BEACH DAILY BUSINESS REVIEW, Apr. 28, 2003, at A7.
535. Ian Urbina, New York's Federal Judges Protest Sentencing Procedures, N. Y. TIMES, Dec. 8, 2003, at B1.
536. U. S. v. Detwiler, 338 F. Supp. 1166 (D. Or. 2004).
537. U. S. v. Kirsch, 287 F. Supp. 2d 1005, 1006 (D. Minn. 2003).
538. U. S. v. Booker, 125 S. Ct. 738 (2005).
539. Dan Christensen, The Short Life of the Feeney Amendment, 46 BROWARD DAILY BUS. REV., No. 31 (Jan. 24, 2005).
540. Reverend Louis P. Sheldon, Our Battle Plan to Take Back the Courts, http://www.OurBattlePlan.com.
541. JAMES MORONE, HELLFIRE NATION: THE POLITICS OF SIN IN AMERICAN HISTORY (2003).
542. The Terri Schiavo Case, N. Y. TIMES, A16, April 1, 2005.
543. Bob Egelko, Schiavo Case Widens Divide Between Congress and Courts, SAN FRANCISCO CHRONICLE, A3, April 2, 2005.
544. Charles Babington, GOP Is Fracturing over Power of Judiciary, WASHINGTON POST, April 7, 2005.
545. Carl Hulse & David Kirkpatrick, Even Death Does Not Quiet Harsh Political Fight, N. Y. TIMES, April 1, 2005, at A1.
546. Carl Hulse & David Kirkpatrick, Casting an Angry Eye on Courts, Conservatives Prime for Bench-Clearing Brawl in Congress, N. Y. TIMES, March 23, 2005, at A15.
547. Rick Klein, DeLay Apologizes for Blaming Federal Judges in Schiavo Case but House Leader Calls for Probe of "Judicial Activism", BOSTON GLOBE, April 14, 2005.
548. Ruth Marcus, Booting the Bench, WASHINGTON POST, April 11, 2005.
549. Pamela MacLean, Does the Judiciary Need a Watchdog? NATIONAL LAW JOURNAL, May 23, 2005.
550. Gwyneth Shaw & Gail Gibson, For Congress, a Quiet Retreat From Schiavo Politics, BALTIMORE SUN, 1A, March 27, 2005.
551. Bob Egelko, Schiavo Case Widens Divide Between Courts and Congress, SAN FRANCISCO CHRONICLE, A3, April 2, 2005.
552. Charles Babington, Frist Urges End to Nominee Filibusters, WASHINGTON POST, April 25, 2005.
553. Jesse Holland, Panel Resends Blocked Bush Nominees, ASSOCIATED PRESS, March 18, 2005.
554. Erwin Chemerinsky, The Jurisprudence of Justice Scalia: A Critical Appraisal, 22 U. HAW. L. REV. 385 (2000)
555. Lawrence v. Texas, 123 S. Ct. 2472, 2496 (2003)
556. Brown v. Legal Found. of Wash., 123 S. Ct. 1406, at 1428 (Scalia, J. dissenting).
557. J. E. B. v. Alabama ex rel. T. B., 511 U. S. 127, 163 (1994)
558. Romer v. Evans, 517 U. S. 620, 653 (1996)
559. Planned Parenthood of S. E. Pa. v. Casey, 505 U. S. 833, 1000 (1992)
560. printed in WASHINGTON TIMES, July 31, 1998, at A21.
561. Richard Carelli, Civility Reigns at Supreme Court, ASSOCIATED PRESS, June 12, 1998.
562. Kristofor J. Hammond, Judicial Intervention in a Twenty-First Century Republic: Shuffling Deck Chairs on the Titanic? 74 Ind. L. J. 653 (1999).
563. Terri Jennings Peretti, Does Judicial Independence Exist? The Lessons of Social Science Research, in JUDICIAL INDEPENDENCE AT THE CROSSROADS: AN INTERDISCIPLINARY APPROACH 103, 111 (Stephen Burbank & Barry Friedman eds., 2002)
564. C. K. ROLAND & ROBERT A. CARP, POLITICS AND JUDGMENT IN FEDERAL DISTRICT COURTS (1996).