The river returns: An environmental history of the Bow

The River Returns: An Environmental History of the Bow

Volumn , Issue , 2009, Pages 1-488

  Armstrong, Christopher ^a   Evenden, Matthew ^a   Nelles, H V ^a  

^a NONE

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EID: 84898215922     PISSN: None     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book    
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References (499)

1. Richard Glover, ed., David Thompson's Narrative, 1784-1812 (Toronto: Champlain Society, 1962), lxxiii, lxxxvi, 46-9, 234-70. For an attempt to answer the question "Who were the first white men to visit the valley of the Bow River?"
2. J.W. Porter, Nineteenth Century Bow Valley Exploits, a reprint from an American Society of Petroleum Geologists Field Guide Manual for a symposium in 1971, Banff, Alberta, (Glenbow Library, PAM 971.238 B784p).
3. Nathaniel Rutter, "Geomorphology and Multiple Glaciation in the Area of Banff, Alberta," Geological Survey of Canada Bulletin 206 (Ottawa: Department of Energy Mines and Resources, 1970);
4. Mel Reasoner and Ulrike M. Huber, "Postglacial Pal-aeoenvironments of the Upper Bow Valley, Banff National Park, Alberta, Canada," Quaternary Science Reviews 18 (1999): 475-92;
5. E.C. Pielou, After the Ice Age: The Return of Life to Glaciated North America (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1991), 227-48;
6. L.E. Jackson and M.C. Wilson, eds., Geology of the Calgary Area (Cal-gary: Society of Petroleum Geologists, 1987), chapter 1; and M.C. Wilson, Geology and Landscape Evolution, Bow River Valley Field Trip (Calgary: Society of Petroleum Geologists, 1960).
7. Daryl W. Fedje, James M. White, Michael C. Wilson, D. Erle Nelson, John S. Vogel, and John R. Southon, "Vermilion Lakes Site: Adaptations and Environments in the Canadian Rockies during the Latest Pleistocene and Early Holocene," American Antiquity 60 (1995): 81-108;
8. Barbara Huck and Doug Whiteway, In Search of Ancient Alberta (Winnipeg: Heartland Publishers, 1998), 92-4.
9. Stephen Pyne, Vestal Fire (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1997)
10. Awful Splendour: A Fire History of Canada (Vancouver: UBC Press, 2007);
11. Reasoner and Huber, "Postglacial Palaeoenvironments," 486. Reasoner and Huber conclude: "Fire has been an important disturbance agent in the vicinity of Crowfoot Lake since ca. 9000 C year BP." 7
12. S.A. Haslam, The Historic River: Rivers and Culture Down through the Ages (Cam-bridge: Cobden of Cambridge Press, 1991), for a comprehensive, illustrated treat-ment of the different relations human cultures, mainly European, have enjoyed with rivers.
13. Simon Schama, Landscape and Memory (New York: Random House, 1996).
14. Hugh MacLennan, "Thinking Like a River," in Rivers of Canada (Toronto: Macmil-lan, 1974), viii, 7, 71, 127
15. W.H. New, "The Great River Theory: Reading MacLennan and Mulgan," Essays in Canadian Writing, no. 56 (1995): 168-71.
16. Neil S. Forkey, "Thinking Like a River: The Making of Hugh MacLennan's Environmental Consciousness," Journal of Canadian Studies 41 (2007): 42-64.
17. Donald Creighton, Harold Adams Innis: Portrait of a Scholar (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1957), quoted 58.
18. H.A. Innis, The Fur Trade in Canada (New Haven: Yale, 1930), 392.
19. H.A. Innis, "Transportation in Canadian Economic History," in M.Q. Innis, ed., Essays in Canadian Economic History (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1956), 74.
20. For another statement of this position in a comparative Canada-US perspective, see "Recent Trends in Canadian-American Relations," in Daniel Drache, ed., Staples, Markets and Cultural Change: Harold Innis, Selected Essays (Toronto: University of Toronto Press), 262-3.
21. Skinner's "vision" of rivers in American history is presented in a posthumous essay appended to J. Dana's The Sacramento: River of Gold (Farrar & Rinehart, 1939).
22. Henry Beston, The St. Lawrence (New York: Rinehart, 1942);
23. Bruce Hutchison, The Fraser (New York: Rinehart, 1950);
24. Marjorie Wilkins Campbell, The Saskatchewan (New York: Rinehart, 1950);
25. Leslie Roberts, The Mackenzie (New York: Rinehart, 1949).
26. The "cradle" metaphor is most fully developed in Robert Coffin's The Kennebec (New York: Rinehart, 1937), 3-5.
27. Brion Davis's The Arkansas (New York: Rinehart, 1940), Arthur Tourtellot's The Charles (New York: Rinehart, 1941), Walter Hard's The Connecticut (New York: Rine-hart, 1947), and Carl Carmer's The Hudson (New York: Rinehart, 1939) are classic examples of the genre.
28. Donald Davidson, The Tennessee (New York: Rinehart, 1946), 6.
29. Stanley Vestal, The Missouri (New York: Rinehart, 1945), 5.
30. Mabel Dunham, Grand River (Toronto: McClelland and Stewart, 1945), and William Toye, The St. Lawrence (Toronto: Oxford, 1959).
31. Ted Lewis, The Hudson: A History (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2005)
32. Peter Ackroyd, Thames: Sacred River (London: Chatto & Windus, 2007).
33. Stewart Holbrook, The Columbia (New York: Holt, Rinehart, Winston, 1974).
34. Frank Waters, The Colorado (New York: Rinehart, 1974 ed), xvii and xx.
35. Samuel P. Hays, Beauty, Health and Permanence: Environmental Politics in the United States, 1955-1985 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1987).
36. Hugh Aitken, The Welland Canal Company (Cambridge: Harvard, 1954);
37. John Dales, Hydroelectricity and Industrial Development - Quebec, 1898-1940 (Cambridge: Har-vard, 1957).
38. H.V. Nelles, The Politics of Development (Toronto: Macmillan, 1974).
39. N. Hundley Jr wrote a comparable and contemporary book in the United States: Water and the West (California: University of California Press, 1975).
40. C. Armstrong, The Politics of Federalism (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1981).
41. William H. McNeill, Plagues and Peoples (New York: Anchor, 1976).
42. Both quotations from Donald Worster, The Wealth of Nature: Environmental History and the Ecological Imagination (New York: Oxford, 1993), vii.
43. Aldo Leopold, A Sand County Almanac (New York: Ballantine, 1966), 137-41. This edition also contains most of the material from Round River.
44. Aldo Leopold, Round River: From Aldo Leopold's Journal (New York: Oxford, 1953).
45. Donald Worster, "Thinking Like a River," in The Wealth of Nature: Environmental History and Ecological Imagination (New York: Oxford, 1993), 124.
46. Donald Worster, Rivers of Empire: Water, Aridity and the Growth of the American West (New York: Oxford, 1985).
47. See, for example, Ted Steinberg, Nature Incorporated: Industrialization and the Waters of New England (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1991)
48. Ari Kelman, A River and Its City: The Nature of Landscape in New Orleans (California: University of California Press, 2003).
49. B. Harden, A River Lost (New York: Norton, 1996). For a variation on this theme, see Ellen Wohl, Virtual Rivers: Lessons from the Mountain Rivers of the Colorado Front Range (New Haven: Yale, 2001).
50. Fred Pearce, The Dammed: Rivers, Dams and the Coming World Water Crisis (London: Bodley Head, 1992). See also his more recent When the Rivers Run Dry (Toronto: Key Porter, 2006).
51. R.C. Bocking, Mighty River (Vancouver: Douglas & McIntrye, 1997).
52. John McPhee, The Control of Nature (New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 1989).
53. John M. Barry, Rising Tide: The Great Mississippi Flood of 1927 and How It Changed America (New York: Simon and Shuster, 1997).
54. J.M. Bumsted, Floods of the Centuries (Winnipeg: Great Plains, 1997);
55. T. Thomson, Faces of the Flood (Toronto: Stoddart, 1998). Hurricane Katrina has tragi-cally revived the genre.
56. R. White, The Organic Machine: The Remaking of the Columbia River (New York: Hill & Wang, 1995), x-xi.
57. For another fine example, see John O. Anfinson, The River We Have Wrought: A His-tory of the Upper Mississippi (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2003). Alfinson shows how both the Army Corps of Engineers and the Izaac Walton League together and in different ways shaped the river.
58. William Cronon, "The Trouble with Wilderness," in Uncommon Ground (New York: Norton, 1996).
59. Matthew Evenden, Fish versus Power: An Environmental History of the Fraser River (New York: Cambridge, 2004), 267.
60. Clarence Glacken, Traces on the Rhodian Shore: Nature and Culture in Western Thought from Ancient Times to the End of the Eighteenth Century (Berkeley: Univer-sity of California Press, 1967).
61. Keith Thomas, Man and the Natural World (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1984).
62. Donald Worster, Nature's Economy: A History of Ecological Ideas, 2nd ed. (New York: Oxford, 1994);
63. Peter Coates, Nature: Western Attitudes Since Ancient Times (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1998).
64. Rrah Carter, Aboriginal People and Colonizers of Western Canada to 1900 (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1999), 31-46;
65. Richard White, The Middle Ground: Indi-ans, Empires, and Republics in the Great Lakes Region, 1650-1815 (New York: Cam-bridge University Press, 1991).
66. Alice B. Kehoe, "Blackfoot and other Hunters on the North American Plains," in Cambridge Encyclopaedia of Hunters and Gatherers, ed. Richard B. Lee and Rich-ard Daly (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999), 36. Ted Binnema argues this point over the very long term in Common and Contested Ground: A Human and Environmental History of the Northwestern Plains (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 2001).
67. Ian A.L. Getty and Erik Gooding, "Stoney," in Handbook of North American Indians: Plains, vol. 13, ed. Raymond J. DeMallie (Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution, 2001), 596-603;
68. Bill B. Brunton, "Kootenai," in Handbook of North American Indi-ans, vol. 12 (Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institute, 1998), 223-37;
69. Hugh Dempsey, "Blackfoot," in Handbook of North American Indians, vol. 13: 604-28 (on the shifting territories, see 608);
70. Hugh Dempsey, "Sarcee," in Handbook of North American Indi-ans, vol. 13: 629-37;
71. The Blackfoot Gallery Committee, Nitsitapiisinni: The Story of the Blackfoot People (Calgary: The Glenbow Museum, 2001), 4-5.
72. Richard G. Forbis, Cluny: An Ancient Fortified Village in Alberta, Occasional Papers No. 4 (Calgary: Department of Archaeology, University of Calgary, 1977);
73. David Thompson, Travels in Western North America, 1784-1812, ed. Victor G. Hopwood (Toronto: Macmillan, 1971), 200.
74. Thompson, Travels in Western North America, 193, 196;
75. John C. Ewers, The Horse in Blackfoot Indian Culture (Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution, 1955), 17-18. Thanks to Gerald Conaty for explaining the different names applied to horses.
76. Binnema, Common and Contested Ground, 102; quotation, 103.
77. Arthur J. Ray, Indians in the Fur Trade (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1974), 170.
78. Jody F. Decker, "Tracing Historical Diffusion Patterns: The Case of the 1780-82 Smallpox Epidemic Among the Indians of Western Canada," Native Studies Review 4, no. 1-2 (1988): 1-24;
79. Maureen Lux, Medicine That Walks: Disease, Medicine and Canadian Plains Native People, 1880-1940 (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2001), 14-15. See also Thompson's reference to rivers and smallpox in Travels in West-ern North America, 199; quotation, 199.
80. Decker, "Tracing Historical Diffusion Patterns" Lux, Medicine That Walks, 106-7; quotation, 16.
81. Eugene Y. Arima, Blackfeet and Palefaces: The Pikani and Rocky Mountain House (Ottawa: Golden Dog Press, 1995), 117-19.
82. Mackenzie quotation from David J. Fair-field, "Chesterfield House and the Bow River Expedition" (MA thesis, University of Alberta, 1970), 143.
83. J.E.A. Macleod, "Piegan Post and the Blackfoot Trade," Canadian Historical Review 24 (1943): 273-79.
84. E.J. Hart, The Place of Bows: Part I, To 1930: Exploring the Heritage of the Banff-Bow Valley (Banff, Alta: EJH Literary Enterprises, 1999), 35-49, for the search for mountain passes.
85. Doug Owram, Promise of Eden: The Canadian Expansionist Movement and the Idea of the West, 1856-1900 (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1980);
86. W.L. Morton, Henry Youle Hind, 1823-1908 (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1989).
87. On the growth of inventorial sciences in Canada, see Suzanne Zeller, Inventing Canada: Early Victorian Science and the Idea of a Transcontinental Nation (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1987);
88. Irene Spry, ed., The Papers of the Palliser Expedi-tion, 1857-1860 (Toronto: Champlain Society, 1968), xv-cxxxviii.
89. Hugh Dempsey, "A-CA-OO-MAH-CA-YE (Ac ko mok ki, Ak ko mock ki, A'kow-muk-ai, known as Feathers and Ak ko mokki (Old Swan)), Blackfoot Chief; d. 1859 or 1860," in Dictionary of Canadian Biography. Available online at http://www.biographi.ca; accessed 21 August 2006. A copy of Hector's map may be found on the back leaf of Spry, The Papers of the Palliser Expedition.
90. Binnema has provided a wide-ranging analysis of this map, to which we are indebted; see Theodore Binnema, "How Does a Map Mean? Ak ko mokki (Old Swan)'s Map of 1801 and the Blackfoot World," in From Rupert's Land to Canada: Essays in Honour of John E. Foster, ed. Theodore Binnema, Gerhard Ens, and R.C. Macleod (Edmonton: University of Alberta Press, 2001).
91. John Nicks, "Thompson, David," in Dictionary of Canadian Biography; accessed 16 August 2006. Derek Hayes describes Thompson's map as "defining the west"
92. see Hayes, Historical Atlas of Canada (Vancouver: Douglas & McIntyre, 2002), 166-7.
93. D'arcy Jenish, Epic Wanderer: David Thompson and the Mapping of the Canadian West (Toronto: Doubleday, 2000).
94. Binnema, "How Does a Map Mean?" 215;
95. Hugh A. Dempsey, ed., The Rundle Journals, 1840-1848 (Calgary: Alberta Historical Society and Glenbow Alberta Institute, 1977), 261; quotation, 273; Spry, The Papers of the Palliser Expedition, 288.
96. James Bradley cited in Ewers, The Horse in Blackfoot Indian Culture, 144; Weasel Tail quotation from 105.
97. On the social role of rendezvous points, see David Meyer and Paul C. Thistle, "Sas-katchewan River Rendezvous Centers and Trading Posts: Continuity in a Cree Social Geography," Ethnohistory 42 (1995): 403-44;
98. Gerald T. Conaty, "The Bow River Downstream," in The Bow: Living with a River, ed. Gerald T. Conaty (Toronto: Key Porter Books, 2004), 119;
99. Dempsey, ed. "Alexander Cuthbertson's Journey to the Bow River," p. 18;
100. Gerald T. Conaty, "Calgary," in The Bow, ed. Conaty, 90.
101. David Thompson, "Journey to the Bow River," in Columbia Journals / David Thomp-son, ed. Barbara Belyea (Montreal and Kingston: McGill-Queen's University Press, 1994), 18;
102. Quotation from George W. Arthur, An Introduction to the Ecology of Early His-toric Communal Bison Hunting Among the Northern Plains Indians, Mercury series (Ottawa: National Museum of Man, 1975), 74.
103. R.E. Morlan and M.C. Wilson, "Bison Hunters of the Plains," in Historical Atlas of Canada, vol. 1, ed. Cole Harris (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1987)
104. Fidler quotation from Alice M. Johnson, ed., Saskatchewan Journals and Correspon-dence: Edmonton House, 1795-1800; Chesterfield House, 1800-1802 (London: Hudson's Bay Record Society, 1967), 268;
105. Thompson, Travels in Western North America, 246-49.
106. George Colpitts, Game in the Garden: A Human History of Wildlife in Western Canada to 1940 (Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press, 2002);
107. Clinton Evans, The War on Weeds (Calgary: University of Calgary Press, 2002);
108. Alwynne B. Beudoin, "What They Saw: The Climatic and Environmental Context for Euro-Canadian Settlement in Alberta," Prairie Forum 24 (1999): 1-40.
109. Chester Martin, "Dominion Lands" Policy (Toronto: Macmillan, 1938);
110. W.A. Macintosh, Prairie Settlement: The Geographical Setting (Toronto: Mac-millan, 1934);
111. A.S. Morton, History of Prairie Settlement (Toronto: Macmillan, 1938).
112. Cien M. Hanks and Jane Richardson Hanks, Tribe under Trust: A Study of the Black-foot Reserve of Alberta (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1950);
113. Hana Samek, The Blackfoot Confederacy, 1880-1920: A Comparative Study of Canadian and U.S. Indian Policy (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1987);
114. Sarah Carter, Aboriginal People and the Colonizers of Western Canada to 1900 (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1999); Binnema, Common and Contested Ground). On the NWMP
115. R.C. Macleod, The NWMP and Law Enforcement, 1973-1905 (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1976), 22-5.
116. Hugh A. Dempsey, Red Crow: Warrior Chief (Saskatoon: Western Producer Prairie Books, 1980) and Crowfoot: Chief of the Blackfeet (Edmon-ton: Hurtig Publishers, 1976).
117. C. Isenberg, The Destruction of the Bison (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2000).
118. L.V. Kelly, The Rangemen (Toronto: 1913) and continuing with
119. R.D. Symons, Where the Wagon Led (Calgary: Fifth House, 1997);
120. Sherm Ewing, The Range (Missoula: Mountain Press, 1990);
121. Edward Brado, Cattle Kingdom: Early Ranching in Alberta (Vancouver: Douglas and McIntyre, 1984);
122. Hugh Dempsey, The Golden Age of the Canadian Cowboy (Calgary: Fifth House, 1995);
123. Sheilagh Jameson, Ranches Cowboys and Characters (Calgary: Glenbow Museum, 1987);
124. Charlie Russell, The Canadian Cowboy (Toronto: McClel-land and Stewart, 1993)
125. Candance Savage, Cowgirls (Vancouver: Douglas and McIntyre, 1996).
126. David H. Breen, The Canadian Prairie West and the Ranching Frontier, 1874-1924 (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1983)
127. Simon Evans, "The Origins of Ranching in Western Canada," in Essays on the Historical Geography of the Canadian West, ed. L.A. Rosenvall and Simon Evans (Calgary: Department of Geography, University of Calgary Press, 1987), 70-92.
128. More recent work includes Simon Evans, Sarah Carter, and Bill Yeo, eds, Cowboys and Ranchers and the Cattle Business (Calgary: University of Calgary Press, 1999).
129. A. Warren Elofson in Cowboys, Gentlemen and Cattle Thieves (Montreal and Kingston: McGill-Queen's University Press, 2000) disputes Breen's interpreta-tion about the peacefulness of the frontier but upholds most of his other conclusions. On the transnational ranching experience
130. Terry Jordan's North American Cattle Ranching Frontiers (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1993)
131. Rich-ard Slatta, Cowboys of the Americas (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1990). On the business of ranching
132. Max Foran, Trails and Trials: Markets and Land Use in the Alberta Beef Cattle Industry, 1881-1948 (Calgary: University of Calgary Press, 2003)
133. Henry Klassen, Eye on the Future: People and Business in Calgary and the Bow Valley, 1870-1900 (Calgary: University of Calgary Press, 2002).
134. There is a large literature on the building of the CPR, beginning with the memoirs of some of those involved: J.H.E. Secretan, Canada's Great Highway: From the First Stake to the Last Spike (Toronto, Longmans, 1924);
135. Charles Aeneas Shaw, Tales of a Pioneer Surveyor (Toronto, Longman, 1970);
136. P. Turner Bone, When the Steel Went Through: Reminiscences of a Railroad Pioneer (Toronto: Macmillan, 1947).
137. The best-known account is Pierre Berton, The National Dream (Toronto: McClelland and Stewart, 1970) and The Last Spike (Toronto: McClelland and Stewart, 1971).
138. See also Omer Lavallee, Van Home's Road (Montreal: Railfare Books, 1974). The underlying impetus behind the building of the CPR is examined in A.A. den Otter, The Philoso-phy of Railways (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1997).
139. Much less has been written about the operation of the railway and its effects; that analysis is just beginning. See John Eagle, The Canadian Pacific Railway and the Development of Western Canada (Montreal and Kingston: McGill-Queen's Univer-sity Press, 1989)
140. Hugh Dempsey, ed., The OPR West: The Iron Road and the Making of the Nation (Vancouver: Douglas and McIntyre, 1984).
141. Chester Martin, "Dominion Lands" Policy (Toronto: McClelland and Stewart, 1973), 171.
142. A. Mitchener, "The Bow River Scheme: CPR's Irrigation Block," in Dempsey, The OPR West, 259-74;
143. John Eagle, The Canadian Pacific Railway and the Development of Western Canada (Montreal and Kingston: McGill-Queen's University Press, 1989), 173-212.
144. Although controversial, the Siksika decision added substantially, over several years, to the band fund to ensure their long-term survival. See Samek, Blackfoot Confederacy, 112-13; Hanks and Hanks, Tribe under Trust, 35-53;
145. Valerie K. Jobson, "The Blackfoot Farming Experiment, 1880-1945" (MA thesis, University of Calgary, 1990), chapter 2. For the documents, see LAC, RG 10, vol. 3702, file 17537-3, part one, c10123, Blackfoot Agency - correspondence, reports, and petitions re: the surrender of 6 townships on the Blackfoot reserve.
146. Canon H.W. Gibbon Stocken, Among the Blackfoot and Sarcee (Calgary: Glenbow Alberta Institute, 1976), 62.
147. See chapter 10 and John Warkentin, The Western Interior of Canada: A Record of Geographical Discovery, 1612-1917 (Toronto: McClelland and Stewart, 1964), as well as Doug Owran, The Promise of Eden: The Canadian Expansionist Movement and the Idea of the West, 1856-1900 (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1980), chapters 5-7.
148. Duncan MacEachern, Notes of a Trip to the Bow River, North-West Territories and A Journey over the Plains from Fort Benton to the Bow River and Back (pamphlets reprinted from the Montreal Gazette, November 1881, in Glenbow Library).
149. Alexander Begg, "Stock Raising in the Bow River District Compared with Montana," in John Macoun, Manitoba and the GreatNorth-West (Guelph: The World Publishing Company, 1882), 269-81.
150. See Suzanne Zeller and Gale Avrith-Wakeam's excellent biography of Dawson in the Dictionary of Canadian Biography; available online at http://www.biographi.ca.
151. Marquis of Lorne, Canadian Pictures Drawn with Pen and Pencil, engraved by Edwin Whymper (London: Religious Tract Society, 1885), 158-72.
152. MacGregor, "Lord Lorne in Alberta," 10.
153. Alwynne Beaudouin, "What They Saw: The Climatic and Environmental Context for Euro-Canadian Settlement in Alberta," Prairie Forum 24 (1999): 33ff.
154. Lachlin McKinnon, 1865-1948, 23-54. The McKinnons obviously prospered as ranch-ers and farmers, but a close reading of their memoirs reveals how many of their kin and neighbours did not.
155. GA, J. Angus McKinnon Fonds, M4070, Autobiography, 15. A privately published ver-sion with additions appeared in the 1970s: J. Angus McKinnon, The Bow River Range, 1898-1974 (Calgary: Privately printed, [c. 1975])
156. Sue Anne Donaldson, "William Pearce: His Vision of Trees," Journal of Garden His-tory 3 (1983): 233-44.
157. F. Girard, the medical doctor on the Blood Reserve, writing to Sir Hector Langevin, 18 November 1884, quoted in Breen, The Canadian Prairie West, 48.
158. Elofson, Cowboys, Gentlemen and Cattle Thieves, 43, Shaw, Tales of a Pioneer Sur-veyor, 143-4.
159. Lachlin McKinnon, 1865-1948, 29.
160. Hanks and Hanks, Tribe under Trust, 43.
161. Lachlin McKinnon, 1865-1948, 54ff; Breen, The Canadian Prairie West, 34.
162. Lachlin McKinnon, 1865-1948, 35, 42-3. His son Angus remembers hauling the build-ing materials for the new homestead from the station at Dalemead;
163. GA, J. Angus McKinnon Fonds, M4070, Autobiography, 33.
164. AA, G.M. Dawson's Field Notebooks, microfilm C 4844, no. 2748, GMD no. 4 (1881) McLeod to Bow Pass & Blackfoot Crossing.
165. Robert M. Stamp, Royal Rebels: Princess Louise & the Marquis of Lorne (Toronto: Dundurn Press, 1988), 176.
166. Lachlin McKinnon, 1865-1948, 51.
167. For Macoun's influence, see W.A. Waiser, The Field Naturalist: John Macoun, the Geo-logical Survey, and Natural Science (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1989).
168. Max Foran, "The CPR and the Urban West," in Dempsey, The OPR West, 89-105, and Foran, Calgary: An Illustrated History (Toronto: Lorimer, 1978).
169. Lachlin McKinnon, 1865-1948, 59.
170. GA, J. Angus McKinnon Fonds, M4070, Autobiography, 17.
171. GA, Amelia Brown Banister Fonds, M8364, Banister, "Lower Than the Angels," 201.
172. Lachlin McKinnon, 1865-1948, 51.
173. GA, Amelia Brown Banister Fonds, M8364, Banister, "Lower Than the Angels," 202-3.
174. Lachlin McKinnon, 1865-1948, 51.
175. GA, Amelia Brown Banister Fonds, M8364, Banister, "Daddy Man," 66.
176. GA, George W. Craig Fonds, Personal and Business Papers of City Engineer, Calgary, 1913-23, Typewritten report on the construction of the Centre Street Bridge, January 1917, 2
177. Lachlin McKinnon, 1865-1948, 30-7, 41.
178. GA, Amelia Brown Banister Fonds, M8364, Banister, "Lower Than the Angels," 35-7.
179. GA, Amelia Brown Banister Fonds, M8364, Banister, "Lower Than the Angels," 195.
180. Lachlin McKinnon, 1865-1948, 48, 102.
181. GA, J. Angus McKinnon Fonds, M4070, Autobiography, 9-10.
182. GA, Alberta Ice Company Fonds, three clippings: Pat Wiltshire, "The Ice Man Is a Big box These Days," Calgary Herald, 8 September 1973;
183. C.W. Mowers, "Harvesting Ice for the West," Western Business and Industry 19, no 6 (June 1945);
184. Denny Layzell, "Pioneer Firm Helps Keep Calgarians Cool," Herald Magazine, 3 July 1965. The com-pany cut ice from the river beginning in 1900 but found shallow artificial pools beside the river worked better. The water froze more solidly and could be chlorinated, and harvesting from Christmas to March would not be interrupted by the variable flow of the river. See also AA, Department of the Environment Fonds, Acc. 65.44, box 22, item 664, Alberta Ice Company
185. Ben Gadd, Bankhead: The Twenty Year Town (Banff: Friends of Banff National Park and the Canadian Parks Service, 1989)
186. John D.R. Holmes, "The Canmore Cor-ridor: The Historical Geography of a Pass Site, 1880-the Present" (MA thesis, Univer-sity of Calgary, 1978), the essential contents of which are reported in his essay "The Canmore Corridor, 1880-1914: A Case Study of the Selection and Development of a Pass Site," in Essays on the Historical Geography of the Canadian West, ed. Rosenvall and Evans, 27-47.
187. Lachlin McKinnon, 1865-1948, 59.
188. "From Prairie to Park: Green Spaces in Calgary," in At Your Service: Calgary's Library, Parks Department, Military, Medical Services, and Fire Department (Calgary: Cen-tury Publications, 1975), 121-256.
189. William Pearce's 1925 memo, "Reservation of Land at Calgary," was published in Alberta History 27 (1979): 22-8.
190. Lachlin McKinnon, 1865-1948, 51;
191. GA, J. Angus McKinnon Fonds, M4070, Autobio-graphy, 9.
192. GA, Amelia Brown Banister Fonds, M8364, Banister, "Daddy Man," 47.
193. Debra L. Donahue, The Western Range Revis-ited: Removing Livestock from Public Lands to Conserve Native Biodiversity (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1999), 114-60
194. Thomas L. Fleischner, "Ecological Costs of Livestock Grazing in Western North America," Conservation Biology 8 (1994): 629-44.
195. Clinton L. Evans, The War on Weeds in the Prairie West: An Environmental History (Calgary: University of Calgary Press, 2001), 92-9, shows how eleven native grasses and plants resurfaced in wheat monoculture as weeds, supplemented by sixteen alien invaders such as stinkweed, tumble mustard, and Russian thistle. Reese notwithstanding, the broader question of evaluating the environmental change associated with prairie agriculture has yet to be tackled in Canada.
196. GA, I.K. Kerr Fonds, M629. This paragraph is based upon material contained in a typescript autobiography written sometime in the early 1920s and the diary of I.K. Kerr kept in the summer of 1883.
197. Max Foran, Calgary: An Illustrated History (Toronto: Lorimer, 1978), 11-24
198. Omer Lavallee, Van Home's Road (Montreal: Railfare, 1974), 70-104.
199. E.J. Hart, The Place of Bows: Part I, To 1930: Exploring the Heritage of the Banff-Bow Valley (Banff: EJH Literary Enterprises, 1999), 72-3, 85.
200. GA, I.K. Kerr Fonds, M629, Diary, 16 August-2 September 1883 (hereafter Kerr Diary).
201. See the chronology of the claim provided by the Indian Claims Commission; avail-able at http://www.indianclaims.ca/claimsmap/siksikacastlemed-en.asp; accessed 6 January 2008
202. Theodore Strom, "With the Eau Claire in Calgary," Alberta Historical Review 12 (1964): 2-3. Strom arrived in 1886 to help build the mill and stayed on many years as an employee. He dictated these memoirs in the 1930s.
203. Strom, "With Eau Claire in Calgary," 4-8;
204. W.E. Hawkins, Electrifying Calgary: A Century of Public and Private Power (Calgary: University of Calgary, 1987), 33-57.
205. Strom, "With Eau Claire in Calgary," 7-8.
206. Hawkins, Electrifying Calgary, 51-71.
207. J.P. Dickin McGinnis, "Birth to Boom to Bust: Building Calgary, 1875-1914," in A.W. Rasporich and H. Klassen, eds., Frontier Calgary (Calgary: McClelland and Stewart, 1975), 6-19; Foran, Calgary.
208. GA, Col. James H. Walker Fonds, M986, Letterbook of the Bow River Saw and Plan-ing Mills, 1883-1903;
209. Grant MacEwan, Colonel James Walker: Man of the Western Frontier (Saskatoon: Western Producer, 1989), 97-101, 107-8, 112-13.
210. Calgary City Council, The Historical Development of the Downtown and the Inner City (Calgary: n.p., 1979), on the growth of the city and 15 for an illustration of Colo-nel Walker's mill.
211. AA, Acc. 74.49, ERFCB records, box 1, item 1, "A Report to the Minister of Lands and Forests concerning the Conservation of the Eastern Slopes Watershed in Alberta by Eastern Rockies Forest Conservation Board, January 1972," by W.R. Hanson.
212. AA, Acc. 69.289, Premiers' Papers, "Forests," file 1496B, federal Mines and Resource minister J.A. Glen to N.E. Tanner, 4 April 1947; Premier E.C. Manning to Glen, 7 May 1947.
213. AA, Acc. 74.49, box 12, item 221, House of Commons Debates, 23 June 1947, 4534-5, 4912-4, 4917-18; July 3, 1947, 5065. See also ERFCB, "Annual Reports," 1947-48 in AA, Acc. 74.49.
214. AA, Acc. 74.49, box 12, item 221, "History of the Eastern Rockies Forest Conserva-tion Board, 1947-73 A Report by W.R. Hanson, Chief Forester in Collaboration with Members of the Eastern Rockies Forest Conservation Board" (mimeo). Only one dam was ever built on Kline Creek in 1963 for use as a fish hatchery.
215. Inferences drawn from Paul Japson, "A Report on the Effects of Log Driving on the St. Joe River, Idaho," available at https://research.idfg.idaho.gov/Fisheries
216. Laurie Cooper and Douglas Clay, "A Historical View of Logging and River Driving in Fundy National Park," Greater Fundy Ecosystem Research Project, UNB Faculty of Forestry and Environmental Management; available at www.unbf.ca/forestry/centers/cwru/ soe/logging.html.
217. We are grateful for the guidance given us on these matters by Professor Edward John-son, director of the Kananaskis Forest Research Station, University of Calgary, and for sharing with us papers he has written over the years with colleagues explaining changes in the forest. See especially E.A. Johnson and G.I. Fryer, "Historical Veg-etation Change in the Kananaskis Valley, Canadian Rockies," Canadian Journal of Botany 65 (1987): 853-8
218. which uses the Louis B. Stuart timber cruise notes of 1884 as a baseline to measure changing fire patterns in the twentieth century;
219. Fryer and Johnson, "Reconstructing Fire Behaviour and Effects in a Subalpine Forest," Journal of Applied Ecology 25 (1988): 1063-72;
220. Johnson and C.P.S. Larsen, "Climatically Induced Change in Fire Frequency in the Southern Canadian Rockies, Ecology 72 (1991): 194-201.
221. The available evidence for and against on this point of Native use of fire is marshalled by A.R. Byrne, "Man and Landscape Change in the Banff National Park Area Before 1911" (MA thesis, University of Calgary, 1968), 33-40. For railway fires, see 90-106. For a dramatic description of one of these fires, see
222. Charles Aeneas Shaw, Tales of a Pioneer Surveyor (Toronto: Longman, 1970), 147-8.
223. I.S. MacLaren, in "Captured Wilderness in Jasper National Park," Journal of Cana-dian Studies 34 (1999): 37-8, discusses the increases in forest fires in the 1880s in making his main point about the remarkable suppression of fire subsequently. For the changing areas burned in Banff and for the elimination of changing weather as a factor in the changing fire regime
224. U. Fuenekes and C.E. Van Wagner, "A Century of Fire and Weather in Banff National Park" (Parks Canada, 1995).
225. J.R. Card, F.D. Davis, and R.A. Bothe, South Saskatchewan River Basin His-torical Natural Flows, 1912 to 1978 (Edmonton: Hydrological Branch, Alberta Envi-ronment, 1982).
226. GA, I.K. Kerr Fonds, Diary, text and sketch.
227. A.J. P. Taylor, Beaverbrook (London: Widenfeld, 1976), which does not have a firm grasp of Aitken's business affairs
228. Gregory P. Marchildon, Profits and Politics: Beaverbrook and the Gilded Age of Canadian Finance (Toronto: Univer-sity of Toronto Press, 1996), which does. Aitken as a promoter of overseas utilities fea-tures as well in
229. C. Armstrong and H.V. Nelles, Southern Exposure: Canadian Promot-ers in Latin America and the Caribbean, 1896-1930 (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1986).
230. Details of this wheeling and dealing, and especially the extended negotiations with the city, can be found in W.E. Hawkins, Electrifying Calgary: A Century of Public and Private Power (Calgary: University of Calgary Press, 1987), chapters 5 and 6.
231. C. Armstrong and H.V. Nelles, "Competition vs Convenience: Federal Administra-tion of Bow River Waterpowers, 1906-13," in Henry Klassen, ed., The Canadian West (Calgary: University of Calgary Press, 1977), 163-80.
232. LAC, RG 85, vol. 734, Memorandum re "The Power Situation in Calgary," March 1920;
233. A.L. Ford to J.T. Johnston, 10 March 1921;
234. RG 84, file B39-5, Memorandum from J.T. Johnston to F.H.H. Williamson, 3 March 1921.
235. H.B. Neatby, William Lyon Mackenzie King, 1924-1929: The Lonely Heights (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1963), 294-5.
236. Stewart B. Rood, Kristina Taboulchanas, Cheryl E. Bradley, and Andrea R. Kalis-chuck, "Dynamics of Riparian Cottonwoods Along the Bow River, Alberta," Rivers 7 (1999): 33-48;
237. Stewart B. Rood and John M. Mahoney, "Collapse of Riparian Poplar Forests Downstream from Dams in Western Prairies: Probable Causes and Prospects for Mitigation," Environmental Management 14 (1990): 451-64.
238. Bow River Basin Council, The 2005 Report on the State of the Bow River (Calgary, 2005), 28, 56, 70, 87, for a discussion of the specific effects of hydroelectric operations on the upper reaches of the Bow River.
239. F.H. Newell, Report on Agriculture by Irrigation in the Western part of the United States at the Eleventh Census: 1890 (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1894). A few years earlier, the US government published a document tabulating irriga-tion abroad but reported no activity in Canada; see Official Consular Reports, Canals and Irrigation in Foreign Countries (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1891).
240. David H. Breen, The Canadian Prairie West and the Ranching Frontier, 1874-1924 (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1983), chapters 1-3.
241. A. Mitchner, "The Bow River Scheme: The CPR's Irrigation Block," in Hugh A. Dempsey, ed., The CPR West: The Iron Road and the Making of the Nation (Vancou-ver: Douglas and McIntyre, 1984), 259.
242. The concern with bad publicity is discussed in Canada, Sessional Papers, 1895, Annual Report of the Department of the Interior, 1894, A.M. Burgess, "Report of the Deputy Minister," xxi. See also A.A. Den Otter, "Irrigation in Southern Alberta, 1882-1901," Occasional Paper, no. 5 (Whoop-up County Chapter Historical Society of Alberta, 1975), 7.
243. Pearce's role in early irrigation promotion is covered in detail by E. Alyn Mitchner, "William Pearce and Federal Government Activity in Western Canada, 1882-1904" (PhD thesis, University of Alberta, 1971);
244. Mitchner, "The Development of Western Waters" (Unpublished MS, University of Alberta, 1973), 77-106 (available at the Glen-bow Library, Calgary).
245. Sue Anne Donaldson, "William Pearce: His Vision of Trees," Journal of Garden His-tory 3 (1983): 233-44.
246. Mitchner, "The Bow River Scheme," 260.
247. On contending legal traditions in the United States, see Donald Worster, Rivers of Empire: Water, Aridity and the Growth of the American West (New York: Pantheon, 1985)
248. Donald Pisani, From Family Farm to Agribusiness: The Irrigation Crusade in California and the West, 1850-1931 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1984).
249. Canada, Sessional Papers, 1895, Annual Report of the Department of the Interior, 1894, William Pearce, "Report of the Superintendent of Mines," 33.
250. "Irrigation in the Territories," Calgary Tribune, 1892 (available at GA).
251. The North-West Irrigation Act and its connections to international developments in water law has been the subject of several papers. See Charles S. Burchill, "The Origins of Canadian Irrigation Law," Canadian Historical Review 29 (1948): 353-62;
252. David R. Percy, "Water Law in the Canadian West: Influences from the Western States," in Law for the Elephant, Law for the Beaver: Essays in the Legal History of the North American West, ed. John McLaren, Hamar Foster, and Chet Orloff (Regina: Canadian Plains Research Center, 1992), 274-91. For Pearce's retrospective account of the framing of the legislation and its intent, see UAA, William Pearce Papers, Acc. 74-169, M9272, file 12, Pearce to F.H. Peters, 16 April 1913.
253. Mitchner, "The Bow River Scheme," 260.
254. D.J. Hall, Clifford Sifton: The Young Napoleon, vol. 1 (Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press, 1981), 255.
255. For a description of the surveys, see Canada, Sessional Papers, 1896, Department of the Interior Annual Report, 1895, J.S. Dennis, "Canadian Irrigation Surveys."
256. John A. Eagle, The Canadian Pacific Railway and the Development of the West, 1896-1914 (Montreal and Kingston: McGill-Queen's University Press, 1989), 196.
257. Mitchner, "William Pearce," 245. Mitchner reports figures from part ill of the Department of the Interior Annual Report, published in 1896.
258. Mitchner, "The Bow River Scheme," 262.
259. "The Irrigation Project of the Canadian Pacific Railway," Engineering News 53 (27 April 1905): 429-31;
260. "Progress on the Canadian Pacific Railway Co.'s Irrigation Works, at and Near Calgary," Engineering News 68 (12 August 1912): 247;
261. H.B. Muckleston, "The Design and Construction of the Bassano Dam - Part ii," Engineering News 72 (3 September 1914): 484-8;
262. David Finch, Much Brain and Sinew: The Brooks Aqueduct Story (Brooks: Eastern Irrigation District, 1993), 12-23.
263. These anecdotal points are drawn from the autobiographical account of Hew Grant Cochrane contained in GA, Hew Grant Cochrane Fonds, M 235; and Muckleston, "The Design and Construction of the Bassano Dam - Part ii." 28 "Biggest Irrigation Plant in America," New York Times, 1 October 1911.
264. Z.E. Black, "America's Greatest Irrigation Project, the Bassano Dam," ScientificAmer-ican 113 (18 September 1915): 252-3.
265. Mitchner, "The Bow River Scheme," 264.
266. On the business of organizing land sales, see the still valuable James B. Hedges, Build-ing the Canadian West: The Land and Colonization Policies of the Canadian Pacific Railway (New York: Russell & Russell, 1939), especially 294-319.
267. Glenbow Library, CPR Pamphlets, undated, but c. 1910: "Public Opinion Concerning the Bow River Valley of Southern Alberta"
268. Mitchner, "The Bow River Scheme," 267.
269. T.E. Randall, "Birds of the Eastern Irrigation District," Canadian Field Naturalist, November-December 1946, 124-31. The current check list of birds on offer from the Eastern Irrigation District lists 237 different species.
270. On the loss of bird habitat in the prairies and the use of agricultural landscapes by birds, see Robert M. Wilson, "Seeking Refuge: Making Space for Migratory Waterfowl and Wetlands Along the Pacific Flyway" (PhD thesis, University of British Columbia, 2003).
271. M6588, Lea N. Kramer, "Ducks Unlimited Canada in the Eastern Irrigation District: A History of Co-operation" (Brooks, 1983), 3-4.
272. For a brisk analysis, see the still useful W.A. Mackintosh, Economic Problems of the Prairie Provinces (Toronto: Macmillan 1935), especially chapters 2 and 3.
273. D.C. Jones, Empire of Dust: Settling and Abandoning the Prairie Dry Belt (Ed-monton: University of Alberta Press, 1987).
274. Burchill, "Alberta's Great Experiment in Community Co-operation: History of the Eastern Irrigation District," Western Farm Leader, 3 June 1938, 3-4.
275. On the forgiving of debt, see C.S. Burchill, "The Eastern Irrigation District," The Canadian Journal of Economics and Political Science 5 (1939): 213.
276. Gross and Kramer, Tapping the Bow, 202.
277. Betty Crook, "This is Another Country: EID Bright Spot on the Bald Prairie," Calgary Herald, 20 August 1938, 19.
278. PFRA, "The Prairie Farm Rehabilitation Act" (Dominion Department of Agricul-ture, n.d.).
279. GA, M3761, box 42, file 367, "Confidential Resolutions Agreed to by the Executive to the Advisory Committee on Land Utilization, PFRA," Meeting held at Regina, 18 and 19 October 1937;
280. "Gardiner Plans to Develop Community Pastures," Calgary Herald, 3 August 1937, 3;
281. "Plan to Set Up Drouth Areas, Move Farmers," Calgary Herald, 13 November 1937, 1;
282. "Community Pastures Are Being Planned for the Prairie Prov-inces," Calgary Herald, 22 January 1938, 20.
283. "Albertans Ineligible for Rehabilitation: Re-settle Saskatchewan Farmers in Alberta Area Because No Government Agreement Made," Calgary Herald, 19 July 1938, 3.
284. "Gardiner Refutes Mullen 'Land Grab' Charges," Calgary Herald, 15 January 1938, 3.
285. AA, Acc. 80.168, Department of Environment, Water Resources Branch, box 13, file 427, "A Group of EID farmers per J. Eade" to D.B. Mullen, Minister of Agriculture, 21 January 1939.
286. "Judge Jackson Named the Commissioner to Probe 'Irregularities' in EID," Calgary Herald, 21 April 1939, 1.
287. "Government Interference Strongly Protested by EID Residents," Calgary Herald, 22 March 1939, 1-2;
288. "Mass Meeting at Brooks Demand EID Board Reinstated at Once until Government Charges Proved," Calgary Herald, 25 March 1939, 1 and 5.
289. AA, Acc. 73.307, Department of Agriculture, box 92, "Commissioner's Report" by J.A. Jackson, into management of the EID, 22 July 1939;
290. Ian Clarke, "Social Credit Overre-action to Innovative Business Practices in the Eastern Irrigation District: 1935-1940," Canadian Papers in Rural History 7 (1990): 293-308.
291. John F. Gilpin, Prairie Promises: History of the Bow River Irrigation District (Vaux-hall, Alta: Bow River Irrigation District), 155-80.
292. GA, Alberta Irrigation Projects Association Fonds, M7804, "Resolutions from Leth-bridge meeting of the Alberta Irrigation Association which forwarded to Ministers of Agriculture in Edmonton and Ottawa" [c. April 1947].
293. Len Ring, director, Irrigation Secretariat, Alberta Agriculture, Food and Rural Development, "Irrigation Infrastructure Rehabilitation in Alberta: 38 Years of Gov-ernment/Industry Cooperation" (paper delivered to the Canadian Society for Bioen-gineering, Edmonton, Alberta, 16-19 July 2006); available at http://asae.frymulti.com/request.asp?JID=5&AID=22091&CID=csbe2006&T=2; accessed 18 January 2008.
294. Ring, "Irrigation Infrastructure Rehabilitation in Alberta." 122 AA, Acc. 79.363, Department of Environment, Water Resources Management Branch, EID Board of Trustees, "Brief Describing Irrigation Districts' Water Needs" January 1952.
295. K. Cannon and D. Went, "Determination of Historical Changes in Salinity," (paper delivered at 37th Annual Alberta Soil Science Workshop, 22-24 February 2000, Med-icine Hat, Alberta); available at http://www1.agric.gov.ab.ca/$department/deptdocs.nsf/all/aesa8421; accessed 21 August 2008.
296. The Thames provides a notorious example of how far this neglect can go before reme-dial action seems necessary in self-defence. See Alwyn Wheeler, The Tidal Thames: A History of a River and Its Fishes (London: Routledge, 1979)
297. Bill Lukin, Pollu-tion and Control: A Social History of the Thames in the Nineteenth Century (Bristol: Hilger, 1986).
298. Marc Cioc, The Rhine: An Eco-Biography, 1815-2000 (Seattle and London: University of Washington Press, 2002)
299. David Blackbourn, The Conquest of Nature: Water, Landscape and the Making of Modern Germany (New York: Norton, 2006).
300. C. Armstrong and H.V. Nelles, Monopoly's Moment: The Organization and Regu-lation of Canadian Utilities, 1830-1930 (Philadelphia: Temple, 1986), 11-33, for a dis-cussion of waterworks politics in Canada's major cities in the nineteenth century.
301. See John Duffy, The Sanitarians: A History of American Public Health (Urbana: Uni-versity of Illinois Press, 1990)
302. Heather MacDougall, Activists and Advocates: Toron-to's Health Department, 1883-1983 (Toronto: Dundurn Press, 1990), chapter 4.
303. G.W. Craig, Report re: Improved Water Supply for Calgary (1916; available in the Glenbow Library); CCA, Engineering and Environmental Services, series VI, Water-works Department Records, box 6, file 35, Water Works Clippings: "Engineer Submits Schemes for New Water Supply," Calgary Albertan, 14 October 1916; Sanders, Water-marks, chapter 3.
304. For a discussion of public health issues in Calgary, see J.P. Dickin McGinnis, "A City Faces an Epidemic," Alberta History 24 (1976): 1-11.
305. There is a small historical litera-ture dealing with public health and water in Canada, focusing mainly upon epidemics and the social disparities in water service. See, for example, Sheila Lloyd, "The Ottawa Typhoid Epidemic of 1911," Urban History Review 8 (1979): 66-89;
306. Chris Warfe, "The Search for Pure Water in Ottawa," Urban History Review 8 (1979): 90-112;
307. Rosemary Gagan, "Mortality Patterns and Public Health in Hamilton, Canada, 1900-14," Urban History Review 17 (1989): 161-76;
308. Francois Guerard, "Ville et sante au Quebec: Un bilan de la recherche historique," Revue d'histoire de l'Amerique francaise 53 (1999): 19-45;
309. John S. Hagopian, "Debunking the Public Health Myth: Municipal Politics and Class Conflict during the Galt, Ontario, Waterworks Campaigns, 1888-1890," Labour/Le Travail 39 (1997): 39-68;
310. Hagopian, "Would the Benefits Trickle Down? An Examination of the Paris, Ontario, Waterworks Campaign of 1882," Ontario History 87 (1995): 129-53;
311. Hagopian, "The Political Geography of Water Provision in Paris, Ontario, 1882-1924," Urban History Review 23 (1994): 32-51;
312. Collen MacNaughton, "Promoting Clean Water in Nineteenth-Century Public Policy: Progressors, Preach-ers, and Polliwogs in Kingston, Ontario," Histoire sociale/Social History 32 (2000): 49-61;
313. Claire Poitras, "Construire les infrastructures d'approvisionnement en eau en banlieue montrealaise au tournant du xxe siecle: le cas de Saint-Louis," Revue d'histoire de l'Amerique francaise 52 (1999): 507-31.
314. Martin Melosi, The Sanitary City: Urban Infrastructure in America from Colonial Times to the Present (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2000), 123-6. After we finished writing this chapter, Jamie Benidickson published The Culture of Flushing: A Social and Legal History of Sewage (Vancouver: UBC Press, 2007). The core chapters of that book provide excellent European and North American context against which to read the Calgary episode treated in this chapter. Calgary conformed to the broad outlines of municipal behavour presented by Benidickson, differing only in the effectiveness of its clean up activities after the 1970s.
315. CCA, Water Supply, Glenmore file, L. Simpson and M. Fedori, "Glenmore Water Treatment Plant, Dam Heritage Evaluation Report," May 1991.
316. George Fuller, Sewage Disposal (New York, 1912), quoted in Melosi, The Sanitary City, 163; GA, G.W. Craig Fonds, Estimate of Cost of Labor and Material for intercepting Sewer along the Elbow River ... to the Bridge at 25th Avenue, 9 April 1914.
317. Jack Peach, 100 Years of Connections 1890-1990 (Calgary: City of Calgary, Sewer Divi-sion, 1990), 1-24.
318. There is a growing literature on sewage disposal in Canadian cities. See, for example, Arn Keeling, "Urban Waste Sinks as a Natural Resource," Urban History Review 35 (2005): 58-70
319. "Sink or Swim: Water Pollution and Environ-mental Politics in Vancouver, 1889-1975," BC Studies 142/3 (2004): 69-101;
320. Robert Gagnon, Question d'egouts: Sante publique, infrastructures et urbanisation a Mon-treal au xixe siecle (Montreal: Boreal, 2006);
321. Catherine Brace, "Public Works in the Canadian City: The Provision of Sewers in Toronto, 1870-1913," Urban History Review 23 (1995): 33-43;
322. Michel Dagnais and Caroline Durand, "Cleaning, Draining and San-itizing the City: Conceptions and Uses of Water in the Montreal Region," Canadian Historical Review 87 (2006): 621-51.
323. Brooks Bulletin, 23 September 1922; Bassano Mail, 4 October 1928; "Bassano Scores Victory in Sewage Dispute," Bassano Mail, 17 January 1929; Bassano Mail, 25 Septem-ber, 9 November 1930.
324. Ralph Klein, "The Filthy Bow: What's Bad For Us Is Even Worse Downstream," Cal-gary Magazine, June 1980, 70-1;
325. "Klein Wants Help to Clean Up Bow River," Calgary Herald, 26 October 1982; Calgary Herald, 27 June 1986.
326. Samuel P. Hays's Beauty, Health and Permanence (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1987) and A History of Environmental Politics since 1945 (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 2000) provide a reliable guide to environmental politics in the United States. J.R. McNeill examines this phenomenon in a global perspective in the last chapter of his Something New Under the Sun: An Environmental History of the Twentieth Century World (New York: Norton, 2000).
327. Alberta Environment, "Alberta Surface Water Quality Guidelines." 56 This shift in civic public policy can be read in documents filed in the City of Calgary Engineering Library, such as City of Calgary Engineering Department, Waterworks Division, The City of Calgary Water Conservation Study (Acres Consulting Serv-ices in association with Gore & Storrie Limited, February 1980), PR80002 c.3
328. Karen A. Saffran, Temporal and Spacial Trends For Coliform Bacteria in the Bow River, 1951-1994 (Edmonton: Surface Water Assessment Branch, Technical Services and Monitoring Division, Alberta Environmental Protection, January 1996)
329. A.J. Sosiak, An Evaluation of Nutrients and Biological Conditions in the Bow River, 1986 to 1988 (Edmonton: Environmental Quality Monitoring Branch, Environmen-tal Assessment Division, Alberta Environment, 1990);
330. Jim McLennan, "The Bow Revisited," Canadian Fly Fisher, Fall 1999, 17-20; we are indebted to our colleague Richard Hoffmann for this reference. Interview with Wolf Keller, acting director, Wastewater, Utilities and Environmental Protection, 8 Decem-ber 2003.
331. For the most recent analysis, see Bow River Basin Council, The 2005 Report on the State of the Bow River Basin (Calgary, 2005), especially chapters 7, 8, and 12.
332. Jim McLennan, Blue Ribbon Bow: A Fly-Fishing History of the Bow River - Cana-da's Greatest Trout Stream (Red Deer: Johnson Gorman, 1998). McLennan quotes an unnamed writer on 55.
333. Richard B. Miller, A Cool Curving World (Toronto: Longmans, 1962), 210-11. The book was completed in 1956 and published posthumously. For a recent indictment of the management of rivers and lakes for fish in Banff National Park, see
334. David W. Schindler, "Aquatic Problems Caused by Human Activities in Banff National Park, Alberta, Canada," Ambio 29 (2000): 401-7.
335. Joseph S. Nelson and Martin J. Paetz, The Fishes of Alberta (Edmonton: University of Alberta Press, 1992), 47-55.
336. Brian J. Smith, "The Historical and Archaeological Evidence for the Use of Fish as an Alternate Subsistence Resource among Northern Plains Bison Hunters," in Aborigi-nal Resource Use in Canada: Historical and Legal Aspects. ed. Kerry Abel and Jean Friesen (Winnipeg: University of Manitoba Press, 1991), 35-50.
337. Hugh Dempsey, Red Crow: Warrior Chief (Saskatoon: Western Producer, 1980).
338. W.H. Bell, Bow River Days: Growing Up in Calgary, 1927-1951 (Nanaimo: Bell Enter-prises, 2000), 33-5.
339. "Bassano Becoming Popular with Visiting Fisherman," Bassano Recorder, 27 July 1939.
340. The title of this section was taken from LAC, RG 84, vol. 70, file B296, "Banff Fish Hatchery Angler's Best Friend," Calgary Herald, 18 June 1925.
341. Thomas R. Dunlap, Nature and the English Diaspora: Environment and History in the United States, Canada, Australia, and New Zealand (New York: Cambridge Univer-sity Press, 1999).
342. Joseph E. Taylor ill, Making Salmon: An Environmental History of the Northwest Fisheries Crisis (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1999).
343. Matthew Evenden, "Locating Science, Locating Salmon: Institutions, Linkages and Spatial Practices in Early British Columbia Fisheries Science," Environment and Plan-ning D: Society and Space 22 (2004): 355-72.
344. Lake Newell was stocked with whitefish sometime in the 1920s: "Prairie Lake Pro-vides Living for 43 Fishermen Near Brooks," Calgary Herald, 15 February 1938.
345. G. Allen Mail, "The Mosquito Fish Gambusia Affinis (Baird and Girard) in Alberta," Mosquito News 14 (1954): 120.
346. Mail claimed to be responsible for an introduction in 1924, but other sources imply earlier introductions. See W.E. Round, "The Mystery of the Mystery Fish Is Now Explained," Crag and Canyon, 11 May 1928. Round suggests an introduction date of 1918, citing E. Hearle, dominion entomologist, as his source. Another document would support this latter claim: LAC, RG 84, vol. 71, file B296-12, Dr H.M. Rogers to Hoyes Lloyd, 18 December 1940.
347. D.E. McAllister, "Introduction of Tropical Fishes into a Hotspring near Banff, Alberta," Canadian Field Naturalist 83 (1969): 31-5;
348. "Hot Water and Mosquito Fish," Crag and Canyon, 22 May 1974.
349. Colpitts, "Science, Streams and Sport"
350. see, in particular, chapter 4, "The 'Ang-ler's Best Friend': The Banff Hatchery and the Ethics of Conservation" (84-107).
351. D.B. Donald, "Assessment of the Outcome of Eight Decades of Trout Stocking in the Mountain National Parks, Canada," North American Journal of Fisheries Manage-ment 7 (1987): 545-53;
352. V.E.F. Solman, J.P. Curruer, and W.C. Cable, "Why Have Fish Hatcheries in Canada's National Parks?" Seventeenth North American Wildlife Con-ference, 1952, 226-34.
353. On the development of the hatchery, see GA, Molson Brewery Papers, M8581, file 597, "The Calgary Fish Hatchery, Calgary Aquarium, and Horseman's Hall of Fame," n.d. [possibly 1967].
354. David W. Schindler, "Aquatic Problems Caused by Human Activities in Banff National Park, Alberta, Canada," Ambio 29 (2000): 402.
355. Elizabeth Tough, "An Investigation of the Potential to Restore Native Trout Popula-tions: Goat Creek, Banff National Park, Alberta" (Master of Environmental Design thesis, University of Calgary, 2000).
356. J.S. Nelson, "Effects of Fish Introductions and Hydroelectric Development on Fishes in the Kananaskis River System, Alberta," Journal of the Fisheries Research Board of Canada 22 (1965): 721-51.
357. For a related study on the Barrier reservoir, see J.R. Nursall, "The Early Development of a Bottom Fauna in a New Power Reservoir in the Rocky Mountains of Alberta," Canadian Journal of Zoology 30 (1952): 387-409.
358. Richard B. Miller and Martin Paetz, "The Effects of Power, Irrigation, and Stock Water Developments on the Fisheries of the South Saskatchewan River," Canadian Fish Culturist 25 (1959): 14.
359. Jean-Paul Cuerrier, "The History of Lake Min-newanka with Reference to the Reaction of Lake Trout to Artificial Changes in the Environment," Canadian Fish Culturist 15 (1954): 1-9.
360. Miller and Paetz, "The Effects of Power, Irrigation, and Stock Water Developments," 25.
361. L.A. Langmore and C.E. Stenton, "The Fish and Fisheries of the South Saskatchewan River Basin: Their Status and Requirements" (Edmonton: Alberta Energy and Natu-ral Resources, Fish and Wildlife Division, 1981), 214.
362. See http://www.bowriver.org/index.htmlandhttp://www.tucanada.org/alberta/fishrescue.htm.
363. "Prairie Lake Provides Living for 43 Fishermen Near Brooks," Calgary Herald, 15 Feb-ruary 1938.
364. "Fishermen to Wind Up Years' Operations," Brooks Bulletin, 23 March 1939.
365. Miller and Paetz, "The Effects of Power, Irrigation and Stock Water Developments," 22.
366. "Ask Fishing in E.I.D. Lakes Be Stopped," Brooks Bulletin, 23 March 1939.
367. Miller and Paetz, "The Effects of Power, Irrigation and Stock Water Developments," 19.
368. "The Sport Fishery in Alberta: Facts and Figures for 1975 and 1980," Fisheries Man-agement Report No. 28 (Edmonton: Alberta Energy and Natural Resources, Fish and Wildlife Division, 1983).
369. L.A. Langmore and C.E. Stenton, "The Fish and Fisheries of the South Saskatchewan River Basin: Their Status and Requirements" (Edmonton: Alberta Energy and Natu-ral Resources, Fish and Wildlife Division, 1981).
370. Jim McLennan, "The Bow Revisited," Canadian Fly Fisher, Fall 1999, 18. Thanks to Richard Hoffmann for bringing this article to our attention.
371. Alberta Wilderness Association, Rivers on Borrowed Time, River Study Team: Hans Buhrmann, Brian Forestall, and Cliff Wallis; Study Coordinator: Ron Hooper (Cal-gary, 1982).
372. S.A. Telang, "Effects of Reservoir-Dam, Urban Industrial, and Sewage Treatment Run-off on the Presence of Oxygen and Organic Compounds in the Bow River," Water, Air and Soil Pollution 50 (1990): 77-90.
373. Lachlin McKinnon, 1865-1948, Pioneer (Calgary: Privately Printed, 1956?), 41-4.
374. N. Smith, Man and Water: A History of Hydro Technology (London: P. Davies, 1976).
375. M.C. Hendry, Bow River Power and Storage Investigations, Water Resources Paper no. 12, Sessional Paper 25e (1914; copy in Glenbow Library).
376. Leo G. Dennis and Arthur V. White, Water Powers of Canada (Ottawa: Commission of Conservation, 1911);
377. Leo G. Dennis and J.B. Challies, Water Powers of Manitoba, Sakatchewan and Alberta (Commission of Conservation, 1916); for the Bow, see 194-225.
378. LAC, RG 89, vol. 560, file 501, Arthur L. Ford, "Report on the Flood Prediction Sur-veys," 18 February 1921 (Water Resources Branch, Ottawa); vol. 632, file 1913, O.H. Hoover, Engineer in Charge, "Bow River Snow Survey, Lake Louise," 6 October 1936.
379. Glenbow Library, Commission to Conduct an Inquiry into Causes and Conditions Contributing to Floods in the Bow River at Calgary, Report (typescript, 1952).
380. The extensive literature on the origins of parks includes, among many others, Donald Edgar, The Royal Parks (London: W.H. Allen, 1986);
381. Erik Orsenna, Andre Le Notre: Gardener to the Sun King (New York: George Braziller, 2001); and Dorothy Stroud, Capability Brown (London: Faber and Faber, 1975).
382. Judith Adams, The Great Amusement Park Industry: A History of Technology and Thrills (Boston: Twayne, 1991);
383. David Nye, Electrifying America: Social Meanings of the New Technology (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1990), 122-3.
384. Alfred Runte, National Parks: The American Experience, 3rd ed. (Lincoln: Univer-sity of Nebraska Press, 1997);
385. Marguerite S. Shaffer, See America First: Tourism and National Identity, 1880-1940 (Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution, 2001), 43-5;
386. Mark D. Barringer, Selling Yellowstone: Capitalism and the Construction of Nature (Lawrence: University of Kansas Press, 2002), 15-27.
387. David Blackbourn, "'Taking the Waters': Meeting Places of the Fashionable World," in Martin H. Geyer and Johannes Paulmann, eds, The Mechanics of Internationalism (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001).
388. Ted Binnema and Melanie Niemi, "'Let the Lines Be Drawn Now': Wilderness Con-servation, the Exclusion of Aboriginal People from Banff National Park in Canada," Environmental History 11 (2006): 724-52.
389. Macdonald is quoted in E.J. Hart, The Place of Bows: Part I, To 1930: Exploring the Heritage of the Banff-Bow Valley (Banff: EJH Literary Enterprises, 1999), 119.
390. R.C. Brown has contended that Macdonald's park policy showed little evidence of enthu-siasm for wilderness preservation, preferring "usefulness" see Brown, "The Doctrine of Usefulness: Natural Resources and National Park Policy in Canada, 1887-1914," in The Canadian National Parks: Today and Tomorrow, vol. 1, ed. J.G. Nelson and R.C. Scace (Calgary: National and Provincial Parks Association and University of Calgary, 1969), 94-110.
391. Alan MacEachern, however, makes the point that Macdon-ald and many contemporaries like Pearce understood that creating a park reserve was necessary to ensure that the area around the hot springs was not simply ruined by unbridled commercial exploitation; see MacEachern, Natural Selections: National Parks in Atlantic Canada, 1935-70 (Montreal and Kingston: McGill-Queen's Univer-sity Press, 2001), 16-18.
392. PearlAnn Reichwein, "Beyond the Visionary Moun-tains: The Alpine Club of Canada and the Canadian National Park Idea, 1906 to 1969" (PhD thesis, Carleton University, 1995), chapters 1-3, which quotes the ACC constitu-tion from the Canadian Alpine Journal, 1907, at 79, as well as an article in that journal in 1986 by
393. Margaret Johnston and J. Marsh, entitled "The Alpine Club of Canada, Conservation and Parks, 1906 to 1930," which claimed, "Many of the statements re-garding the Club's philosophy coincide with statements used contemporaneously to promote the national parks" (80).
394. See especially E.J. Hart, The Selling of Canada: The CPR and the Beginnings of Cana-dian Tourism (Banff: Altitude Publishing, 1983), and one of the early guidebooks pro-duced by local newspaperman and promoter E.J. Luxton and revised annually, 50 Switzerlands in One: Banff the Beautiful, Canada's National Park (Banff: The Crag and Canyon, 1912).
395. E.J. Hart, Golf on the Roof of the World, A History of the Banff Springs Golf Club and Course (Banff: EJH Literary Enterprises, 1999).
396. This museum is now a historic site; see the Banff Park Museum National Historic Site website, www.pc.gc/lhn-nhs/ab/banff. It is also an splendid example of the almost vanished Banff style of cross-log decorative architecture.
397. See Edward Mills, Rustic Building Programs in Canada's National Parks, 1887-1950 (Ottawa: Parks Canada, 1994).
398. Whyte Museum, M317, Canadian Parks Service Papers, F3, S.F. Kun, Director, National Parks Branch, to Maryalice Stewart, Director, Archives of the Canadian Rockies, 9 October 1974, re boundary changes at Banff
399. see also Donald Kerr and Deryck Holdsworth, eds, The Historical Atlas of Canada (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1990), vol. 3, plate 36; and Nelson and Scace, The Canadian National Parks: Today and Tomorrow, vol. 1.
400. Robert C. Scace, "Banff Townsite: An Historical-Geographical View of Urban Development in a Canadian National Park," in Canadian National Parks, ed. J.G. Nelson and R. Scace (Calgary: University of Calgary Press, 1969), 775.
401. Whyte Museum, Parks Canada Papers, M317, F3, Changes in Boundaries and Areas of National Parks, S.F. Kun, Director, National Parks Branch, to Maryalice Stewart, Director, Archives of the Canadian Rockies, 9 October 1974, and Walter Hildebrandt, An Historical Analysis of Parks Canada and Banff National Park, 1968-1995 (Banff: Banff-Bow Valley Task Force, 1995), 5-14.
402. Ben Gadd, Bankhead: The Twenty Year Town (Banff: Friends of Banff National Park, 1989)
403. R.W. Sanford, Lake Minnewanka: The Spirit of the Waters (Banff: Lake Minnewanka Boat Tours, 1999); Hart, The Place of Bows, 230-52.
404. The tendency of motoring tourists to move quickly from place to place with few stops in between was noted from an early date: "driving seemed to impose its own special momentum. Even with the many new sights, drivers could not help but want to go faster, to move on, regardless of immediate attractions"
405. Warren J. Belasco, Amer-icans on the Road: From Autocamp to Motel, 1910-1945 (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1979), 86.
406. Reichwein, "Beyond the Visionary Mountains." 55 The most nuanced analysis of Harkin's thought and policies during this period is to be found in MacEachern's Natural Selections, 28-33. The Harkin quotation is from Hart, The Place of Bows, 223.
407. There is a small but growing literature on the history of parks and the variations in their forms and functions. See, for example, Clare Latimer, Parks for the People: Manchester and Its Parks, 1846-1926 (Manchester: Manchester City Council, 1987);
408. Peter Bailey, Leisure and Class in Victorian Britain (New York: Methuen, 1987)
409. Martin Daunton, House and Home in the Victorian City (London: Edward Arnold, 1983), which in quite different ways emphasize the controlling aspects of parks over the working class. On urban parks in North America
410. David Schuyler, The New Urban Landscape (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1986)
411. Galen Cranz, The Politics of Park Design (Cambridge: MIT Press, 1982)
412. Roy Rosenzweig and Elizabeth Blackmar, The Park and the People (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1992). On the transition from the Arcadian to romantic natural form under the influence of Calvert Vaux and Frederick Law Olmsted
413. Witold Rybczynski, A Clearing in the Distance (New York: Harpers, 1999);
414. Laura Roper, FLO: A Biography of Frederick Law Olmsted (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1973)
415. Charles Beveridge and Paul Rocheleau, Frederick Law Olmsted: Designing the American Landscape (New York: Rizzoli, 1995). On parks more generally
416. William Irwin, The New Niagara (University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 1996)
417. Patricia Jasen, Wild Things: Nature, Culture, and Tourism in Ontario, 1790-1914 (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1995)
418. Linda Martin and Kerry Segrave, The City Parks of Canada (Oakville: Mosaic Press, 1983). For the great variety in contemporary city parks, see
419. Alan Tate, Great City Parks (London: Spon Press, 2001).
420. N.C. Landrum, The State Park Movement in America (Columbia: University of Mis-souri Press, 2004).
421. Gerald Killan, Protected Places: A History of Ontario's Parks System (Toronto: Dun-durn Press, 1993).
422. Sue Anne Donaldson, "William Pearce: His Vision of Trees," Journal of Garden His-tory 3 (1983): 233-44.
423. John Crosby Freeman, "Thomas Mawson: Imperial Missionary of British Town Plan-ning," Revue dart canadienne/Canadian Art Review 2 (1975): 41.
424. Walter Van Nus, "The Fate of City Beautiful Thought in Canada, 1893-1930," in The Canadian City, ed. G. Stelter and A. Artibise (Ottawa: Carleton Library, 1979), 162-85. For the influence of these ideas in the United States
425. W.H. Wilson, The City Beautiful Movement (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1989).
426. The plan is usually treated as a footnote, a sidebar, or a remarkable curiosity in popu-lar histories of Calgary; see, for example, T. Ward, Cowtown: An Album of Early Cal-gary (Calgary: McClelland and Stewart, 1975), 382-3.
427. For perceptive critiques of the Mawson plan, see CCA, E. Joyce Morrow, "Calgary Many Years Hence": The Mawson Report in Perspective (Calgary: City of Calgary and the University of Calgary, 1979)
428. Terry Bullick, Calgary Parks and Pathways (Calgary: Rocky Mountain Books, 1990), 12-14, and At Your Service, 186.
429. Marjorie Norris, A Leaven of Ladies: A History of the Calgary Local Council of Women (Calgary: Detselig, 1995), 198.
430. For a fuller treatment of this incident, see H.V. Nelles, "How Did Calgary Get Its River Parks?" Urban History Review 34 (2005): 28-45. On the continuing role of the women's movement
431. On the history of planning in Canada, see Jill Grant, "Planning Canadian Cities: Context, Continuity and Change," in Canadian Cities in Transition, ed. T. Bunting and P. Filion, 2nd ed. (Toronto: Oxford University Press, 2000), 443-61.
432. Alberta, John Richards and Larry Pratt's landmark book Prairie Capitalism: Power and Influence in the New West (Toronto: McClelland and Stewart, 1979) pro-vides an excellent beginning whose approach has not been extensively followed up by other scholars.
433. Percy, "Federal-Provincial Jurisdictional Issues," Appendix D, 83, in Water Law and Policy Issues in Canada, ed. Harriet Rueggeberg and Andrew R. Thompson (Vancouver: Westwater Research Centre, 1984).
434. See the government of Canada's Indian and Northern Affairs website, www.ainc-inac.gc.ca/pr/trts/trty7_e.html, for a copy of Treaty and Supplementary Treaty 7 made 22 September and 4 December 1877 between Her Majesty the Queen and the Blackfeet and other Indian Tribes, at Blackfoot Crossing of Bow River and Fort MacLeod. For the context
435. Ian A.L. Getty and Donald B. Smith, eds, One Century Later: Western Canadian Reserve Indians Since Treaty 7 (Vancouver: UBC Press, 1978).
436. Glenbow Library, Map Collection, GR3503 IR146 1883, C212, Treaty No. 7, "Survey of the boundaries of the Blackfoot Indian Reserve on the Bow River, Nor'West Territo-ries and settled by amended Treaty, June 20, 1993."
437. Glenbow Library, Map Collection, G3503 IR142 1890, M297, "Map of the Stoney Reserve," and a slightly later version, G3503 IR142 1889, C212; see note 3 above.
438. On the history of federal-provincial conflict over water control, see Christopher Armstrong, The Politics of Federalism (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1981)
439. Neil Forkey, Shaping the Upper Canadian Frontier (Calgary: University of Cal-gary Press, 2003).
440. We have relied heavily upon David R. Percy, "Water Rights in Alberta," Alberta Law Review 15 (1977): 142-65
441. Percy, "Seventy-Five Years of Alberta Water Law," 223n7, notes that the original act (Canada, Statutes, 1894, c. 30) merely followed the Australian precedent in granting control of water use, while the 1895 amending act (c. 33, s.2) vested ownership of all water in the Crown.
442. We benefited greatly from Roderick I. Stutt, "Water Policy-Making in the Canadian Plains: Historical Factors that Influenced the Work of the Prairie Provinces Water Board (1948-1969)" (PhD thesis, University of Regina, 1995), 73-4. We also read the Alberta collection of documents relating to this body in various series in the AA and the annual reports of the PPWB in the Alberta Government Library. Our research assistant, Liza Piper, examined the main body of PPWB papers in the Saskatchewan Archives.
443. Stutt, "Water Policy-Making," 79.
444. This unpublished document, dated 1947, is discussed in Stutt, "Water Policy-Making," 86-9, from which the following is drawn.
445. Stutt, "Water Policy-Making," 81-5. Alberta's activities are documented in AA, Acc. 72.303, Agriculture Department Deputy Minister's Records, file 353, box 7, Special Committee on Water, 1949.
446. Stutt, "Water Policy-Making," 107.
447. Nollet to L.B. Thomson, 4 May 1949, in Stutt, "Water Policy-Making," 108.
448. Stutt, "Water Policy-Making," 105.
449. Jack Glenn, Once upon an Oldman: Special Interest Politics and the Oldman River Dam (Vancouver: UBC Press, 1999), 25-42, provides the best available overview. When its sunset clause kicked in, the Environment Conservation Agency was sub-sequently restructured as the Environmental Council of Alberta with the intent of bringing it more closely into line with government policy.
450. See Mayor Klein presentation, AWRC, Hearings, Calgary, vol. 1, 4-25, 19-20, for his observations as a fisher on the river.
451. Alberta Legislative Library, AWRC, Water Management in the South Saskatchewan River Basin: Report and Recommendations (Edmonton, 1986; typescript), and AWRC Annual Report, 1986/87.
452. "The Blob from the Bow River," Alberta Report, 20 November 1989, 31;
453. "Klein checks on toxic cleanup," Calgary Herald, 5 November 1989.
454. "Post-industrial poison: Calgary begins cleaning up at Canada Creosote," Alberta Report, 22 April 1991, 30;
455. "Creosote cleanup set: new method to get tryout on Bow River," Calgary Herald, 21 March 1990;
456. "River cleanup costly 'nightmare:' toxic creo-sote bill to suck up millions from taxpayers' purse," Calgary Herald, 31 May 1991;
457. "Bow River oil slick nearly contained," Calgary Herald, 7 July 1991;
458. "Bow creosote cleanup begins," Calgary Herald, 27 September 1991;
459. "Engineering nightmare carries costly price tag," Globe and Mail, 12 June 1991.
460. Ralph Klein, "The Filthy Bow: What's Bad For Us Is Even Worse Downstream," Cal-gary Magazine, June 1980, 70-1;
461. "Klein wants help to clean up Bow River," Calgary Herald, 26 October 1982;
462. "Klein, Kowalski as Ottawa to aid in Bow River cleanup," Calgary Herald, 27 June 1986.
463. Report of the Bow River Water Quality Task Force, Preserving Our Lifeline (Calgary: November 1991), "Terms of Reference," 61.
464. "Urban users have big impact on Bow River," Calgary Herald, 7 December 1991.
465. Marc Cioc, The Rhine: An Eco-Biography, 1815-2000 (Seattle: University of Washing-ton Press, 2002), 199.
466. Preserving Our Lifeline: A Report on the State of the Bow River (Calgary: Bow River Water Quality Council, October 1994);
467. "Bow River fails to make grade downstream," Calgary Herald, 15 October 1994.
468. See, for details, the Ducks Unlimited Canada, Canada's Conservation Company web-site at http://www.ducks.ca/province/ab/.
469. Janice MacDonald, Canoeing Alberta (Red Deer: Lone Pine Publishers, 1985).
470. Jim McLennan, Blue Ribbon Bow: A History of the Bow River - Canada's Greatest Trout Stream (Edmonton: Lone Pine Publishing, 1987), and the second edition, titled Blue Ribbon Bow: A Fly-Fishing History of the Bow River - Canada's Greatest Trout Stream (Red Deer: Johnson and Gorman Books, 1998). Quotations are from the 1998 edition: 55, 63, and 70.
471. Ted Godwin, Lower Bow: A Celebration of Wilderness, Art and Fishing (Calgary: Hard Art Moving and Storage Company, 1991).
472. Donald W. Irwin, Banff: Visitors' Activities and Regional Growth (Calgary: University of Calgary, Faculty of Environmental Design, n.d. [c. 1975]), 18.
473. John H. Thompson et al., Household Survey, vol. 4 of the Alberta Forestry, Lands and Wildlife Department, Bow River Recreation Survey, 1987 (University of Calgary Library, GV 181.46 B69 1987) vol. 4; the other three volumes appear to be missing.
474. Canadian Parks and Wilderness Society, The Bow Valley: A Very Special Place (Cal-gary, n.d. [early 1990s]) (copy in Glenbow Library, PAM 333.73 L498b).
475. See Banff-Bow Valley Task Force, Banff-Bow Valley: At The Crossroads Summary Report (Ottawa, 1996), 9-11, 20-4, for the vision statement arrived at.
476. See, for example, Parks Canada, "Unimpaired for Future Generations"? 2 vols. (Ottawa, 2000)
477. Parks Canada, First Priority: Progress Report on Implementa-tion of Recommendations of the Panel on Ecological Integrity of Canada's National Parks (Ottawa, 2001). Canada's National Park Act was amended in February 2001 to strengthen the ecological integrity clause.
478. http://www.biosphereinstitute.org/
479. http://www.bowriverkeepr.org. http://www.riverkeeper.org/ is the link to the cen-tral organization. For a history of this movement
480. John F. Kennedy Jr and John Cronin, The Riverkeeper (New York: Scribner, 1997), and a Princeton BA thesis copied on this site
481. Charles Scribner, "The History of Waterkeeper Alliance: An International Grassroots Movement Flows from the Hudson" (Princeton University, Department of History, April 2005).
482. http://www1.calgary.ca/bcc/BCC35.asp.
483. See, for example, David Schindler and W.F. Donahue, "An Impending Water Crisis in Canada's Western Prairie Provinces," Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, Environmental Sciences Inaugural Article, 10 April 2006 (10.1073/pnas.0601568103).
484. Andrew Nikiforuk, "Water Shock: Smaller snowfalls, shrinking glaciers, and a grow-ing population could mean Calgary's well is about to run dry," Avenue Magazine, April, 2003, 41-9;
485. Robert William Sanford, Water, Weather and the Mountain West (Vancouver: RNB Alliance, 2007), 45-50;
486. "Glaciers shrinking that feed Calgary water supply: Alta environment minister," Canadian Press Newswire, 21 April 2004.
487. Conclusion 1 Rob de Loe and Reid Kreutzwiser, "Challenging the Status Quo: The Evolution of Water Governance in Canada," in Eau Canada: The Future of Canada's Water, ed. Karen Bakkar (Vancouver: UBC Press, 2007), 90.
488. For a broad statement of this transition, see Samuel P. Hays, Beauty, Health and Per-manence: Environmental Politics in the United States, 1955-1985 (New York: Cam-bridge University Press, 1987).
489. A more focused and highly suggestive case study of this process is explored in Gregory Summers, Consuming Nature: Environmentalism in the Fox River Valley, 1850-1950 (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 2006).
490. For the policy document and legislation, see http://www.waterforlife.gov.ab.ca/.
491. David R. Percy, "Responding to Water Scarcity in Western Canada," Texas Law Review 83 (2005): 2091-107;
492. Marc Cioc, The Rhine: An Eco-Biography, 1815-2000 (Seattle and London: University of Washington Press, 2002), 179.
493. See, for example, the organization American Rivers, which champions dam removal and the re-wilding of rivers: http://www.amr.convio.net.
494. For information on the rehabilitation of the Grand River and its status as a Heritage River and benchmark performance over the past decade, see the website of the Grand River Conservation Authority, http://www.grandriver.ca/index.cfm.
495. John B. Sprague, "Great Wet North? Canada's Myth of Water Abundance," in Eau Canada, ed. Bakkar, 23-35.
496. Alberta, Agriculture and Rural Development, Irrigation in Alberta (Edmonton, 2000), 2; available at http://www1.agric.gov.ab.ca/$department/deptdocs.nsf/all/irr7197.
497. see the report on the 2004 flood: http://www.calgary.ca/docgallery/bu/water_services/emergency_planning/2005_flood/full_report_on_flooding.pdf.
498. Ardith Walkem, "The Land is Dry: Indigenous Peoples, Water, and Environmental Justice," in Eau Canada, ed. Bakkar, 303-19, and Richard Bartlett, Aboriginal Water Rights in Canada: A Study in Aboriginal Title to Water and Indian Water Rights (Cal-gary: Canadian Institute of Resources Law, 1986).
499. D.W. Schindler and W.F. Donahue, "An Impending Water Crisis in Canada's West-ern Prairie Provinces," Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 103 (2006): 7210-16.