Mule south to tractor south: Mules, machines, agriculture, and culture in the south, 1850-1950

Mule South to Tractor South: Mules, Machines, Agriculture, and Culture in The South, 1850-1950

Volumn , Issue , 2007, Pages 1-219

  Ellenberg, George B ^a  

^a NONE

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EID: 84897207746     PISSN: None     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book    
DOI: None     Document Type: Book

References (487)

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6. Ann Norton Greene, "Harnessing Power: Industrializing the Horse in Nineteenth Century America" (PhD diss., University of Pennsylvania, 2004), 4.
7. Roger Wade West, " 'God's eunuch race': The Mule in Southern Literature and Folk Culture" (PhD diss., University of Southern Mississippi, 1996), 3.
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11. Cobb, Away down South 7.
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30. Barclay, Role of the Horse 131-32.
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32. William Faulkner, Absalom, Absalom! (New York: Random House, 1936), 162.
33. Sam Bowers Hilliard, Atlas of Antebellum Southern Agriculture (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1984), 47.
34. Greene, "Harnessing Power" 90.
35. Wilbur Cash, The Mind of the South (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1941), 9-10.
36. William M. Mathew, Edmund Ruffin and the Crisis of Slavery in the Old South: The Failure of Agricultural Reform (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1988).
37. William J. Cooper, "The Cotton Crisis in the Antebellum South: Another Look, " Agricultural History 49 (April 1975): 381-91.
38. Alan I. Marcus and Howard P. Segal, Technology in America: A Brief History (New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1989), 96.
39. John Niven, The Coming of the Civil War, 1837-1861 (Arlington Heights, IL: Harlan Davidson, 1990), 9.
40. John McCardell, The Idea of a Southern Nation: Southern Nationalists and Southern Nationalism, 1830-1860 (New York: W. W. Norton, 1979), 3-9.
41. Mark M. Smith, Listening to Nineteenth- Century America (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2001), 17.
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43. Mark M. Smith, Mastered by the Clock: Time, Slavery, and Freedom in the American South (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1997).
44. Joseph P. Reidy, From Slavery to Agrarian Capitalism in the Cotton Plantation South: Central Georgia, 1800-1880 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1992), 39-40.
45. Smith, Mastered by the Clock 4.
46. Cornelius Oliver Cathey, Agricultural Developments in North Carolina, 1783-1860 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1956), 35.
47. John Hebron Moore, The Emergence of the Cotton Kingdom in the Old Southwest: Mississippi, 1770-1860 (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1988), 51-52.
48. J. Carlyle Sitterson, Sugar Country: The Cane Sugar Industry in the South, 1753- 1950 (Lexington: University of Kentucky Press, 1953), 52.
49. James C. Bonner, A History of Georgia Agriculture, 1732-1860 (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1964), 137.
50. Bonner, History of Georgia Agriculture 137.
51. Stoll, Larding the Lean Earth 30.
52. Joyce Chaplin, An Anxious Pursuit: Agricultural Innovation and Modernity in the Lower South, 1730-1815 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1993), 252.
53. George F. Lemmer, "Early Agricultural Editors and Their Farm Philosophies, " Agricultural History 31 (October 1957): 3-22.
54. Cooper, "Cotton Crisis in the Antebellum South" 383.
55. Lemmer, "Early Agricultural Editors" 3.
56. Stoll, Larding the Lean Earth 26-27.
57. Bonner, History of Georgia Agriculture 56.
58. Greene, "Harnessing Power" 75.
59. Richard L. Troutman, "Plantation Life in the Ante- bellum Bluegrass Region of Kentucky" (master's thesis, University of Kentucky, 1955), 77.
60. Robert Byron Lamb, The Mule in Southern Agriculture (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1963), 35.
61. James O. Farmer Jr., The Metaphysical Confederacy: James Henley Thornwell and the Synthesis of Southern Values (Macon, GA: Mercer University Press, 1986), 5.
62. Percy Wells Bidwell and John I. Falconer, History of Agriculture in the Northern United States, 1620-1860 (Washington, D.C.: Carnegie Institution of Washington, 1925), 111.
63. Bidwell and Falconer, History of Agriculture 113.
64. Harvey Riley, The Mule: A Treatise on the Breeding, Training, and Uses to Which He May Be Put (New York: Dick and Fitzgerald, 1867), 3.
65. J. S. Skinner, "The Ass and the Mule, " in William Youatt, The Horse (New York: Leavitt and Allen, 1843), 431.
66. François André Michaux, Travels to the Westward of the Allegany Mountains, in the States of the Ohio, Kentucky, and Tennessee, and Return to Charlestown, through the Upper Carolinas (London: J. Mawman, 1805), 66.
67. G. Terry Sharrer, A Kind of Fate: Agricultural Change in Virginia, 1861-1920 (Ames: Iowa State University Press, 2000).
68. Michaux, Travels 233.
69. Jack Temple Kirby, Rural Worlds Lost: The American South, 1920-1960 (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1987), 200.
70. Ray Mathis, Mary Mathis, and Douglas Clare Purcell, eds., John Horry Dent Farm Journals and Account Books, 1840-1892 (Tuscaloosa: published for the Historic Chatta-hoochee Commission by University of Alabama Press, 1977).
71. Skinner, "The Ass and the Mule" 431.
72. Kyle Dean Kauffman, "The Use of Draft Animals in America: Economic Factors in the Choice of an Early Motive Power" (PhD diss., University of Illinois at Urbana- Champaign, 1993), 4-5.
73. Mathis, Mathis, and Purcell, Dent Farm Journals, February 26, 1856, 3:172.
74. Mathis, Mathis, and Purcell, Dent Farm Journals, February 8, 1859, 5:37.
75. Mathis, Mathis, and Purcell, Dent Farm Journals, February 21, 1860, 5:151.
76. Bonner, History of Georgia Agriculture 138.
77. Kauffman, Use of Draft Animals 6.
78. John Frederic Olson, "The Occupational Structure of Plantation Slave Labor in the Late Antebellum Era" (PhD diss., Rochester, NY: University of Rochester, 1983), 67-68.
79. John Frederic Olson, "The Occupational Structure of Plantation Slave Labor in the Late Antebellum Era" (1983), Ibid., 71.
80. Mathis, Mathis, and Purcell, Dent Farm Journals, February 5-23, 5:14-22.
81. Olson, "Occupational Structure" 71.
82. Forrest McDonald and Grady McWhiney, "The Antebellum Southern Herdsman: A Reinterpretation, " Journal of Southern History 41 (May 1975): 147-66.
83. Stephanie McCurry, Masters of Small Worlds: Yeoman Households, Gender Relations, and the Political Culture of the Antebellum South Carolina Low Country (New York: Oxford University Press, 1995).
84. Steven Hahn, The Roots of Southern Populism: Yeoman Farmers and the Transformation of the Georgia Upcountry, 1850-1890 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1983).
85. Lacy K. Ford, Origins of Southern Radicalism: The South Carolina Upcountry, 1800- 1860 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1988).
86. James Oakes, Slavery and Freedom: An Interpretation of the Old South (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1990).
87. Harold D. Woodman, King Cotton and His Retainers: Financing and Marketing the Cotton Crop of the South, 1800-1925 (Lexington: University of Kentucky Press, 1968).
88. Gavin Wright, The Political Economy of the Cotton South: Households, Markets, and Wealth in the Nineteenth Century (New York: W. W. Norton, 1978).
89. Fred A. Bailey, "Class and Tennessee's Confederate Generation, " Journal of Southern History 51 (February 1985): 60.
90. James Oakes, The Ruling Race: A History of American Slaveholders (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1982).
91. Oakes, "From Republicanism to Liberalism: Ideological Change and the Crisis of the Old South, " American Quarterly 37 (Fall 1985): 551-71.
92. Steven Hahn, "The Yeomanry of the Nonplantation South: Upper Piedmont Georgia, 1850-1860, " in Class, Conflict, and Consensus: Antebellum Southern Community Studies, ed. Orville Vernon Burton and Robert C. McMath Jr. (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1982), 36.
93. Terry G. Jordan, "The Imprint of the Upper and Lower South on Mid- Nineteenth Century Texas, " Annals of the Association of American Geographers 57 (December 1967): 667-90.
94. Lamb, Mule in Southern Agriculture 63, 65.
95. Ellis Merton Coulter, Old Petersburg and the Broad River Valley of Georgia: Their Rise and Decline (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1965), 23.
96. Ford, Origins of Southern Radicalism 46.
97. Ford, Origins of Southern Radicalism 46.
98. Frederick A. Bode and Donald E. Ginter, Farm Tenancy and the Census in Antebellum Georgia (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1986), 4.
99. Steven Hahn, "The 'Unmaking' of the Southern Yeomanry: The Transformation of the Georgia Upcountry, 1860-1890, " in The Countryside in the Age of Capitalist Transformation: Essays in the Social History of Rural America, ed. Steven Hahn and Jonathan Prude (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1985), 183.
100. Eugene D. Genovese, "Yeomen Farmers in a Slaveholders' Democracy, " Agricultural History 49 (April 1975): 331-42.
101. Wright, Political Economy of the Cotton South 55.
102. Randolph B. Campbell, "Intermittent Slave Ownership: Texas as a Test Case, " Journal of Southern History 51 (February 1985): 15-23.
103. James Oakes, "Intermittent Slave Ownership: Texas as a Test Case: A Response, " Journal of Southern History 51 (February 1985): 23-28.
104. Randolph B. Campbell, "Intermittent Slave Ownership: Texas as a Test Case: A Rejoinder, " Journal of Southern History 51 (February 1985): 29-30.
105. Lamb, Mule in Southern Agriculture 34.
106. Lamb, Mule in Southern Agriculture Ibid., 37.
107. Lamb, Mule in Southern Agriculture Ibid., 37-43.
108. Lamb, Mule in Southern Agriculture Ibid., 45.
109. W. Hustace Hubbard, Cotton and the Cotton Market (New York: D. Appleton, 1923), 21.
110. Leighton, "Mule as a Cultural Invention" 50.
111. Alfred Glaze Smith Jr., Economic Readjustment of an Old Cotton State: South Carolina, 1820-1860 (Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 1958), 79-80.
112. Michaux, Travels 232-33.
113. Riley, Mule 34.
114. Cathey, Agricultural Developments 186.
115. Dent, Donkey 105-6.
116. Lamb, Mule in Southern Agriculture 32.
117. Lewis Cecil Gray, History of Agriculture in the Southern United States to 1860 (New York: Peter Smith, 1941), 80.
118. Dent, Donkey 111-12.
119. Edwin Morris Betts, Thomas Jefferson's Farm Book (Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 1976), 48.
120. Gray, History of Agriculture 612.
121. J. H. Powell, "General Washington and the Jack Ass, " South Atlantic Quarterly 52 (April 1953): 238-52.
122. Kirby, Rural Worlds Lost 196.
123. Worth Estes, "Henry Clay as a Livestock Breeder, " Filson Club History Quarterly 32 (October 1958): 352.
124. Amelia Clay Van Meter Rogers, "Ashland: The Home of Henry Clay" (master's thesis, University of Kentucky, 1934), 19.
125. Richard Laverne Troutman, "Henry Clay and His 'Ashland' Estate, " Filson Club History Quarterly 30 (April 1956): 167.
126. Rogers, "Ashland" 16.
127. Troutman, "Henry Clay" 168.
128. Richard L. Troutman, "The Social and Economic Structure of Kentucky Agriculture, 1850-1860" (PhD diss., University of Kentucky, 1958), 96.
129. Troutman, "Henry Clay" 168.
130. Gray, History of Agriculture 854.
131. Troutman, "Henry Clay" 169.
132. Troutman, "Plantation Life" 74.
133. Bidwell and Falconer, History of Agriculture 447.
134. Troutman, "Henry Clay" 168.
135. Estes, "Henry Clay as a Livestock Breeder" 352.
136. Troutman, "Henry Clay" 169.
137. Gray, History of Agriculture 852.
138. L. W. Knight, "Reminiscences of Jacks and Jack Breeders, " in American Jack Stock Stud Book (Nashville: American Breeders Association of Jacks and Jennets, 1891), 1:26-27.
139. Briggs and Briggs, Modern Breeds of Livestock 773.
140. J. T. Warder, "Mule Raising, " in Annual Report of the Commissioner of Agriculture, 1863 (Washington, D.C., 1863), 185.
141. Troutman, "Plantation Life" 75.
142. Gray, History of Agriculture 854.
143. Terry G. Jordan, "The Imprint of the Upper and Lower South on Mid-Nineteenth Century Texas, " Annals of the Association of American Geographers 57 (December 1967): 669.
144. John Solomon Otto, Southern Agriculture during the Civil War Era, 1860-1880 (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1994), 93.
145. Michaux, Travels 234.
146. Elizabeth L. Parr, "Kentucky's Overland Trade with the Ante- Bellum South, " Filson Club History Quarterly 2 (January 1928): 76.
147. Parr, "Kentucky's Overland Trade" 75.
148. Parr, "Kentucky's Overland Trade" 72-73, 75.
149. Robert Louis Jones, "The Horse and Mule Industry in Ohio to 1865, " Mississippi Valley Historical Review 33 (June 1946): 86.
150. Troutman, "Plantation Life" 78.
151. Gray, History of Agriculture 840.
152. Parr, "Kentucky's Overland Trade" 77.
153. Parr, "Kentucky's Overland Trade" 74.
154. Michaux, Travels 234.
155. Troutman, "Social and Economic Structure" 103.
156. Troutman, "Plantation Life" 76.
157. Bidwell and Falconer, History of Agriculture 447.
158. George H. Dacy, "Missouri Mules Make Money, " Breeder's Gazette 78 (August 26, 1920): 335.
159. Parr, "Kentucky's Overland Trade" 73-74.
160. Thomas D. Clark, "The Trade between Kentucky and the Cotton Kingdom in Livestock, Hemp and Slaves from 1840 to 1860" (master's thesis, University of Kentucky, 1929), 37.
161. Dacy, "Missouri Mules Make Money" 335.
162. Paul C. Heinlein, "Shifting Range- Feeder Patterns in the Ohio Valley before 1860, " Agricultural History 31 (January 1957): 1.
163. "History of Organization, " in American Jack Stock Stud Book (Nashville: American Breeders Association of Jacks and Jennets, 1891), 1:11-12.
164. Briggs and Briggs, Modern Breeds of Livestock 773.
165. J. J. Hooper and W. S. Anderson, "Jack Stock of Kentucky, " in Kentucky Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 176 (November 30, 1913), 362.
166. Knight, "Reminiscences of Jacks and Jack Breeders" 1:30-35.
167. Harry Bernstein, "Spanish Influence in the United States: Economic Aspects, " Hispanic American Historical Review 18 (February 1938): 49.
168. Bidwell and Falconer, History of Agriculture 447.
169. Dacy, "Missouri Mules Make Money" 335.
170. C. Allan Jones, Texas Roots: Agriculture and Rural Life before the Civil War (College Station: Texas A&M University Press, 2005), 192-94.
171. Odie B. Faulk, "Ranching in Spanish Texas, " Hispanic American Historical Review 45 (May 1965): 265.
172. William R. Ferris, Mule Trader: Ray Lum's Tales of Horses, Mules, and Men (Jackson: University Press of Mississippi, 1998).
173. Joshua A. Lee, With Their Ears Pricked Forward: Tales of Mules I've Known ( Winston- Salem, NC: John F. Blair, 1980), 1.
174. L. W. Knight, The Breeding and Rearing of Jacks, Jennets and Mules (Nashville: Cumberland Press, 1902), 13.
175. Lawrence J. Nelson, "Welfare Capitalism on a Mississippi Plantation in the Great Depression, " Journal of Southern History 50 (May 1984): 230.
176. Nelson, "Welfare Capitalism" 230.
177. Read P. Dunn Jr., Mr. Oscar: A Story of the Early Years in the Life and Times of Oscar Johnston and of His Efforts in Organizing the National Cotton Council (Memphis, TN: National Cotton Council of America, 1991), 16.
178. Nelson, "Welfare Capitalism" 244-45.
179. Daniel, Breaking the Land 100-105.
180. James C. Cobb, The Most Southern Place on Earth: The Mississippi Delta and the Roots of Regional Identity (New York: Oxford University Press, 1992), 189-92.
181. Lee, With Their Ears Pricked Forward 2.
182. Roger Butterfield, "Missouri Mule Trader, " Life (January 26, 1948): 111.
183. Harry Crews, "The Mythic Mule, " Southern Magazine 1 (January 1987): 22.
184. Butterfield, "Missouri Mule Trader" 108.
185. Lee, With Their Ears Pricked Forward 2-3.
186. Butterfield, "Missouri Mule Trader" 114.
187. Frank C. Mills, History of American Jacks and Mules (Hutchinson, KS: Hutch- Line, 1971), 70. 123.
188. Knight, Breeding and Rearing of Jacks, Jennets and Mules 49.
189. Bonner, History of Georgia Agriculture 138.
190. Mills, History of American Jacks and Mules 70.
191. "Mule Mixup, " Time 50 (July 14, 1947): 87.
192. Danner, Luebke, and Raskopf, Facilities and Agencies 27.
193. Butterfield, "Missouri Mule Trader" 105-6.
194. Bonner, History of Georgia Agriculture 138.
195. Cathey, Agricultural Developments 185.
196. Moore, Emergence of the Cotton Kingdom 55.
197. Owsley, Plain Folk 48.
198. Paul W. Gates, The Farmer's Age: Agriculture, 1815-1860 (New York: Harper Torchbooks, 1960), 230.
199. Report of the Commissioner of Patents for the Year 1850, Agriculture (Washington, D.C., 1851), 188.
200. Report of the Commissioner of Patents for the Year 1851, Agriculture (Washington, D.C., 1852), 320.
201. Report of the Commissioner of Patents for the Year 1851, Agriculture (1852), Ibid., 331.
202. Julius Rubin, "The Limits of Agricultural Progress in the Nineteenth- Century South, " Agricultural History 49 (April 1975): 362-73.
203. Report of the Commissioner of Patents for the Year 1849, Agriculture (Washington, D.C., 1850), 312.
204. Report of the Commissioner of Patents for the Year 1851, Agriculture, 335.
205. Report of the Commissioner of Patents for the Year 1851, Agriculture, Ibid., 338.
206. Report of the Commissioner of Patents for the Year 1849, Agriculture, 310-11.
207. Weymouth T. Jordan, Hugh Davis and His Alabama Plantation (Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 1948).
208. Gray, History of Agriculture 699.
209. Charles S. Davis, The Cotton Kingdom in Alabama (Montgomery: Alabama State Department of Archives and History, 1939), 186-87.
210. Report of the Commissioner of Patents for the Year 1853, Agriculture (Washington, D.C., 1854), 34.
211. Rubin, "Limits of Agricultural Progress" 362-73.
212. Warder, "Mule Raising" 183.
213. J. O. Williams, Mule Production, United States Department of Agriculture Farmers' Bulletin No. 1341 (Washington, D.C., 1948), 6.
214. J. H. Powell, "General Washington and the Jack Ass, " South Atlantic Quarterly 52 (April 1953): 246.
215. J. O. Williams, Mule Production 6.
216. Riley, Mule 65.
217. J. O. Williams, Mule Production 7.
218. A. L. French, "Raising Colts of Quality: The Day of the Near- Horse Is Passing, " Progressive Farmer 35 (January 24, 1920): 23.
219. "Last Chance to Register Jacks and Jennets as Foundation Stock, " Progressive Farmer 35 (May 15, 1920): 34.
220. Crews, "Mythic Mule" 23.
221. Report of the Commissioner of Patents for the Year 1853, Agriculture, 28.
222. Gates, Farmer's Age 230.
223. "Can the South Raise Its Own Horses?" Southern Planter (February 1873): 78.
224. Clarence Leroy Holmes, "Horses and Mules in American Agriculture, with Special Reference to Their Function in Agricultural Production" (PhD diss., University of Wisconsin, 1921), 59-60.
225. Hubbard, Cotton 22.
226. "Mules of the Right Type and How to Get Them, " Southern Agriculturist 55 (March 1, 1925): 2.
227. Tait Butler, "What Are We Going to Do about Our Supply of Horses and Mules?" Progressive Farmer 41 (July 17, 1926): 772.
228. Tait Butler, "Horse and Mule Shortage in Five Years Probable, " Progressive Farmer 42 (June 25, 1927): 712.
229. Butterfield, "Missouri Mule Trader" 114.
230. Alfred Charles True, A History of Agricultural Extension Work in the United States, 1785-1923, USDA Miscellaneous Publication 15 (Washington, D.C., October 1928), 115.
231. Joseph Cannon Bailey, Seaman A. Knapp: Schoolmaster of American Agriculture (New York: Columbia University Press, 1975).
232. Tait Butler, "How Should Idle Work Stock Be Wintered?" Progressive Farmer 39 (January 12, 1924): 30.
233. USDA, " Dearth of Farm Work Animals, " Official Record 4 (May 6, 1925): 3.
234. USDA, "Shortage of Good Work Stock Expected in Five Years, " Official Record 6 (September 14, 1927): 8.
235. USDA, "Improvement Noted: Horse and Mule Prices, " Official Record 7 (April 18, 1928): 5.
236. USDA, Official Record 8 (August 22, 1929): 4.
237. USDA, "Horse and Mule Prices Hold Up, " Official Record 11 (September 10, 1932): 193.
238. Eugene D. Rutland, "Let's Raise Spring Colts, " Southern Agriculturist 70 (February 1940): 34.
239. Herman Clarence Nixon, Forty Acres and Steel Mules (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1938), n.p.
240. Jack Wooten, "Raise Their Own, " Southern Agriculturist 70 (January 1940): 19.
241. Wooten, "Raise Their Own" 19.
242. Victor Perlo, The Negro in Southern Agriculture (New York: International Publishers, 1953), 40.
243. Edwin Ware Hullinger, Plowing Through: The Story of the Negro in Agriculture (New York: William Morrow, 1940), 22-52.
244. J. C. Holton, "Hot Tips for Cold Months, " Southern Agriculturist 67 (December 1937): 5.
245. J. R. Allgyer, "Artifi cial Insemination Programs for the Improvement of Livestock, " Proceedings of the Fortieth Annual Convention of the Association of Southern Agricultural Workers, 1939 (Association of Southern Agricultural Workers, n.d.), 94.
246. Nelson, "Welfare Capitalism" 226-32.
247. Dacy, "Missouri Mules Make Money" 335.
248. George B. Ellenberg, "Debating Farm Power: Draft Animals, Tractors, and the United States Department of Agriculture, " Agricultural History 74 (Summer 2000): 545-68.
249. Tait Butler, "How Should Idle Work Stock?" 30.
250. Jack Temple Kirby, "The Transformation of Southern Plantations, c. 1920- 1960, " Agricultural History 57 (July 1983): 257-76.
251. Cobb, Most Southern Place on Earth 253-54.
252. Pete Daniel, "Going among Strangers: Southern Reactions to World War II, " Journal of American History 77 (December 1990): 887-88.
253. Susan Dorothy Jones, "Animal Value, Veterinary Medicine, and the Domestic Animal Economy in the United States, 1890-1930" (PhD diss., University of Pennsylvania, 1997), 186.
254. Derry, Horses in Society 233.
255. Stoll, Larding the Lean Earth 212.
256. Joe R. Motheral, "The Family Farm and the Three Traditions, " Journal of Farm Economics 33 (November 1951): 514-29.
257. Donald H. Grubbs, Cry from the Cotton: The Southern Tenant Farmers' Union and the New Deal (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1971).
258. Pete Daniel, Lost Revolutions: The South in the 1950s (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press for Smithsonian National Museum of American History, 2000).
259. Deborah Fitzgerald, "Beyond Tractors: The History of Technology in American Agriculture, " Technology and Culture 32 (January 1991): 116.
260. Deborah Fitzgerald, Every Farm a Factory: The Industrial Ideal in American Agriculture (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2003), 110.
261. Robert E. Ankli, "Horses vs. Tractors on the Corn Belt, " Agricultural History 54 (January 1980): 134-48.
262. Alan L. Olmstead and Paul W. Rhode, "The Agricultural Mechanization Controversy of the Interwar Years, " Agricultural History 68 (Summer 1994): 35-53.
263. A. G. Smith, A Farm- Management Study in Anderson County, South Carolina, USDA Bulletin 651 (Washington, D.C., May 8, 1918), 17.
264. A. G. Smith, A Farm- Management Study in Anderson County, South Carolina, USDA Bulletin 651 (1918), Ibid., 9-10.
265. A. G. Smith, Farm- Management Study in Anderson County, South Carolina 10.
266. A. G. Smith, Farm- Management Study in Anderson County, Ibid., 2-3.
267. A. G. Smith, Farm- Management Study in Anderson County, Ibid., 16-17.
268. A. G. Smith, Farm- Management Study in Anderson County, Ibid., 21.
269. A. G. Smith, Farm- Management Study in Anderson County, Ibid., 21-22.
270. HAA, Proceedings of the First Annual Meeting, 1920 (Chicago: HAA, 1921), 12-13.
271. Olmstead and Rhode, "Agricultural Mechanization Controversy, " 39.
272. Susan Dorothy Jones, "Animal Value" 63.
273. Fred M. Williams, "Save the Horse Industry and Help Save the Nation" (Chicago: HAA, [1921]), 802.
274. Milton S. Eisenhower, "How to Get Agricultural Information, " Southern Agriculturist 67 (April 1937): 10-15.
275. W. F. Handschin, J. B. Andrews, and E. Rauchenstein, The Horse and Tractor: An Economic Study of Their Use on Farms in Central Illinois, University of Illinois Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 231 (February 1921): 222-23.
276. Lynn R. Miller, "Prayers and Precepts, " Small Farmer's Journal 17 (Spring 1993): 16.
277. HAA, Excerpts from the 1928 Annual Report of the HAA (Chicago: HAA, [1929]), 2.
278. Tait Butler, "Use More Horses and Mules, " Progressive Farmer 39 (April 19, 1924): 6.
279. HAA, Excerpts from the 1928 Annual Report, 2, 12-13.
280. HAA, Excerpts from the 1929 Annual Report of the HAA (Chicago: HAA, [1930]), 8-9.
281. HAA, Excerpts from the 1929 Annual Report of the HAA, 6, 1501.
282. J. O. Williams, "Horses Used in Big Teams Give Flexible Power and Cut Costs, " Yearbook of Agriculture, 1927 (Washington, D.C., 1928), 384-85.
283. Wayne Dinsmore, "The Efficient Use of Animal Power, " Agricultural Engineering 3 (February 1922): 23.
284. Motheral, "Family Farm" 514-29.
285. Anthony J. Badger, The New Deal: The Depression Years, 1933-1940 (New York: Noonday Press, 1989), 149.
286. Charles E. Seitz, "Agricultural Engineering Development in Virginia, " Agricultural Engineering 4 (March 1923): 59.
287. R. W. Trullinger, "Research in Agricultural Engineering, " Agricultural Engineering 4 (March 1923): 41.
288. Horse and Mule Association of America, 1940 Annual Report of the Horse and Mule Association of America (Chicago: HAA, 1940), 11.
289. M. H. Berry, " Tractor- Style Tenant Farming, " Southern Agriculturist 70 (November 1940): 16-17.
290. "A Birthday Greeting to Two Million Friends, " Progressive Farmer 41 (February 13, 1926): 192.
291. "The March of Machinery, " Progressive Farmer 71 (March 1956): 90.
292. Derry, Horses in Society 40-47.
293. Harold Benford, "Power Revolution: The Big Story in Southern Agriculture, " Progressive Farmer 71 (April 1956): 86.
294. Albert P. Brodell, Paul Stickles, and Paul Wallrabenstein, Farm Power and Farm Machines (Washington, D.C., 1953), 7.
295. French, "Raising Colts of Quality" 23.
296. Robert C. Williams, Fordson Farmall, and Poppin' Johnny: A History of the Farm Tractor and Its Impact on America (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1987), 131.
297. Dacy, "Missouri Mules Make Money" 336.
298. "Tribute to Real King, " Southern Agriculturist (May 1938): 3.
299. Arthur Raper, Machines in the Cotton Fields: Mechanization Comes to the Southern Cotton Farm (Atlanta: Southern Regional Council, 1946), 89-99.
300. William Jackson, "Horses and Mules, " Yearbook of Agriculture, 1943-1947 (Washington, D.C., 1947), 239-41.
301. Greene, "Harnessing Power" 2-3.
302. Milton P. Jarnagin, "More Colts Needed for Work and Pleasure, " Progressive Farmer 61 (September 1946): 18.
303. D. W. Walkins, "Ten New Year Hints for Farmers, " Progressive Farmer 59 (January 1944): 5.
304. "Can Small Farms Make Tractors Pay?" Progressive Farmer 61 (October 1946): 83.
305. W. M. Hurst and L. M. Church, Power and Machinery in Agriculture, USDA Miscellaneous Publication 157 (Washington, D.C., April 1933), 2-5.
306. A. G. Smith, Farm- Management Study in Anderson County, South Carolina 10-11.
307. Hurst and Church, Power and Machinery 6.
308. Raper, Machines in the Cotton Fields 8-9.
309. G. H. Aull, "Changes in the Land of Cotton, " Yearbook of Agriculture, 1958 (Washington, D.C., 1958), 137.
310. Nixon, Forty Acres 7.
311. Harris P. Smith, "What You Can Do: With Mules- With Tractors, " Progressive Farmer 69 (February 1954): 78- 80.
312. Harris P. Smith, "What You Can Do" 78- 80.
313. E Wilborn, "Power Steering for Tractors, " Progressive Farmer 70 (September 1955): 131.
314. Thomas E. Clague, "Should You Use Diesel, LP- Gas, or Gasoline?" Progressive Farmer 75 (November 1960): 33.
315. E. L. Langford and B. H. Thibodeaux, Plantation Organization and Operation in the Yazoo- Mississippi Delta Area, USDA Technical Bulletin 682 (Washington, D.C., May 1939), 58.
316. Donald S. Huber and Ralph C. Hughes, How Johnny Popper Replaced the Horse: A History of John Deere Two- Cylinder Tractors (Moline, IL: Deere and Company, 1988), 78.
317. J. H. Neal, "Two Mules? Or a Tractor?" Progressive Farmer 61 (November 1946): 86.
318. William C. Zelle, "What Form Will the Tractor Ultimately Take?" Agricultural Engineering 1 (January 1920): 41.
319. F. A. Wirt, "The General Purpose Farm Tractor, " Agricultural Engineering 5 (May 1924): 102.
320. "Make the Tractor Do More of the Farm Work, " Progressive Farmer 35 (March 1940): 724.
321. Dennis S. Nordin and Roy V. Scott, From Prairie Farmer to Entrepreneur: The Transformation of Midwestern Agriculture (Bloomington and Indianapolis: Indiana University Press, 2005), 124.
322. C. H. Wendel, 150 Years of International Harvester (Sarasota, FL: Crestline Publishing, 1981), 259.
323. "Rubber Increases Farm Power, " Southern Agriculturist 70 (December 1940): 3.
324. Huber and Hughes, How Johnny Popper Replaced the Horse 84.
325. " A- C's Model B at $495 Aims at a 4, 000, 000 Farm Market, " Implement and Tractor 53 (February 5, 1938): 18-19.
326. Wendel, 150 Years of International Harvester 346, 349.
327. Hurst and Church, Power and Machinery 11-12.
328. Implement and Tractor 52 (July 10, 1937): 15.
329. "Smaller Models for 1938, " Implement and Tractor 52 (October 2, 1937): 15.
330. M. Taylor Matthews, David R. Jenkins, and Raymond F. Sletto, Attitudes of Edgefield County Farmers toward Farm Practices and Rural Programs, South Carolina Experiment Station and USDA Bulletin 339 (February 1942), 6.
331. "Editor's Note, " Progressive Farmer 61 (October 1946): 84.
332. Neal, "Two Mules? Or a Tractor?" 86-87.
333. Alexander Nunn, "A Two- Horse' Tractor Farm, " Progressive Farmer 64 (April 1949): 125- 141.
334. Price McLemore, "We Can Save Cotton!" Progressive Farmer 63 (February 1948): 62.
335. Arnold P. Yerkes, "Some Aspects of Farm Mechanization, " Agricultural Engineering (December 1932): 24.
336. Allis- Chalmers advertisement, Progressive Farmer 57 (January 1942): 20.
337. Harold H. Martin, "Farewell, Jackass!" Saturday Evening Post 222 (December 31, 1949): 43.
338. F. M. Johnson, Veterans Preference for New Farm Machinery and Equipment, USDA War Records Monograph 4 (Washington, D.C., March 1947), 2-3.
339. Minneapolis- Moline advertisement, Progressive Farmer 70 (February 1955): 171.
340. Pedersen, "Mechanization" 8-9.
341. A. P. Brodell and James W. Birkhead, Age and Size of Principal Farm Machines, USDA F.M. 41 (Washington, D.C., April 1943), 4.
342. Pedersen, "Mechanization" 9.
343. Pedersen, "Mechanization" 9-11.
344. Nelson, "Welfare Capitalism" 226-32.
345. Nelson, "Welfare Capitalism" 226- 244.
346. Nelson, "Welfare Capitalism" 230.
347. Gilbert C. Fite, Cotton Fields No More: Southern Agriculture, 1865-1980 (Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 1984), 167.
348. G. H. Aull, "Changes in the Land of Cotton" 139.
349. Fite, Cotton Fields No More 156-57.
350. Cobb, Most Southern Place on Earth 119.
351. Martin R. Cooper, Progress of Farm Mechanization, USDA Miscellaneous Publication 630 (Washington, D.C., October 1947), 43-86.
352. Albert P. Brodell and Albert R. Kendall, Fuel and Motor Oil Consumption and Annual Use of Farm Tractors, USDA Bureau of Agricultural Economics FM-72 (Washington, D.C., 1950), 2.
353. A. B. Bryan, "Waste Will Raise a Colt for You!" Progressive Farmer 58 (February 1943): 10.
354. J. M. Vial, "Six Rules for Horses and Mules, " Progressive Farmer 60 (March 1945): 22.
355. Naum Jasny, "Summary of Talk on the Economics of the Farm Tractor, " December 9, 1935.
356. Gilbert Fite, "Mechanization of Cotton Production since World War II, " Agricultural History 54 (January 1980): 191-95.
357. Ernest Stewart, "How Far Mechanized Cotton Farming?" Progressive Farmer 63 (October 1948): 82-83.
358. Eugene Butler, "Cotton Mechanizing Fast, " Progressive Farmer 63 (December 1948): 8.
359. "World's Biggest Cotton Plantation, " Fortune 15 (March 1937): 160.
360. J. R. Hildebrand, "Machines Come to Mississippi, " National Geographic Magazine 72 (September 1937): 277.
361. Fite, "Mechanization of Cotton Production" 191.
362. Charles P. Butler and Harold L. Streetman, Economics of Mechanical Cotton Picking in South Carolina, South Carolina Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 399 (Clemson, South Carolina, January 1952), 34.
363. W. Herbert Brown, Cotton Farming in the Southern Piedmont, 1930-51, USDA Bureau of Agricultural Economics Agriculture Information Bulletin 89 (Washington, D.C., June 1952), ii.
364. Donald Holley, The Second Great Emancipation: The Mechanical Cotton Picker, Black Migration, and How They Shaped the Modern South (Fayetteville: University of Arkansas Press, 2000), 164-74.
365. Daniel, "Going among Strangers" 886-911.
366. Merle C. Prunty and Charles S. Aiken, "The Demise of the Piedmont Cotton Region, " Annals of the Association of American Geographers 62 (June 1972): 297.
367. Fite, "Mechanization of Cotton Production" 199.
368. Oscar Johnston, "Will the Machine Ruin the South?" Saturday Evening Post 219 (May 31, 1947): 94-95.
369. Johnston, "Will the Machine Ruin the South?" 98.
370. George B. Nutt, "What Tractors and Equipment Will Suit Your Farm?" Progressive Farmer 4 (April 1950): 24.
371. Martin, "Farewell, Jackass!" 27.
372. Harris P. Smith, "What You Can Do" 78.
373. Wayne D. Rasmussen, "Impact of Technological Change on American Agriculture, 1862-1962, " Journal of Economic History 22 (December 1962): 578.
374. Henry Regnery, "Richard Weaver: A Southern Agrarian at the University of Chicago, " Modern Age 32 (Spring 1988): 103.
375. Martin, "Farewell, Jackass!" 26-27, 43-44, 46.
376. Peter F. Drucker, "Exit King Cotton, " Harper's Magazine 192 (May 1946): 476.
377. George B. Ellenberg, "African Americans, Mules, and the Southern Mindscape, 1850- 1950, " Agricultural History 72 (Spring 1998): 381-98.
378. Jimmie Lewis Franklin, "Black Southerners, Shared Experience, and Place: A Refl ection, " Journal of Southern History 60 (February 1994): 13.
379. Harry Crews, A Childhood: The Biography of a Place (New York: Harper and Row, 1978).
380. David M. Potter, "The Enigma of the South, " Yale Review 51 (October 1961): 142.
381. Ben Robertson, Red Hills and Cotton: An Upcountry Memory (Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 1942), 106.
382. Cobb, Mississippi Delta 62.
383. "Tribute to a Real King, " Southern Agriculturist 68 (May 1938): 3.
384. "Just a Plain Two Horse Farm, " in Such as Us: Southern Voices of the Thirties, ed. Tom E. Terrill and Jerrold Hirsch (New York: W. W. Norton, 1979), 108.
385. Shields McIlwaine, The Southern Poor- White from Lubberland to Tobacco Road (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1939), 233.
386. Betty W. Carter, "Mules in the Delta, " Mules and Mississippi (Jackson: Mississippi Department of Archives and History, 1980), 37- 39.
387. G. B. Fiske, "Mules as Prosperity Gauge, " Southern Agriculturist 67 (April 1937): 22.
388. Billy Skelton, "Tribute to Mule, Vanishing Breed That Once Filled State's Big Need, " Jackson [Mississippi] Clarion- Ledger, April 4, 1971.
389. Faulkner, Absalom, Absalom! 99.
390. Crews, "Mythic Mule" 21.
391. Theodore Rosengarten, All God's Dangers: The Life of Nate Shaw (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1975), 113-18, 532.
392. Martin, "Farewell, Jackass!" 43.
393. Lee, With Their Ears Pricked Forward 8.
394. Susan Dorothy Jones, "Animal Value" 184-85.
395. Crews, Childhood 160-62.
396. Thomas D. Clark, Pills, Petticoats, and Plows: The Southern Country Store (New York: Bobbs- Merrill, 1944), 242-43.
397. Robert Brent Toplin, "Between Black and White: Attitudes toward Southern Mulattoes, 1830-1861, " Journal of Southern History 45 (May 1979): 195-97.
398. Joseph Jones, Agricultural Resources of Georgia (Augusta, GA: Steam Press of Chronicle and Sentinel, 1861), 5.
399. Peter H. Wood, Black Majority: Negroes in Colonial South Carolina from 1670 through the Stono Rebellion (New York: W. W. Norton, 1974), 79-85.
400. Warder, "Mule Raising" 183-84.
401. Edwin A. Hunger, "Let the Cultivator Be Your Handy Man, " Progressive Farmer 39 (April 1924): 8.
402. Paul K. Conkin, The Southern Agrarians (Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1988), 97.
403. Donald Davidson, "Still Rebels, Still Yankees, " in Still Rebels, Still Yankees and Other Essays, by Donald Davidson (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1957), 239- 248.
404. Clark, "Trade between Kentucky and the Cotton Kingdom" 42.
405. Louis D. Rubin Jr., "The American South: The Continuity of Self- Defi nition, " The American South: Portrait of a Culture (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1980).
406. William Faulkner, The Sound and the Fury (New York: Random House, 1929), 106-7.
407. Cobb, Mississippi Delta 62.
408. Eric Foner, Reconstruction: America's Unfi nished Revolution, 1863-1877 (New York: Harper and Row, 1988), 70-71.
409. Claude F. Oubre, Forty Acres and a Mule: The Freedmen's Bureau and Black Land Ownership (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1978), 22-23.
410. F. L. Teuton, "Resettlement to Help the South, " Southern Agriculturist 65 (October 1935): 5.
411. Martin A. Garrett Jr., "The Mule in Southern Agriculture: A Requiem, " Journal of Economic History 50 (December 1990): 925-30.
412. Crews, Childhood 32.
413. Herbert N. Richardson, "Black Workers and Their Responses to Work through the Songs They Sang" (EdD diss., Rutgers University, 1987).
414. Richardson, "Black Workers" 139-40.
415. William Reynolds Ferris Jr., "Black Folklore from the Mississippi Delta" (PhD diss., University of Pennsylvania, 1969), 68.
416. Richardson, "Black Workers" 140.
417. Daniel, Breaking the Land 9-10.
418. Hullinger, Plowing Through 11-12.
419. "King's Last March, " Time 91 (April 19, 1968): 19.
420. Stephen B. Oates, Let the Trumpet Sound: The Life of Martin Luther King, Jr. (New York: Harper and Row, 1982), 497.
421. Lisa C. Jones, "40 Acres and a Mule Revisited, " Ebony 48 (August 1993): 66, 68- 70.
422. Paul M. Gaston, The New South Creed: A Study in Southern Mythmaking (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1970), 8.
423. Cobb, Most Southern Place on Earth 266.
424. Faulkner, "Barn Burning" 502.
425. William J. Fraser, "Live Stock Feeding, " Southern Agriculturist 65 (February 1935): 43.
426. Crews, Childhood 119-20.
427. J. E. Stanford, "The High Cost of Carelessness, " Southern Agriculturist 68 (September 1938): 5.
428. Earle K. Rambo, "Don't Be Tractor- Killed, " Progressive Farmer 66 (March 1951): 66.
429. Vernon E. Miller, "Your Tractor Can Kill, " Progressive Farmer 72 (March 1957): 99.
430. Crews, "Mythic Mule" 21.
431. Anonymous, "A Pious Wish, " Southern Agriculturist 47 (January 1, 1917): 3.
432. Irwin Russell, "Managing a Mule, " Southern Cultivator (November 1882): 21.
433. Raper, Machines in the Cotton Fields 3, 20.
434. Hurst and Church, Power and Machinery 6-7.
435. Fite, Cotton Fields No More 143.
436. F. A. Wirt, "The General Purpose Farm Tractor" 102.
437. J. E. Stanford, "The Mechanical Cotton Picker, " Southern Agriculturist 66 (October 1936): 11.
438. Pedersen, "Mechanization" 12-15.
439. Pedersen, "Mechanization" 12-15.
440. "Cotton and Cotton Mechanization: What's Going to Happen: An Interview with Harold A. Young, " Progressive Farmer 64 (October 1949): 19.
441. Boyd, Rental Arrangements 35-37.
442. Pedersen, "Mechanization" 15-16.
443. Harold G. Halcrow, Agricultural Policy of the United States (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice- Hall, 1953), 39.
444. Boyd, Rental Arrangements 30-31.
445. Pedersen, "Mechanization" 16-17.
446. Pedersen, "Mechanization" 16-19.
447. Cobb, Most Southern Place on Earth 101.
448. Perlo, Negro in Southern Agriculture 34, 38.
449. Arthur P. Chew, "The Response of Government to Agriculture: An Account of the Origin and Development of Agriculture, on the Occasion of Its 75th Anniversary" (Washington, D.C., November 1937), 90-91.
450. F. L. Teuton, "First Bankhead- Jones Tenant Loan Goes to Alabama Family, " Southern Agriculturist 68 (March 1938): 15.
451. J. W. Finney, "Resettlement: Helping People Help Themselves, " Southern Agriculturist 66 (March 1936): 8-10.
452. Donald Holley, Uncle Sam's Farmers: The New Deal Communities in the Lower Mississippi Valley (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1975).
453. Marcus and Segal, Technology in America 116.
454. Bidwell and Falconer, History of Agriculture 287.
455. "Readers Would Change Title of August Story to That Good Old Mule, " Progressive Farmer 73 (November 1958): 24.
456. James C. Cobb, Industrialization and Southern Society, 1877-1984 (Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 1984), 3.
457. Wendell Berry, Gift of Good Land 111.
458. Joe P. Dunn and Howard L. Preston, eds., The Future South: A Historical Perspective for the Twenty- first Century (Urbana and Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 1991).
459. C. Vann Woodward, The Burden of Southern History (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1960).
460. Wayne Flynt, Poor but Proud: Alabama's Poor Whites (Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 1989).
461. John Egerton, The Americanization of Dixie: The Southernization of America (New York: Harper's Magazine Press, 1974).
462. Douglas C. Bachtel, "Georgia's Shrinking Farm Population, " Georgia Farmers and Consumers Bulletin 75 (September 23, 1992): 1- 7.
463. Eric Bates, "Plow up a Storm: The UFO [United Farmers Organization] Story, " Southern Exposure 16 (Spring 1988): 7.
464. Mark M. Smith, "Listening to the Heard Worlds of Antebellum America, " Journal of the Historical Society 1 (Spring 2000): 65-99.
465. Daniel, Breaking the Land 290-98.
466. Theodore H. Savory, "The Mule, " Scientifi c American 223 (December 1970): 104.
467. Daniel, Breaking the Land 298.
468. H. R. Tolley and A. P. Brodell, "The Role of Machinery in the Development of the Agriculture of the United States, " Records of the Bureau of Agricultural Economics, 83.
469. "Falsely Accusing the Tractor, " Southern Agriculturist 70 (November 1940): 3-4.
470. David Danbom, The Resisted Revolution: Urban America and the Industrialization of Agriculture, 1900-1930 (Ames: Iowa State University Press, 1979).
471. Frank L. Owsley, "The Pillars of Agrarianism, " American Review 4 (March 1935): 535.
472. Frank L. Owsley, "The Pillars of Agrarianism, " American Review 4 (March 1935): Ibid., 533-37.
473. Rasmussen, "Impact of Technological Change" 588.
474. Daniel, "Going among Strangers" 886-936.
475. Jonathan M. Wiener, "Class Structure and Economic Development in the American South, 1865-1955, " American Historical Review 84 (October 1979): 987-91.
476. Allis- Chalmers advertisement, Southern Agriculturist 70 (March 1940): 35.
477. Walter John Marx, "Farm Machines and the Good Society, " Commonweal (December 24, 1948): 173.
478. Davidson, "Still Rebels, Still Yankees" 240-41.
479. James A. Montmarquet, The Idea of Agrarianism: From Hunter- Gatherer to Agrarian Radical in Western Culture (Moscow: University of Idaho Press, 1989), 13.
480. Donald Davidson, "Futurism and Archaism in Toynbee and Hardy, " in Still Rebels, Still Yankees and Other Essays 63.
481. Lee, With Their Ears Pricked Forward 132.
482. Potter, "Enigma of the South" 151.
483. Lee, With Their Ears Pricked Forward 135.
484. Wendell Berry, Gift of Good Land 105.
485. David B. Danbom, "Romantic Agrarianism in Twentieth- Century America, " Agricultural History 65 (Fall 1991): 9.
486. Victor Davis Hanson, Fields without Dreams: Defending the Agrarian Idea (New York: Free Press, 1996), xi.
487. Jeanne S. Hurlbert and Williams B. Bankston, "Cultural Distinctiveness in the Face of Transformation: The 'New' Old South, " in The Rural South since the Civil War, ed. Douglas R. Hurt (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1998), 187.