Invisible enemies: The American war on Vietnam, 1975-2000

Invisible Enemies: The American War on Vietnam, 1975-2000

Volumn , Issue , 2007, Pages 1-280

  Martini, Edwin A ^a  

^a NONE

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References (667)

1. Quoted in Stanley Karnow, Vietnam: A History (New York: Penguin, 1983), 683-84.
2. Amy Kaplan, "Left Alone with America: The Absence of Empire in the Study of American Culture", in Cultures of United States Imperialism, ed. Amy Kaplan and Donald Pease, 1-17 (Durham, N. C.: Duke University Press, 1993), 11.
3. Amy Kaplan, "Violent Belongings and the Question of Empire Today: Presidential Address to the American Studies Association, Hartford, Connecticut, October 17, 2003", American Quarterly 56, no. 1(March 2004):1-18.
4. Janice A. Radway, "What's in a Name? Presidential Address to the American Studies Association, 20 November 1998", American Quarterly 51, no. 1(March 1999):1-32.
5. Michael H. Hunt, "Internationalizing U. S. Diplomatic History: A Practical Agenda", Diplomatic History 15(Winter 1991):1-11.
6. Emily Rosenberg, "Presidential Address-Revisiting Dollar Diplomacy: Narratives of Money and Manliness", Diplomatic History 22, no. 2(Spring 1998):155-76.
7. Robert J. McMahon, "Contested Memory: The Vietnam War and American Society, 1975-2001", Diplomatic History 26, no. 2(Spring 2002):159-84; the quote is from 184.
8. Kaplan and Pease, eds., Cultures of United States Imperialism;
9. Amy Kaplan, The Anarchy of Empire in the Making of U. S. Culture (Cambridge: Harvard Univer sity Press, 2002);
10. Mark Bradley, Imagining Vietnam and America: The Making of Postcolonial Vietnam, 1919-1950 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2000);
11. Kristin Hoganson, Fighting for American Manhood: How Gender Politics Pro voked the Spanish-American and Philippine-American Wars (New Haven: Yale Uni versity Press, 1998);
12. Melani McAllister, Epic Encounters: Culture, Media, and U. S. Interests in the Middle East, 1945-2000 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2001);
13. Mary Renda, Taking Haiti: Military Occupation and the Culture of U. S. Impe rialism (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2001).
14. See Michel Foucault, "The Subject and Power", afterword in Hubert L. Dreyfus and Paul Rabinow, Michel Foucault: Beyond Structuralism and Hermeneutics, 208-26 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1983), esp. 220-21.
15. Jill Lepore, The Name of War (New York: Vintage, 1999), x.
16. Henry Kissinger, Years of Renewal (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1999), 541, 545.
17. "How Should Americans Feel?" Time, April 14, 1975.
18. Newsweek, March 31, 1975.
19. "How Should Americans Feel?"
20. Adjudication of Claims Against Vietnam, Hearing and Markup before the Sub committees on Asian and Pacific Affairs and International Economic Policy and Trade, 96th Congress, 1st Session, July 27, 1979, 3.
21. Kissinger, Years of Renewal, 566.
22. Ibid., 575. In addition to Kissinger's memoirs, this reconstruction of events comes from Seymour Hersh, The Price of Power (New York: Summit Books, 1983), 639;
23. Ralph Wetterhahn, The Last Battle: The Mayaguez Incident and the End of the Vietnam War (New York: Carroll & Graf, 2001).
24. Michael Malloy, United States Economic Sanctions: Theory and Practice (The Hague: Kluwer Law International, 2001);
25. Barry Carter, International Economic Sanctions: Improving the Haphazard U. S. Legal Regime (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1988);
26. Gary Clyde Hufbauer, Jeffrey J. Schott, and Kimberly Ann Elliott, eds., Economic Sanctions Reconsidered: History and Current Policy (Washington, D. C.: Institute for International Economics, 1985).
27. United States Embargo of Trade with South Vietnam and Cambodia, Hearing before the Subcommittee on International Trade and Commerce, House of Repre sentatives, 94th Congress, 1st Session, June 4, 1975, 3.
28. Adjudication of Claims Against Vietnam, 3.
29. United States Embargo of Trade with South Vietnam and Cambodia, 6.
30. NYT, June 4, 1975
31. cited in Stephen Hurst, The Carter Administration and Vietnam (New York: St. Martin's, 1996), 18.
32. Quoted in James Laurie, "Indochina: A Decision Based on Ideology", FEER, July 4, 1975, 13.
33. See also Hurst, The Carter Administration and Vietnam, 10.
34. U. S. MIA's in Southeast Asia, Hearing before Committee on Foreign Rela tions, United States Senate, 95th Congress, 1st Session, April 1, 1977, 14.
35. Nayan Chanda, Brother Enemy: The War after the War (New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1986), 145.
36. See, for instance, "U. S. Ready to Talk with Indochinese", NYT, November 15, 1975;
37. "Trading with Indochina: Many U. S. Executives in Asia Urge Ban on Dealing with Vietnam and Cambodia", WSJ, November 1, 1975.
38. Marjorie Hyer, "Quakers Get Approval for Vietnam Aid", WP, November 15, 1975.
39. "A Silly War", Los Angeles Times, November 13, 1975.
40. U. S. Embargo of Vietnam: Church Views, Hearing before the Subcommittee on International Trade and Commerce, House of Representatives, 94th Congress, 1st Session, November 17, 1975, 1.
41. H. Bruce Franklin, M. I. A., or Mythmaking in America (New York: Lawrence Hill Books, 1992), 17.
42. Final Report of the Select Committee on Missing Persons in Southeast Asia, 94th Congress, 2nd Session, December 13, 1976, 73-74.
43. This will be cited hereafter as Final Report of the Select Committee on Missing Persons in Southeast Asia (1976), to distinguish it from the final report of the 1993 Senate Select Committee on POW/MIA Affairs, discussed in chapter 5.
44. Franklin, M. I. A., 12.
45. Franklin, M. I. A., 68.
46. Final Report of the Select Committee on Missing Persons in Southeast Asia (1976), 208-9.
47. Franklin, M. I. A., 90, 91.
48. Ibid., 83. Also see Hurst, The Carter Administration and Vietnam, 41-44.
49. "Count Your Vietnams", Economist, August 9, 1975, 14;
50. Louis Halasz, "Stalemate in the Halls of Diplomacy", FEER, August 22, 1975, 20.
51. "Count Your Vietnams"
52. Daniel Patrick Moynihan, A Dangerous Place (Boston: Little, Brown, 1978), 143.
53. T. Christopher Jespersen, "The Bitter End and the Lost Chance in Vietnam: Congress, the Ford Administration and the Battle Over Vietnam, 1975-76", Diplo matic History 24, no. 2(Spring 2000):279.
54. William Blum, "The United States Versus the World at the United Nations", in Rogue State: A Guide to the World's Only Superpower, 184-99 (Monroe, Maine: Common Courage Press, 2000).
55. Louis Halsalz, "Washington Put on the Spot", FEER, September 24, 1976, 20.
56. Joseph Zasloff and MacAlister Brown, Communist Indochina and U. S. For eign Policy: Postwar Realities (Boulder, Colo.: Westview, 1978), 9.
57. Hasalz, "Washington Put on the Spot"
58. Jespersen, "The Bitter End", 289.
59. "Extending a Hand to Hanoi", Time, February 28, 1977, 30.
60. NYT, February 26, 1977, 1.
61. Ibid. Quoted in Hurst, The Carter Administration and Vietnam, 31.
62. Hurst, The Carter Administration and Vietnam, 32.
63. Hurst is citing from Fred erick Brown, Second Chance: The United States and Indochina in the 1990s (Wash ington, D. C.: Council on Foreign Relations Press, 1989), 23-24.
64. The Nixon letter is reprinted in Marvin E. Gettleman et al., eds., Vietnam and America: A Documented History (New York: Grove Press, 1995), 487-88.
65. Hurst, The Carter Administration and Vietnam, 32.
66. "A Bridgehead Is Won in Hanoi", Time, March 28, 1977, 17.
67. "Vietnam: Mission Accomplished", Economist, April 4, 1977, 47.
68. "Report of the Presidential Commission on U. S. Missing and Unaccounted For in Southeast Asia", included in U. S. MIA's in Southeast Asia.
69. Nayan Chanda, "Vietnam: Breakthrough in Aid", FEER, April 1, 1977, 42.
70. Revision of Trading With the Enemy Act", Markup before the Committee on International Relations, U. S. House of Representatives, 95th Congress, 1st Ses sion, June 16, 17, 20, 1977 (Washington D. C.: U. S. Government Printing Office, 1977), 2.
71. Elizabeth Becker, When the War Was Over: The Voices of Cambodia's Revolu tion and Its People (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1986), 390.
72. Hurst, The Carter Administration and Vietnam, 35.
73. Becker, When the War Was Over, 391.
74. Hurst, The Carter Administration and Vietnam, 41;
75. World News Digest, May 7, 1977, A1.
76. "Claiming Assets in Vietnam", FEER, April 29, 1977, 43.
77. Final Report of the Select Committee on Missing Persons in Southeast Asia (1976), 235.
78. Chanda, Brother Enemy, 154.
79. U. S. Aid to Vietnam, Hearing before the Subcommittee on Asian and Pacific Affairs, 95th Congress, 1st Session, July 19, 1977 (Washington, D. C.: GPO, 1979).
80. Zasloff and Brown, Communist Indochina and U. S. Foreign Policy, 25.
81. Susumu Awanohara, "Aid: Change of Mood in Washington", FEER, No vember 4, 1977, 46.
82. "Bid to Cut Out Indochina", FEER, June 17, 1977, 106.
83. "Carter Gets the Amber Light", FEER, September 9, 1977, 18;
84. NYT, July 29, 1977, 1;
85. Hurst, The Carter Administration and Vietnam, 40.
86. Awanohara, "Aid: Change of Mood in Washington";
87. see also "Protection ism: Hamstringing the Aid Effort", FEER, August 5, 1977, 32.
88. Joseph Stiglitz, Globalization and its Discontents (New York: W. W. Norton, 2002).
89. Zasloff and Brown, Communist Indochina and U. S. Foreign Policy, 24-25.
90. Hurst, The Carter Administration and Vietnam, 43.
91. Chanda, Brother Enemy, 156.
92. Hurst, The Carter Administration and Vietnam, 44-45.
93. "More Francs for Vietnam", FEER, May 20, 1977.
94. Zasloff and Brown, Communist Indochina and U. S. Foreign Policy, 20.
95. Also see Heinrich Dahm, French and Japanese Economic Relations with Vietnam since 1975 (Surrey, U. K.: Curzon Press, 1999).
96. Environmental Conference on Cambodia, Laos and Vietnam, Long-Term Con sequences of the Vietnam War, 43-44, http://www.nnn. se/vietnam/ethics.pdf (ac cessed July 1, 2005). These numbers reflect bombing data not only for Vietnam, but for Laos and Cambodia as well.
97. "Vietnam War's New Victims", BBC News Online, November 15, 2000, http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/asia-pacific/1024627.stm (accessed February 18, 2004).
98. Long-Term Consequences of the Vietnam War, 43;
99. Arnold Schecter et al., "Food as a Source of Dioxin Exposure in the Residents of Bien Hoa City, Vietnam", Jour nal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine 45, no. 8(August 2003):781-88;
100. "Decades Later, Vietnam War Toxin Still Torments", WP, February 16, 2004;
101. "New Study into Agent Orange", BBC News Online, March 10, 2002, http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/world/asia-pacific/1865730.stm (accessed February 18, 2004).
102. Robert Dreyfuss, "Agent Orange: The Next Genera tion", Mother Jones (January-February 2000);
103. Phillip Jones Griffiths, Agent Orange: Collateral Damage in Vietnam (London: Trolley Press, 2003).
104. "Report of the United Nations Mission to North and South Viet-Nam", re printed in Aftermath of War: Humanitarian Problems of Southeast Asia, staff report prepared for the Committee on the Judiciary, Subcommittee to Investigate Prob lems Connected with Refugees and Escapees, 94th Congress, 2nd Session, May 17, 1976 (emphasis in original).
105. "Preface", in Aftermath of War, v.
106. T. Christopher Jespersen, "The Bitter End and the Lost Chance in Vietnam: Congress, the Ford Administration and the Battle Over Vietnam, 1975-76", Diplo matic History 24, no. 2(Spring 2000):267.
107. H. Bruce Franklin, M. I. A., or Mythmaking in America (New York: Lawrence Hill Books, 1992), 4.
108. Final Report of the House Select Committee on Missing Persons in Southeast Asia (1976), 107.
109. Testimony before House Committee on International Relations, 92nd Con gress, 2nd Session, February 3, 1972, 14; excerpted in Final Report of the House Select Committee on Missing Persons in Southeast Asia, 107-8.
110. Franklin, M. I. A., 49-50n196. The NYT editorial appeared on May 29, 1969.
111. Franklin, M. I. A., 54.
112. "Remarks at Press Briefing, March 24, 1977", Public Papers of the Presidents of the United States: Jimmy Carter, 1977 (Washington, D. C.: GPO, 1979), 1:499-500.
113. "Remarks at Press Briefing", 501 (emphasis added).
114. Julian Smith, Looking Away: Hollywood and Vietnam (New York: Scribners, 1975).
115. Rick Berg, "Losing Vietnam: Covering the War in an Age of Technology", in Rick Berg and John Carlos Rowe, eds., The Vietnam War and American Culture (New York: Columbia University Press, 1991), 127.
116. Melani McAllister, Epic Encounters: Culture, Media, and U. S. Interests in the Middle East, 1945-2000 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2001), 8.
117. Peter Marin, "Coming to Terms with Vietnam", Harper's, December 1980, 44 (emphasis in original).
118. "Hollywood Tackles Vietnam War", NYT, August 2, 1977, C23.
119. "Coming Home with the War", WP, November 4, 1977.
120. On this matter, see "Screen: 'Company C'", NYT, February 2, 1978, C15;
121. "At the Movies", NYT, February 3, 1978, C6;
122. "Hollywood Focuses on Vietnam at Last", NYT, February 19, 1978, D1;
123. Weekend Films, WP, February 3, 1978.
124. "Hollywood Focuses on Vietnam"
125. "The Five-Year Struggle to Make 'Coming Home'", NYT, February 19, 1978.
126. Eben J. Muse, The Land of Nam: The Vietnam War in American Film (Lanham, Md.: Scarecrow Press, 1995), 99.
127. "The Five-Year Struggle to Make 'Coming Home.' "
128. Gilbert Adair, Hollywood's Vietnam: From the Green Berets to Full Metal Jacket (London: Heinemann, 1989), 72 (emphasis in original).
129. Morris Dickstein, "Bringing It All Back Home", Partisan Review 45, no. 4(Winter 1978):630.
130. "The Five-Year Struggle to Make 'Coming Home.' "
131. Marin, "Coming to Terms with Vietnam", 46;
132. Frank Rich, "The Dark at the End of the Tunnel", Time, February 20, 1978, 84.
133. Dickstein, "Bringing It All Back Home", 632.
134. Muse, The Land of Nam, 99.
135. Jack Kroll's review of The Deer Hunter in Newsweek, which contrasts the politics of the two films.
136. Kroll, "Life-or-Death Gambles", Newsweek, December 11, 1978, 113-14.
137. Hans Koning, "Films and Plays about Vietnam Treat Everything but the War", NYT, May 27, 1979, D1.
138. "Ready for Vietnam? A Talk with Michael Cimino", NYT, December 10, 1978, D15.
139. "Stalking Us All: 'The Deer Hunter', Loaded for Bear", WP, February 19, 1978.
140. Kroll, "Life-or-Death Gambles"
141. H. Bruce Franklin, Vietnam and Other American Fantasies (Amherst: Uni versity of Massachusetts Press, 2000), 15.
142. Hellmann, American Myth and the Legacy of Vietnam (New York: Columbia University Press, 1986), 172.
143. Marin, "Coming to Terms", 45.
144. Arnett, "Vietnam's Last Atrocity", Los Angeles Times, April 4, 1979
145. quoted in Berg, "Losing Vietnam", 139n42.
146. "Vietnam Comes Home", Time, April 23, 1979, 22-28.
147. Adair, Hollywood's Vietnam, 88.
148. Berg, "Losing Vietnam", 139-40.
149. Leonard Quart, "The Deer Hunter: Superman in Vietnam", in Linda Dittmar and Gene Michaud, eds., From Hanoi to Hollywood: The Vietnam War in American Film, 159-68 (New Brunswick, N. J.: Rutgers University Press, 1990), 167.
150. Frank Rich, "Vietnam without a Map", Time, December 18, 1978.
151. Kroll, "Life or Death Gambles", Newsweek, December 11, 1978.
152. Quart, "Superman in Vietnam", 166-67.
153. "Ready for Vietnam? A Talk with Michael Cimino"
154. "A Vietnam Movie That Does Not Knock America", NYT, August 7, 1977, D11.
155. "Vietnam Comes Home", Time, April 23, 1979.
156. "Films and Plays about Vietnam Treat Everything but the War", NYT, May 27, 1979, D1.
157. "'Apocalypse Now' Will Open, At Last", NYT, January 25, 1979, C15.
158. Maureen Orth, "Watching the Apocalypse", Newsweek, June 13, 1978, 57-64.
159. Marin, "Coming to Terms with Vietnam", 47.
160. Richard Thompson, "Stoked: An Interview with John Milius", Film Com ment 12, no. 4 (July-August 1976)
161. quoted in Frank Tomasulo, "The Politics of Ambivalence: Apocalypse Now as Prowar and Antiwar Film", in Linda Dittmar and Gene Michaud, eds., From Hanoi to Hollywood: The Vietnam War in American Film, 145-58 (New Brunswick, N. J.: Rutgers University Press, 1990), 156.
162. "Coppola's Film is a Battle Royal", NYT, May 15, 1977.
163. Richard Thompson, "Stoked"
164. quoted in Muse, The Land of Nam, 114.
165. Orth, "Watching the Apocalypse"
166. Muse, The Land of Nam, 114, 118.
167. "Finally, 'Apocalypse Now'", Newsweek, May 28, 1979, 100.
168. "Finally, 'Apocalypse Now.' "
169. "Coppola's War Epic", Newsweek, August 20, 1979, 57.
170. "Briefs on the Arts", NYT, August 23, 1979, C15.
171. "The Screen: Apocalypse Now", NYT, August 15, 1979, C15.
172. Marin, "Coming to Terms with Vietnam", 47.
173. "The Screening of Vietnam", WP, August 19, 1979.
174. "Mangled Revelations: 'Apocalypse' At Last", WP, October 3, 1979.
175. "Apocalypse Now: A Long Trip for a Short Struggle", WP, October 5, 1979.
176. Frank Tomasulo, "The Politics of Ambivalence"
177. Statistics from http://www.worldwideboxoffice.com (accessed December 1, 2005).
178. "Powerful and Convincing 'Spartans': Capturing the Elusive Spirit of the Vietnam War", WP, July 28, 1978.
179. "Vietnamese Refugees Find Work-In a War Movie", NYT, October 4, 1977.
180. "Powerful and Convincing 'Spartans;' "
181. Martin, "The Indigestibility Of a Whole War", WP, August 4, 1978.
182. "The Dirty Little War", Newsweek, October 2, 1978, 85.
183. Marin, "Coming to Terms with Vietnam", 43.
184. Nhan Dan (Hanoi), February 2, 1976
185. quoted in David Marr and Christine White, Introduction to Marr and White, eds., Postwar Vietnam: Dilemmas in Social ist Development (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1988), 1.
186. William Duiker, Viet nam Since the Fall of Saigon (Athens, Ohio: Center for International Studies, 1985), esp. 3-29.
187. Charles Harvie and Tran Van Hoa, Vietnam's Reforms and Economic Growth (New York: St. Martin's, 1997), 46.
188. Ho Chi Minh, Testament
189. quoted in Duiker, Vietnam Since the Fall of Saigon, 3: "Once the American invaders have been defeated, we will rebuild our land ten times more beautiful"
190. Harvie and Hoa, Vietnam's Reforms and Economic Growth.
191. Elizabeth Becker, When the War Was Over: The Voices of Cambodia's Revolution and Its People (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1986);
192. Shawcross, Sideshow (New York, Simon & Schuster, 1979)
193. and The Quality of Mercy (New York, Simon & Schuster, 1984);
194. Ben Kiernan, The Pol Pot Regime (New Haven: Yale University, 1996);
195. several works by David Chandler, including Brother Number One (Boulder: Westview, 1999)
196. and A History of Cambodia (Boulder: Westview, 1996);
197. Kenton Clymer's The United States and Cambodia, vol. 1, From Curiosity to Transformation, 1870-1969, and vol. 2, A Troubled Relationship, 1969-2000 (New York: Routledge Curzon, 2004).
198. Shawcross, The Quality of Mercy, 63.
199. Human Rights in Cambodia, Hearing before the House Subcommittee on In ternational Organizations, 95th Congress, 1st Session, May 3, 1977 (Washington, D. C.: GPO, 1977), 14.
200. Human Rights in Cambodia [Second of Two Hearings], Hearing before the House Subcommittee on International Organizations, 95th Congress, 1st Session, July 26, 1977, 3.
201. H. Bruce Franklin, M. I. A., or Mythmaking in America (New York: Lawrence Hill Books, 1992), 105-8.
202. Shawcross, The Quality of Mercy, esp. 95-111.
203. Richard Holbrooke, "U. S. Policy in Asia: Changing Perspectives", Depart ment of State Bulletin: Current Policy 24 (June 1978), 7.
204. Quoted in Stephen Hurst, The Carter Administration and Vietnam (New York: St. Martin's, 1996), 70;
205. NYT, July 11, 1978, A6.
206. St. Louis Post Dispatch, August 20, 1978
207. quoted in Hurst, The Carter Ad ministration and Vietnam, 71.
208. Indochina, Hearing before the Senate Subcommittee on East Asian and Pacific Affairs, 95th Congress, 2nd session (Washington, D. C.: GPO, 1978), 30.
209. Hurst, The Carter Administration and Vietnam, 71-90.
210. The study is discussed in Gareth Porter, "The Decline of US Diplomacy in Southeast Asia", SAIS Review, no. 1(Winter 1981):149-60
211. cited in Hurst, The Carter Administration and Vietnam, 94.
212. Derek Davies, "Carter's Neglect, Moscow's Victory", FEER, February 2, 1979, 16.
213. Hurst, The Carter Administration and Vietnam, 96.
214. "Hanoi: We Want to Be Your Good Friends", Newsweek, September 4, 1978, 35.
215. Davies, "Carter's Neglect, Moscow's Victory"
216. Gareth Porter, "Vietnam's Soviet Alliance: A Challenge to U. S. Policy", In dochina Issues (Indochina Project, Washington, D. C.,), no. 6 (May 1980)
217. quoted in Nayan Chanda, Brother Enemy: The War after the War (New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1986), 322.
218. "State Department Answers to Additional Questions Submitted by Senator Glenn", in Indochina, 42.
219. Michael Haas, Cambodia, Pol Pot, and the United States: The Faustian Pact (Westport, Conn.: Praeger, 1991).
220. On the Vietnamese decision to invade Cambodia, see Duiker, Vietnam Since the Fall of Saigon, 115-20;
221. Chanda, Brother Enemy, 333-41.
222. Indochina, 1.
223. Douglas Pike, Vietnam-Cambodia Conflict, Report Prepared by the Congres sional Research Service for the House Subcommittee on Asian and Pacific Affairs, October 4, 1978 (Washington, D. C.: GPO, 1978), 17-18.
224. Chanda, Brother Enemy, 266.
225. Hurst, The Carter Administration and Vietnam, 96-97.
226. Douglas Pike, Vietnam's Future Foreign Policy, Report Prepared by the Con gressional Research Service for the House Subcommittee on Asian and Pacific Affairs, October 24, 1978, reprinted in Indochina, 221.
227. Indochina, 222-23.
228. Douglas Pike, Viet Cong: The Organization and Techniques of the National Liberation Front of South Vietnam (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1966), xi, x.
229. Pike, Vietnam's Future Foreign Policy, 160.
230. Chanda, Brother Enemy, 290.
231. Historians have differed on the extent to which the United States was complicit in China's "punitive" invasion of Vietnam. Nayan Chanda and Elizabeth Becker have been stern in their criticisms of the Carter administration. Stephen Hurst has defended Carter's stance, arguing that Chanda, in particular, misreads many of the administration's statements. Hurst argues that, far from appeasing the Chinese, the United States sternly denounced China's actions, much to the surprise of Beijing. In Becker's account, however, which Hurst largely ignores in order to focus on Chanda, even Brzezinski himself, in an interview with the author, described American policy as a "semipublic wink" at the Chinese plans. This "wink", Becker explains, helped to set the stage for future U. S. proxy sup port of the Chinese and their Khmer Rouge clients. "We could never support" Pol Pot, Brzezinski told Becker, "but China could." For the specific discussions of these topics, see Chanda, Brother Enemy, n352-62;
232. Becker, When the War Was Over, 439-41;
233. Hurst, The Carter Administration and Vietnam, 118-24.
234. Also see "Carter, The Unwilling Ally", FEER, March 9, 1979, 16.
235. Hurst, The Carter Administration and Vietnam, 118-19;
236. Chanda, Brother Enemy, 359.
237. Carter stated that "in the last few weeks, we have seen a Vietnamese in vasion of Cambodia and, as a result, a Chinese border penetration in Vietnam." Chanda situates this statement as part of the rationalization of U. S. support for China's actions, while Hurst argues that a "more logical conclusion" is that "it is simply a statement of fact" (Hurst, The Carter Administration and Vietnam, 118). But Hurst's own account misquotes Chanda's quotation from Carter. In Hurst's citation, Carter uses the term "Chinese border invasion", rather than the (correct) language from Chanda: "Chinese border penetration. " Hurst's claim of neutrality and balance on behalf of the administration is thus suspect. Clearly, in Carter's distinction of terms, an all-out Vietnamese "invasion" is constructed as more dire than, and as a precursor to and cause of, a less offensive "penetration" by the Chinese. Hurst also takes Chanda to task for misreading other statements by the White House, a result, he claims, of Chanda "misunderstanding the dynamics" of the administration (119). While Hurst focuses on the public statements of the administration, a function of his methodology, he fails to pay sufficient attention to the actions, or lack thereof, of the United States during the escalating war in Southeast Asia. In the long run, Chanda's version of events appears to be upheld, particularly when one moves beyond the limited scope of Hurst's focus.
238. Southeast Asia Refugee Crisis, Hearing before the Senate Subcommittee on East Asia and Pacific Affairs, 96th Congress, 1st Session, September 27, 1979, 29;
239. Murray Heibert, "Waiting in Ruins for the Next Installment", FEER, June 15, 1979, 12.
240. Chanda, Brother Enemy, 361.
241. Heibert, "Waiting in Ruins for the Next Installment"
242. Quoted in Shawcross, The Quality of Mercy, 116.
243. Cambodian Famine and U. S. Contingency Relief Plans, Hearing before the Senate Subcommittee on Arms Control, Oceans, International Operations and Environment, 96th Congress, 1st Session, November 8, 1979, 3.
244. Shawcross, The Quality of Mercy, esp. 95-111.
245. Cambodian Famine and U. S. Contingency Relief Plans, 5.
246. Becker, When the War Was Over, 444.
247. Along with Becker, When the War Was Over
248. Shawcross, The Quality of Mercy
249. see Anthony Lewis, "Cambodia: Time to Act", NYT, September 27, 1979.
250. Becker, When the War Was Over, 444.
251. Douglas Pike, Vietnam's Foreign Relations, 1975-78, Report Prepared by the Congressional Research Service for the Subcommittee on Asian and Pacific Af fairs (Washington, D. C.: GPO, 1979), 1.
252. Davies, "Carter's Neglect, Moscow's Victory"
253. Shawcross, The Quality of Mercy, 74.
254. "Vietnam and the UN", Economist, March 3, 1979, 54.
255. "Remarks by the President", April 21, 1978, Public Papers of the Presidents of the United States: Jimmy Carter, 1978 (Washington, D. C.: GPO, 1980), 1:717-18.
256. Kenton Clymer, "Jimmy Carter, Human Rights and Cambodia", Diplomatic History 27, no. 2 (April, 2003), 245-278.
257. Chanda, Brother Enemy, 377.
258. As Chanda recounts the story, the United States representative to the Credentials Committee arose after casting the U. S. vote in favor of the CGDK to find someone grabbing his hand in congratulations. "I looked up and saw it was [Pol Pot's lieutenant] Ieng Sary", he told a reporter. "I wanted to wash my hand." Chanda, Brother Enemy, 454n23.
259. Chanda is quoting from Gareth Porter, "Kampuchea's UN Seat: Cutting the Pol Pot Connection", Indochina Issues (Indo china Project, Washington, D. C.), no. 8 (July 1980), 1.
260. Southeast Asian Refugee Crisis, 28.
261. Southeast Asia, Hearing before the Senate Subcommittee on East Asian and Pacific Affairs, 96th Congress, 2nd Session, March 24 and 25, 1980 (Washington, D. C.: GPO, 1980), 1.
262. Chanda, Brother Enemy, 389. For a full description of the conference, see 387-90.
263. Shawcross, The Quality of Mercy, 356.
264. Kampuchea and American Foreign Policy Interests, Hearing before the House Subcommittee on Asian and Pacific Affairs, 97th Congress, 1st Session, July 23, 1981, 2-3.
265. U. S. Policy toward Indochina since Vietnam's Occupation of Kampuchea, Hearings before the Subcommittee on Asian and Pacific Affairs, 97th Congress, 1st Session, October 15, 21, and 22, 1981, 5.
266. Christopher Brady, United States Foreign Policy toward Cambodia, 1977-92: A Question of Realities (New York: St. Martin's, 1999), 74-75.
267. Michael Haas, Genocide by Proxy: Cambodian Pawn on a Superpower Chess board (New York: Praeger, 1991), 48.
268. The Democratic Kampuchea Seat at the United Nations and American Interests, Hearing before the Subcommittees on Asian and Pacific Affairs and on Human Rights and International Organizations, 97th Congress, 1st Session, September 15, 1982, 28.
269. "CIA Covertly Aiding Pro-West Cambodians", WP, July 8, 1985, A1.
270. "Statement to Press, July 8, 1985", Private Papers of Stephen Solarz, Brandeis University Library, Folder "Camb: 1985 NCR Aid"
271. "CIA Covertly Aiding Pro-West Cambodians"
272. Foreign Assistance and Related Programs Appropriations for 1986, Hearings before the House Subcommittee on Appropriations, March 27, 1985, 242.
273. Cited in Brady, United States Foreign Policy toward Cambodia, 112n74.
274. Stephen Solarz, "Why the U. S. Is Helping Cambodia", NYT, July 30, 1985, 22A.
275. Mark P. Lagon, The Reagan Doctrine: Sources of American Conduct in the Cold War's Last Chapter (Westport, Conn.: Praeger, 1994), 1.
276. "Waging War by Proxy", Newsweek, December 23, 1985, 32-34.
277. On the dubious distinction between humanitarian and development aid in particular, see Shawcross, The Quality of Mercy, 380.
278. "House Approves Foreign Aid Bill Opposing Marxists around the World", NYT, July 12, 1985, A1.
279. H. J. Resolution 602, included in Hope for Cambodia: Preventing the Return of the Khmer Rouge and Aiding the Refugees, Hearing and Markup before the House Subcommittee on Asian and Pacific Affairs, 100th Congress, 2nd Session, June 30 and July 28, 1988, 81.
280. Hope for Cambodia, 38.
281. Brady, United States Foreign Policy toward Cambodia, 121.
282. "Sihanouk Hints at Military Aid", NYT, October 14, 1988, A3.
283. "How Scandal Almost Sunk Our Secret Cambodia War", WP, October 30, 1988, C1.
284. "Tainted Cambodian Aid: New Details", NYT, November 1, 1988, A3.
285. "Amid Congressional Unease, U. S. Weighs Cambodia Arms Aid", WP, June 16, 1989, A12;
286. "House Panel Assails U. S. Policy on Khmer Rouge", NYT, September 15, 1989, A9.
287. "From the Killing Fields", ABC News Special Report, April 26, 1990.
288. "Beyond Vietnam", ABC News Special Report, April 26, 1990.
289. Jonathan Alter, "Live from Ho Chi Minh City", Newsweek, April 22, 1985, 72.
290. Ibid. Also see Tom Shales, "TV's Return to Vietnam", WP, May 2, 1985.
291. Maureen Dowd, "Kissinger and Le Duc Tho Meet Again, and Bitterness Shows", NYT, May 1, 1985.
292. Shales, "TV's Return to Vietnam"
293. "The Legacy of Vietnam", Newsweek, April 15, 1985;
294. "The War That Went Wrong, the Lessons It Taught", Time, April 15, 1985.
295. "The War That Won't Go Away", Newsweek, April 15, 1985, 32.
296. "We're Still Prisoners of War", Newsweek, April 15, 1985, 34-35.
297. "A Wounded Land", Newsweek, April 15, 1985, 59.
298. Noam Chomsky, "The United States and Indochina: Far from an Aberra tion", in Douglas Allen and Ngo Vinh Long, eds., Coming to Terms: Indochina, The United States, and the War (Boulder, Colo.: Westview, 1991), 172, 186n20.
299. "A Bloody Rite of Passage", Time, April 15, 1985, 22-23.
300. Harry Haines, "The Pride Is Back: Rambo, Magnum P. I., and the Return Trip to Vietnam", in Richard Morris and Peter Ehrenhaus, eds., Cultural Legacies of Vietnam: Uses of the Past in the Present, 99-123 (Norwood, N. J.: Ablex, 1990), 108.
301. Also see H. Bruce Franklin, M. I. A., or Mythmaking in America (New York: Lawrence Hill Books, 1992), 140-41;
302. Susan Jeffords, The Remasculinization of America: Gender and the Vietnam War (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1989).
303. See Franklin, M. I. A., 137-38.
304. On the relationship of Stallone and his hyper-masculine body to the politics of the 1980s, see Jeffords, The Remasculinization of America
305. Susan Jeffords, Hard Bodies: Hollywood Masculinity in the Reagan Era (New Brunswick, N. J.: Rut gers University Press, 1994).
306. Richard Schickel, "Danger: Live Moral Issues", Time, May 26, 1985, 91.
307. Jack Kroll, "A One-Man Army", Newsweek, May 27, 1985.
308. Schickel, "Danger: Live Moral Issues"
309. Richard Cohen, "Next: Rambo Goes to Nicaragua?" WP, June 4, 1985.
310. Vincent Canby, "Rambo Delivers a Revenge Fantasy", NYT, May 26, 1985.
311. Douglas Kellner, Media Culture: Cultural Studies, Identity, and Politics between the Modern and the Postmodern (New York: Routledge, 1995), chap. 2
312. "Media Culture, Politics, and Ideology: From Reagan to Rambo", 55-92.
313. "Blood, Sweat, and Cheers", Newsweek, June 3, 1985, 62.
314. Fred Bruning, "A Nation Succumbs to Rambomania", Maclean's, July 29, 1985, 7.
315. Jeffords, The Remasculinization of America, 121.
316. "Rocky and Rambo: Return of the American Hero", Newsweek, December 23, 1985, 61.
317. Kellner, Media Culture, 66.
318. Franklin, M. I. A., 151.
319. "Reagan Gets Idea from 'Rambo' for Next Time", Los Ange les Times, July 1, 1985
320. cited in Franklin, M. I. A., 212n43.
321. "The U. S. Has Surrendered-Now Rambo Is Taking the World by Storm", Business Week, August 26, 1985, 109.
322. Steven Roberts, "'Machismo' on Capitol Hill", WP, July 15, 1985.
323. Also cited in Franklin, M. I. A., 151.
324. Rambonomics, documentary by Laura Nix (Tri-Star Productions, 2001).
325. In cluded in the Rambo Trilogy DVD set (Tri-Star, 2001).
326. "The U. S. Has Surrendered"
327. John Fiske, Understanding Popular Culture (New York: Routledge, 1989), 166-67.
328. Quoted in "Reds Launch Major Assault on Rambo", Toronto Star, December 20, 1985, D26.
329. "Rocky and Rambo: Return of the American Hero"
330. See also Franklin, M. I. A., 151.
331. Franklin even mentions a few of the adult titles, including Ramb-ohh! (1986)
332. and Bimbo: Hot Blood Part I (1985).
333. "Vietnam Veteran Kills 29 in Bogata", Times (London), December 6, 1986.
334. "How Real is Rambo?" WP, July 8, 1985, C1.
335. Haines, "The Pride Is Back", 112.
336. Kevin Bowen, "'Strange Hells': Hollywood in Search of America's Lost War", in Linda Dittmar and Gene Michaud, eds., From Hanoi to Hollywood: The Vietnam War in American Film, 226-35 (New Brunswick, N. J.: Rutgers University Press, 1990), 229.
337. Harry Haines quotes from his interview of members of the group- and cites "Stallone Comes Through at Harvard", Boston Globe, February 19, 1986, 21
338. in "The Pride Is Back", 113.
339. "How Real Is Rambo?"
340. "POW's in Vietnam: Fact or Fiction", U. S. News and World Report, October 28, 1985, 12.
341. MacFarlane's quote also appears in Franklin, M. I. A., 157.
342. "POW's in Vietnam: Fact or Fiction"
343. Also see, for example, "MIA's: A Surprise from Hanoi", Newsweek, July 22, 1985, 34
344. and "The Lost Americans", Newsweek, January 20, 1986, 26.
345. "The Lost Americans"
346. "Oh What an Ugly War", Newsweek, September 9, 1985, 89.
347. Oliver Stone, "My Brilliant Career", Time, January 26, 1986, 60.
348. cited in Lawrence H. Suid, Guts and Glory: The Making of the American Military Image in Film (Lexington: University of Kentucky Press, 2002), 504. The other film to make more money than Platoon from the domestic box office was Crocodile Dundee.
349. Nightline, December 19, 1986;
350. cited in Suid, Guts and Glory, 505.
351. "How the War Was Won", Time, January 26, 1986, 58.
352. Suid, Guts and Glory, 503-4.
353. David Ansen, "A Ferocious Vietnam Elegy", Newsweek, January 5, 1987, 57.
354. Vincent Canby, "The Vietnam War in Stone's Platoon", NYT, December 19, 1986.
355. Fred Burning, "A Celluloid War of Credibility", Maclean's, March 16, 1987.
356. "Vietnam, The Way It Really Was", Time, January 26, 1987, 57.
357. Gilbert Adair, Hollywood's Vietnam: From The Green Berets to Full Metal Jacket (London: Heinemann, 1989), 150.
358. Eben J. Muse, "The Way It Really Was", in The Land of Nam: The Vietnam War in American Film (Lanham, Md.: Scarecrow Press, 1995), 169.
359. Ansen, "A Ferocious Vietnam Elegy"
360. Canby, "The Vietnam War in Stone's Platoon"
361. Canby, "Platoon Finds New Life in Old War Movie", NYT, January 11, 1987.
362. David Halberstam, "Two Who Were There View Platoon", NYT, March 8, 1987.
363. Stone drew a fair amount of criticism for his portrayal of black soldiers in Platoon. In its initial denial of military assistance in making the film, the Army took Stone to task for "stereotyping black soldiers" (Suid, Guts and Glory, 503). Time noted that black soldiers are occasionally patronized and sentimentalized ("Vietnam: The Way It Really Was", 58).
364. Clyde Taylor, "The Colonialist Subtext in Platoon", in Dittmar and Michaud, From Hanoi to Hollywood, 171-74.
365. "Vietnam: The Way It Really Was", 58.
366. "Oh What an Ugly War"
367. Quoted in "Platoon-Hollywood Steps on a Gold Mine", LA Times, January 25, 1987, Calendar Section, 39.
368. "A Reason to Reflect on War", LA Times, January 25, 1987, Calendar Sec tion, 1.
369. "Drawing Flak from Norris", LA Times, January 25, 1987, Calendar Sec tion, 3.
370. "After Seeing Platoon, Fonda Wept", LA Times, January 25, 1987, Calendar Section, 3.
371. "Platoon-Hollywood Steps on a Goldmine", 5.
372. "Viet Refugees Give Platoon Good Reviews", LA Times, January 25, 1987, Calendar Section, 5.
373. "Platoon Meets Rambo", NYT, January 22, 1987, A26.
374. "Prime Time for Vietnam", Newsweek, August 31, 1987, 68.
375. "Vietnam Comes of Age", U. S. News and World Report, February 2, 1987, 58.
376. Edwin A. Martini, "Quagmire in the Classroom: Teaching the Vietnam War to Post-Vietnam Generations", B. A. thesis, Pitzer College, 1998, available from the author.
377. "Incoming", The 'Nam, no. 1 (New York: Marvel Comics), December 1986.
378. "'Nam Notes", The 'Nam, no. 1, December 1986.
379. "'Nam Notes", The 'Nam, no. 2, January 1987.
380. "Humpin' the Boonies", The 'Nam, no. 5, April 1987.
381. "Good Old Days", The 'Nam, no. 7, June 1987 (emphasis added).
382. "Thanks for Thanksgiving", The 'Nam, no. 22, September 1988.
383. "The Beginning of the End", The 'Nam, no. 24, November 1988.
384. H. Bruce Franklin, Vietnam and Other American Fantasies (Amherst: Uni versity of Massachusetts Press, 2000), 18.
385. "Incoming", The 'Nam, no. 27, February 1989.
386. "Incoming", The 'Nam, no. 28, March 1989.
387. "Incoming", The 'Nam, no. 29, April 1989.
388. "Pride Goeth⋯", The 'Nam, no. 9, August 1987.
389. "Incoming", The 'Nam, no. 14, January 1988 (emphasis added; ellipsis in original).
390. "Incoming", The 'Nam, no. 3, February 1987.
391. "Incoming", The 'Nam, no. 6, May 1987 (emphasis added).
392. "Incoming", The 'Nam, no. 8, July 1987.
393. "Incoming", The 'Nam, no. 3, February 1987.
394. "Incoming", The 'Nam, no. 9, August 1987, and no. 20, July 1988.
395. "Incoming", The 'Nam, no. 11, October 1987.
396. "Incoming", The 'Nam, no. 5, April 1987.
397. "Incoming", The 'Nam, no. 6, May 1987.
398. "Incoming", The 'Nam, no. 7, June 1987.
399. "Incoming", The 'Nam, no. 14, January 1988.
400. "Incoming", The 'Nam, no. 15, February 1988.
401. "Incoming", The 'Nam, no. 13, December 1987.
402. "Incoming", The 'Nam, no. 24, November 1988.
403. "Incoming", The 'Nam, no. 25, December 1988.
404. "Notes from the World", The 'Nam, no. 15, February 1988.
405. "Incoming", The 'Nam, no. 18, May 1988.
406. "Incoming", The 'Nam, no. 27, February 1989.
407. "Incoming", The 'Nam, no. 33, August 1989.
408. James Fallows, "No Hard Feelings?" Atlantic Monthly, December 1988, 76.
409. Geoff Simons, Vietnam Syndrome: Impact on US Foreign Policy (New York: St. Martin's, 1998).
410. On the various ways in which Vietnam shaped American receptions of the Gulf War, see Susan Jeffords and Lauren Rabinovitz, eds., Seeing Through the Media: The Persian Gulf War (New Brunswick, N. J.: Rutgers University Press, 1992).
411. "Inaugural Address, January 20, 1989", Public Papers of the Presidents of the United States: George Bush, 1989 (Washington, D. C.: GPO, 1990), 1:3.
412. "Kicking the Vietnam Syndrome", WP, March 4, 1991.
413. Vietnam: The Road Ahead, Testimony before the Senate Subcommittee on East Asian and Pacific Affairs, April 25, 1991
414. reprinted in U. S. Department of State Dispatch 2, no. 18 (May 6, 1991).
415. "The Real 'Vietnam Syndrome'", WP, March 7, 1991.
416. The Vessey Mission to Hanoi, Hearing before the House Subcommittee on Asian and Pacific Affairs, 100th Congress, 2nd Session, September 30, 1987. Led by retired General John Vessey, the Vessey Mission was sent to Vietnam by Presi dent Reagan to gauge the level of progress on the POW/MIA issue in Vietnam.
417. Don Oberdorfer, "U. S Details Plan for Normalizing Vietnam Relations", WP, April 10, 1991;
418. "US Lays Conditions for an Opening to Vietnam: Deal on My Terms", FEER, April 18, 1991, 13.
419. "US to Hurdle Vietnam's IMF/World Bank Ties", FEER, October 17, 1991;
420. see also "The Next Great Leap", FEER, April 22, 1993, 68;
421. "Aid: Ghosts at the Feast", FEER, April 22, 1993, 72.
422. Effects of the Continued Diplomatic Stalemate in Cambodia, Hearing before the Senate Subcommittee on East Asian and Pacific Affairs, 102nd Congress, 1st Session, April 11, 1991, 22.
423. Vietnam: The Road Ahead;
424. "U. S. to Give Vietnam $1 Million", NYT, April 26, 1991.
425. Oberdorfer, "U. S. Details Plan for Normalizing Vietnam Relations"
426. Effects of the Continued Diplomatic Stalemate in Cambodia, 28.
427. Oberdorfer, "U. S. Details Plan for Normalizing Vietnam Relations"
428. Effects of the Continued Diplomatic Stalemate in Cambodia, 29.
429. "U. S. to Give Vietnam $1 Million"
430. An Examination of U. S. Policy toward POW/MIAs, Report Prepared by the Republican Staff of U. S. Senate Committee on Foreign Relations, May 1991
431. cited in H. Bruce Franklin, Vietnam and Other American Fantasies (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 2000), 196.
432. U. S. Economic Embargo on Vietnam, Joint Hearing before the House Sub committees on Asian and Pacific Affairs and International Economic Policy and Trade, 102nd Congress, 1st Session, June 25, 1991, 1-2.
433. Henrich Dahm, French and Japanese Relations with Vietnam since 1975 (Surrey: Curzon Press, 2000), 113.
434. U. S. Economic Embargo on Vietnam, 75-79.
435. See, for example, "Hoping Against Hope", Newsweek, July 29, 1991;
436. "Are They or Aren't They?" Time, July 29, 1991, 41.
437. "Bring On Rambo", WSJ, August 2, 1991, A1
438. cited in Franklin, Vietnam and Other American Fantasies, 197.
439. Resolving the POW/MIA Issue: A Status Report, Hearing before the House Subcommittee on Asian and Pacific Affairs, 102nd Congress, 1st Session, July 17, 1991
440. "Appendix Two: Analysis of the Purported Robertson, Lundy, and Steven POW/MIA Image", reprinted in American POW's in Southeast Asia: The Questions Remain, Hearings before the House Subcommittee on Asian and Pacific Affairs, July 31 and August 2, 1991, 175.
441. Also see Franklin, Vietnam and Other American Fantasies, 197.
442. Stephen Solarz and Richard Childress, "Vietnam: Detours on the Path to Normalization", in C. Richard Nelson and Kenneth Weisbrode, eds., Reversing Relations with Former Adversaries: U. S. Foreign Policy after the Cold War, 88-125 (Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 1998).
443. H. Bruce Franklin, M. I. A., or Mythmaking in America (New York: Lawrence Hill Books, 1992), 157-58.
444. Franklin recounts the story as a footnote in his Vietnam and Other American Fantasies, 233n78: "My own efforts to testify, in which I persisted from February to December 1992, were officially rebuffed not only by the committee and in letters from Senator Kerry but also by Senator Kerry and Senator [Chuck] Grassley [of Iowa, another member of the Select Committee], when I appeared with them on national television"
445. U. S. Government's Post-War POW/MIA Efforts, Hearings before the Senate Select Committee on POW/MIA Affairs, 102nd Congress, 2nd Session, August 11-12, 1992 (Washington, D. C.: GPO, 1993), 282-83.
446. Oversight Hearings: Department of Defense, POW/MIA Family Issues, and Private Sector Issues, Hearings before the Senate Select Committee on POW/MIA Affairs, 102nd Congress, 2nd Session, December 1-4, 1992, 1295.
447. American POW/MIA's in Southeast Asia: An Update on U. S. Policy and Current Investigations, Hear ings before the House Subcommittee on Asian and Pacific Affairs, 102nd Con gress, 1st Session, November 6, 1991, 74-76;
448. and Oversight Hearings, 1190.
449. U. S. Government's Post-War POW/MIA Efforts; Oversight Hearings, 14-16.
450. POWs/MIAs: Missing Pieces in the Puzzle, Hearings before the House Sub committee on Asian and Pacific Affairs, July 14, 1993, 66.
451. The $100 million figure comes from the Final Report of the Senate Select Committee on POW/MIA Affairs, Senate Report 103-1, January 13, 1993 (Washington, D. C.: GPO, 1993), 8
452. (hereaf ter, Final Report of the Senate Select Committee on POW/MIA Affairs (1993).
453. American POW/MIA's in Southeast Asia, 29 (emphasis in original).
454. Oversight Hearings, 1188-89.
455. American POW/MIA's in Southeast Asia, 81-82.
456. The Vessey Mission to Hanoi, 50;
457. Issues Affecting the Question of United States Relations with Vietnam, Hearing before the House Subcommittees on Asian and Pacific Affairs and on International Economic Policy and Trade of the Committee on Foreign Affairs, 101st Congress, 1st Session, November 17, 1989., 55.
458. Oversight Hearings, 51189.
459. American POW/MIA's in Southeast Asia, 9.
460. On the classification decision, see Franklin, M. I. A., 16-17.
461. Oversight Hearings, 1293.
462. Oversight Hearings, 1185.
463. "U. S. Ex-Operative in Hanoi Obtained MIA Photos", WP, October 22, 1992;
464. "Bush Hails 'Breakthrough' in Vietnam War MIA Cases", WP, October 24, 1992. The tone of the reports made it appear that Hanoi had been withholding informa tion. As discussed above, this was far from the case; the Vietnamese were quick to allow access to documents and photographs, many of which they were previously unaware they possessed.
465. Final Report of the Senate Select Committee on POW/MIA Affairs (1993), 7.
466. The report went on to add, "But there remains the troubling question of whether the Americans who were expected to return but did not were, as a group, shunted aside and discounted by government and population alike. The answer to that question is essentially yes." Final Report of the Senate Select Committee on POW/MIA Affairs (1993), 7.
467. "Vietnam Underlines Cooperation on MIAs", WP, October 31, 1992.
468. "Bush Sees Gain in U. S.-Vietnam Ties", Los Angeles Times, October 24, 1992
469. cited in Franklin, Vietnam and Other American Fantasies, 199.
470. "Vietnam: The Big Buildup Begins", WP, December 6, 1992.
471. On Clinton's own account of his activities during the war, see his memoir, My Life (New York: Knopf, 2004), esp. 157-60.
472. "Statement by Press Secretary Fitzwater on Relations with Vietnam, De cember 4, 1992", Public Papers of the Presidents of the United States: George Bush, 1992-1993 (Washington, D. C.: GPO, 1993), 1:2187;
473. "Embargo is Eased after Hanoi's Help on MIAs", WP, December 15, 1993.
474. Brown's paper is cited in "Vietnam: The Big Buildup Begins"
475. "President Clinton: Normalize Ties with Vietnam", WSJ, March 8, 1993, A12. On October 23, 1991, the Journal's lead editorial encouraged the US to wait until communism collapsed in Southeast Asia before "fling[ing] wide the doors of the developed world"
476. "Vietnam Glitch", WSJ, October 23, 1991, A1.
477. "President Clinton: Normalize Ties with Vietnam", WSJ, March 8, 1993.
478. H. Bruce Franklin, "MIA SMA", Nation, May 10, 1993, 616;
479. also see Frank lin, "Missing in Action in the Twenty-first Century", chap. 8 in Vietnam and Other American Fantasies, 173-201.
480. "U. S. to Press Hanoi to Explain '72 POW Report", NYT, April 13, 1993;
481. "POW Document Renews Bitter Arguments", WP, April 14, 1993.
482. Franklin, Vietnam and Other American Fantasies, 200. Franklin's headlines and editorials (233n87) are taken from the Washington Times, April 12, 1993;
483. USA Today, April 12, 1993;
484. WP, April 15, 1993;
485. and Jersey Journal, April 18, 1993.
486. Franklin, "MIA SMA";
487. Nayan Chanda, "Research and Destroy", FEER, May 6, 1993, 20.
488. Chanda, "Research and Destroy" (ellipsis in original).
489. Morris, "Documenting the Truth", FEER, July 15, 1993, 4.
490. "A Researcher's Dream Find on U. S. POWs Turns Into a Nightmare", WP, April 25, 1993.
491. Ibid. The actual "1205 Report" is included as an appendix in POW/MIA
492. Where Do We Go from Here?, Hearing before the House Subcommittee on Asia and the Pacific, 103rd Congress, 2nd Session, February 10, 1994, 315-30.
493. MacAlister Brown and Joseph J. Zasloff, Cambodia Confounds the Peacemakers, 1979-1998 (Ithaca, N. Y.: Cornell University Press, 1998), esp. chap. 3, "Implementing the Paris Agreements, 1991-1993", and chap. 4, "Conducting the Election, 1992-1993"
494. "The Wages of Peace", FEER, July 15, 1993, 10.
495. "U. S. Drops Opposition to Loans for Vietnam", WP, July 3, 1993.
496. POW's/MIA's: Missing Pieces of the Puzzle, Hearings before the House Sub committee on Asia and the Pacific, July 14 and 22, 1993. All of these witnesses demonstrate their beliefs in the Vietnamese holding prisoners after 1973 during the hearings.
497. United States Policy toward Vietnam, Hearing before the Senate Subcommit tee on East Asian and Pacific Affairs, 103rd Congress, 1st Session, July 21, 1993, 13.
498. The previous examples of testimony focusing on the plight of the Vietnam ese under the embargo came in the November 1975 hearings, U. S. Trade Embargo of Vietnam: Church Views, discussed in chapter 1.
499. United States Policy toward Vietnam, 63.
500. Robert McFarlane, "The Last Battle", remarks at the National League of Families 24th Annual Meeting Dinner, July 16, 1993
501. reprinted in United States Policy toward Vietnam, 79-81.
502. United States Policy toward Vietnam, 69.
503. Gabriel Kolko, Vietnam: Anatomy of a Peace (New York: Routledge, 1997), 33.
504. "The Next Great Leap", FEER, April 22, 1993, 68.
505. "Vietnam: War and Peace", FEER, May 4, 1995, 520.
506. "The Next Great Leap";
507. John Dodsworth et al., Vietnam: Transition to a Market Economy, Occasional Paper 35, International Monetary Fund (Washington, D. C., 1996).
508. "Vietnam: War and Peace"
509. "The Wages of Peace"
510. Kolko, Vietnam: Anatomy of a Peace.
511. Dodsworth et al., Vietnam: Transition to a Market Economy;
512. Peter Wolff, Vietnam: The Incomplete Transformation (London: Frank Cass, 1999), 118-21.
513. "Does Clinton Need This?" Time, February 7, 1994, 47.
514. "Senate Urges End to U. S. Embargo against Vietnam", WP, January 28, 1994;
515. "The Wages of Peace", FEER, July 15, 1993, 10.
516. "Senate Urges End to U. S. Embargo against Vietnam"
517. "Justice Department Set to Clear Ron Brown", WP, February 2, 1994.
518. "MIA Activists Fight on for Vietnam Embargo", WP, February 3, 1994.
519. "Remarks on Lifting the Trade Embargo on Vietnam and an Exchange with Reporters, February 3, 1994", Public Papers of the Presidents of the United States: William J. Clinton, 1994 (Washington, D. C.: GPO, 1995), 1:178.
520. "Clinton Lifts Vietnam Trade Embargo", WP, February 4, 1994.
521. "Remarks on Lifting the Trade Embargo on Vietnam", 180.
522. "Watch This Space: Advertisers Covet Vietnam's Growing Consumer Mar. ket", FEER, March 31, 1994, 66.
523. "Vietnam Welcomes U. S. Decision on Embargo", NYT, February 5, 1994;
524. "Peace Finally at Hand", Time, February 14, 1994;
525. "New Vietnam Combat: Coke Versus Pepsi", NYT, February 7, 1994;
526. "The War-To Cash In", Newsweek, Febru ary 14, 1994, 33.
527. "As Trade Opens, War Closes", WP, February 6, 1994.
528. "The War-To Cash In";
529. "New Vietnam Combat"
530. "New Vietnam Combat";
531. "As Trade Opens, War Closes"
532. "A Lukewarm Welcome", FEER, February 17, 1994.
533. "Vietnam Welcomes U. S. Decision on Embargo"
534. "A Lukewarm Welcome"
535. "Making Up for Lost Time", FEER, February 17, 1994, 17.
536. POW/MIA: Where Do We Go from Here?, 4.
537. U. S.-Vietnam Relations: Issues and Implications, Report to Congressional Committees by the General Accounting Office (Washington, D. C.: GPO, 1995), 6, 9.
538. "Waiver under the Trade Act of 1974 with Respect to Vietnam: Com munication from the President of the United States to the House Committee on Ways and Means", April 21, 1998 (Washington, D. C.: GPO, 1998);
539. and Approving the Extension of Nondiscriminatory Treatment (Normal Trade Relations) to the Products of the Socialist Republic of Vietnam, Report of the Senate Finance Committee to Accompany S. J. Res. 16, 107th Congress, 1st Session, July 27, 2001 (Washington, D. C.: GPO, 2001).
540. U. S.-Vietnam Relations: Issues and Implications, 15-16.
541. Adjudication of Claims against Vietnam. Also see chap. 1.
542. Issues Affecting the Question of United States Relations with Vietnam, 14.
543. Adjudication of Claims against Vietnam, 3.
544. POW/MIA: Where Do We Go from Here?, 2. The 1995 GAO report claimed that the assets were worth "more than $350 million"
545. POW/MIA: Where Do We Go from Here?, 3;
546. Issues Affecting the Question of United States Relations with Vietnam, 100.
547. Issues Affecting the Question of United States Relations with Vietnam, 3.
548. "Claims: Agreement between the United States of America and Vietnam", U. S. Department of State document, January 28, 1995 (Washington, D. C.: GPO, 1995).
549. "United States and Vietnam Sign Debt Agreement", U. S. Department of the Treasury press release, April 7, 1997.
550. "MIA Hunter Chains Himself to Gate", NYT, June 5, 1995;
551. "U. S. Finds No POWs at Vietnam Military Site", NYT, June 19, 1995.
552. "Binding Up Old Wounds", Newsweek, June 26, 1995, 34.
553. "Opening to Vietnam", NYT, July 12, 1995.
554. "Republicans Attack Clinton on Vietnam", NYT, July 13, 1995.
555. "Reflecting on Vietnam Ties, Many Agree That It's Time", NYT, July 15, 1995.
556. In this context, it is worth pointing to certain ideas about narrative structure in social constructs, beginning as perhaps one must with those of Michel Foucault. Historian Hayden V. White has also written enlighteningly on the subject in The Content and the Form: Narrative Discourse and Historical Representation (Baltimore, Md.: Johns Hopkins, 1987). Scholars of what has come to be called narratology have further developed the concept.
557. See in particular the work of Mieke Bal in her Narratology: Introduction to the Theory of the Narrative (Toronto: University of Toronto, 1985, rev. 1997). Bal has been at the forefront of interdisciplinary work that seeks to apply analysis of narrative structure to other fields, including to material and political culture. As for my own discussion here, I do not intend to put forth a determinist model, in which the structures of, for instance, war memorials would overdeter-mine the stories that were told at the different sites, but rather a dynamic situation in which these structures shape and in turn are shaped by the experiences of visitors. The narrative structure does not determine experience, then, but rather serves as a boundary or limit of normative and accepted practices for users who bring a seemingly boundless number of stories with them when they visit these sites. As I argue throughout this work, these normative boundaries are important not because they actively silence some narratives at the expense of others, but because of how the structural limitations of dominant discourses render some forms of stories outside, in Foucault's words, the "possible field of action"
558. Michel Foucault, "The Subject and Power"
559. afterword in Hubert L. Dreyfus and Paul Rabinow, Michel Foucault: Beyond Structuralism and Hermeneutics, 208-26 (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1983), 221.
560. Jan C. Scruggs and Joel L. Swerdlow, To Heal a Nation: The Vietnam Veterans Memorial (New York: Harper and Row, 1985), 7.
561. Maya Lin, Boundaries (New York: Simon and Schuster, 2000)
562. excerpted in "'As American as Anyone Else'-But Asian Too", WP, November 12, 2000.
563. Christina M. Gillis, ed., Grounds for Remembering: Monuments, Memorials, Texts, Doreen B. Townsend Center Occasional Papers 3 (Berkeley: Doreen B. Townsend Center for the Humanities, 1995), 12.
564. Marita Sturken, Tangled Memories (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1997), 61.
565. Kristin Ann Haas, Carried to the Wall (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1998), 15.
566. "Epitaph for Vietnam", WP, May 7, 1981.
567. Gillis, ed., Grounds for Remembering;
568. also quoted in "The Statue and The Wall", WP, November 10, 1984.
569. "Memorial Delayed: Vietnam Memorial to be Reviewed", WP, February 27, 1982.
570. Tom Wolfe, "Art Disputes War", WP, October 13, 1992.
571. Scruggs and Swerdlow, To Heal A Nation, 80.
572. "Stop That Monument", National Review, September 18, 1981, 1064;
573. quoted in Scruggs and Swerdlow, To Heal a Nation, 81
574. Sturken, Tangled Memories, 52.
575. Gillis, ed., Grounds for Remembering, 11.
576. "Ground Broken in Capital for Memorial on Vietnam", NYT, March 27, 1982.
577. "'Art War' Erupts Over Vietnam Veterans Memorial", WP, July 8, 1982.
578. Haas, Carried to the Wall, 18.
579. Scruggs and Swerdlow, To Heal a Nation, 129.
580. "'Art War' Erupts Over Vietnam Veterans Memorial"
581. Quoted in Scruggs and Swerdlow, To Heal a Nation, 130.
582. "President Accepts Vietnam Memorial", NYT, November 12, 1984.
583. "Statue Completes Vietnam Memorial", NYT, November 10, 1984.
584. Quoted in Scruggs and Swerdlow, To Heal a Nation, 133.
585. Sturken, Tangled Memories, 46.
586. David Thelen, "Memory and American History", Journal of American His tory 75(Spring 1989):1128.
587. Haas, Carried to the Wall, 2.
588. Sturken, Tangled Memories, 69.
589. http://energy.senate.gov/hearings/national-parks/4-27Cats&Dogs/Doyle. htm (accessed March 14, 2004).
590. http://energy.senate.gov/hearings/national-parks/4-27Cats&Dogs/ Doubek.htm (accessed March 14, 2004).
591. Sturken, Tangled Memories, 63.
592. http://www.nps.gov/vive/(accessed November 2, 2000).
593. http://www.vietvet.org/thewall/thewallm.html (accessed November 2, 2000).
594. http://www.vietvet.org/thepast.htm (accessed November 2, 2000).
595. http://www.vietvet.org/tapsgal.htm (accessed November 2, 2000).
596. http://www.vietvet.org/tapsgal.htm (accessed November 2, 2000).
597. The phrase "technologies of memory" is taken from Sturken, Tangled Memories, 9.
598. http://www.virtualwall.org (accessed November 5, 2002).
599. http://www.virtualwall.org/announce.html (accessed November 5, 2002).
600. The welcome page was later changed to http://virtualwall.org/about.htm (ac cessed November 21, 2006).
601. http://www.vvmf.org (the entire VVMF site is still accessible via the URL http://www.thevirtualwall.org).
602. http://www.vvmf.org//index.cfm?SectionID=110&Wall-Id-No=16508.0 (accessed November 30, 2006). The Virtual Wall regularly changes its searching methods to keep pace with advances in web technologies. Although some of the URLs featured here have changed as a result of these developments, the URLs and information contained on the pages were accurate at time they were accessed. Cur rent profiles for the pages from the Virtual Wall cited here can be found through a search at the site using the full names of the soldiers.
603. http://www.vvmf.org//index.cfm?SectionID=110&anClip=16668 (accessed November 20, 2006).
604. http://www.angelfire.com/fl5/voicesmemory/(accessed November 21, 2006).
605. http://www.virtualwall.org/do/OShaughnessyPJ01a.htm (accessed No vember 7, 2002).
606. http://www.virtualwall.org/dc/CummingsHW01a.htm (accessed Novem ber 7, 2002).
607. http://www.virtualwall.org/db/BirminghamEA01a.htm (accessed Novem ber 6, 2002).
608. http://www.vvmf.org/index.cfm?SectionID=110&anClip=27044 (accessed November 21, 2006).
609. http://www.vvmf.org/index.cfm?SectionID=110&anClip=121310 (accessed November 21, 2006).
610. http://www.vvmf.org/index.cfm?SectionID=110&anClip=121285 (accessed November 21, 2006).
611. http://www.vvmf.org/index.cfm?SectionID=110&anClip=121312 (accessed November 30, 2006).
612. http://www.vvmf.org//index.cfm?SectionID=110&anClip=121302 (accssed November 21, 2006).
613. Sturken, Tangled Memories, 82.
614. http://death-response.chance.berkeley.edu/memorial (accessed November 5, 2002).
615. http://www.virtual-memorials.com (accessed November 5, 2002).
616. http://www.vietworld.com/Holocaust/index.html (accessed November 5, 2002).
617. Sites like the Widows of War memorial that have been removed from the web can normally still be accessed by using the Internet Archive (http://www.archive.org/index.php) and its Wayback Machine (http://www.archive. org/web/web.php). As of December 1, 2006, the pages cited below were all accessible via the Internet Archive.
618. http://www.warwidows.org/xuan-ngoc-nguyen.html (accessed December 5, 2001).
619. http://www.warwidows.org/nancy-le.html (accessed December 5, 2001).
620. http://www.warwidows.org/Memorial/eva-alaluf.html (accessed Decem ber 5, 2001).
621. http://www.warwidows.org/Memorial/response901.html (accessed De cember 5, 2001).
622. "Background: An Education Center at the Vietnam Veterans Memorial", http://thevirtualwall.org/index.cfm?SectionID=315 (accessed March 17, 2003).
623. The Education Center proposal hit its first snag almost immediately. The National Park Service had for several years resisted a number of proposed additions to the mall, including a Franklin Roosevelt Memorial, Korean War Memorial, and World War Two Memorial. It worried that the center would take away from the experience of the Wall, further clutter the mall as a whole, and set a precedent for similar centers at other monuments. The Park Service was supported by several environmental groups, including the National Coalition to Save Our Mall, which offered a counterproposal that pamphlets be handed to visitors instead. For several legislative sessions, the proposed center was attached to legislation, otherwise supported by these groups, that would have placed strict limitations on any further additions to the mall. A more surprising source of opposition came from Phil Gramm. The Republican senator from Texas had by 2001 twice taken the Education Center off of the Senate's unanimous consent calendar, dooming the measure to die in committee. Gramm's reason for opposing the center had nothing to do with environmental concerns or with the war and its legacies; he was opposed to either building or banning any more memorials until a monument to Ronald Reagan was approved. Through his stalwart opposition, Gramm almost single-handedly blocked not only the center but the ban on future additions to the mall. Ironically, Reagan himself had signed the original legislation which the ban would have amended: the 1986 Commemorative Works Act, which specified that no monument to an individual could be built on the mall until twenty-five years after the person's death. The irony was not lost on the Bush administration, which supported the ban and reminded Gramm not only that Reagan, in his early nineties at the time of the proposal, had signed the legislation, but that the famously anti-government president already had the Washington, D. C., airport and another federal building named after him. When Gramm retired in 2002, the proposal was cleared to move forward, although not without continued opposition from the National Park Service. For the details of these conflicts, see "Background: An Education Center at the Vietnam Veterans Memorial", and Legislative Field Hearing to Authorize the Design and Construction of a Visitor's Center for the Vietnam Veterans Memorial, Hearing before the House Subcommittee on National Parks, Recreation, and Public Lands, 108th Congress, 1st Session, May 21, 2003.
624. Legislative Field Hearing, 10.
625. Ibid., 24. On the Enola Gay controversy and some interesting connections to Vietnam, see Edward Linenthal and Tom Engelhardt, eds., History Wars: The Enola Gay and Other Battles for the American Past (New York: Metropolitan Books, 1996).
626. Legislative Field Hearing, 24.
627. Text of H. R. 1442, available at http://www.vvmf.org/index.cfm?SectionID= 4 (accessed March 10, 2004).
628. The site has since taken down the link to the text of H. R. 1442, but the press release discussing it can be found at http://www.vvmf.org/index.cfm? SectionID=298 (accessed November 30, 2006).
629. "President Bush Signs Visitor Center Bill", www.thevirtualwall.org/index.cfm?SectionID=298 (accessed March 10, 2004).
630. Legislative Field Hearing, 9.
631. Quoted in "U. S.-Vietnamese Ties", NYT, August 6, 1995.
632. "Good Morning, Vietnam", NYT, January 18, 1995.
633. "Make Money, Not War", WP, February 15, 1995.
634. "McDonald's 'Happy Meals' Sad For Workers", Interpress Service, May 9, 1996, www.oneworld.org/ips2/may/Vietnam.html (accessed February 25, 2004).
635. Irene Norlund, "Nike and Labour in Vietnam", Nordic Newsletter of Asian Studies 3(October 1998):15-18;
636. Eyal Press, "Vietnam: A Nike Sneak", Nation 268, no. 13(April 5, 1999):6.
637. Mark E. Manyin, The Vietnam-U. S. Bilateral Trade Agreement, Congressional Research Service report to Congress, June 20, 2001 (Washington: GPO, 2001);
638. United States-Vietnam Bilateral Trade Agreement, Hearing before the Senate Com mittee on Finance, 107th Congress, 1st Session, June 26, 2001.
639. See, for example, the statement of Ambassador Douglas "Pete" Peterson in United States-Vietnam Trade Relations, Hearing before the House Subcommittee on Trade, 106th Congress, 1st Session, June 17, 1999 (Washington: GPO, 2000), 33.
640. U. S.-Vietnam Relations, Hearing before the House Subcommittee on Asia and the Pacific, 105th Congress, 1st Session, June 18, 1997, 59.
641. Manyin, Vietnam-U. S. Bilateral Trade Agreement, 1-2. In 1998, the U. S. government's official terminology shifted from "most favored nation" to "normal trade relations"
642. "Free Trade's Muddy Waters", WP, July 13, 2003;
643. "Vietnam Shuns U. S. Sanc tions on Catfish", WP, June 18, 2003.
644. "Trade Ruling Favors U. S. Catfish Farmers over Vietnamese", WP, July 24, 2003;
645. "Vietnam Worried About Shrimp Sanctions", WP, July 24, 2003.
646. "U. S. Rice Growers Want to Sell to Iraq", WP, March 14, 2004.
647. On Vietnam and the WTO, see Kym Anderson, Vietnam's Transforming Economy and WTO Accession (Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, 1999).
648. "Clinton Gets Late-Night Welcome in Vietnam", Reuters, November 16, 2000.
649. "Remarks by the President to Vietnam's National University", November 17, 2000, available at http://www.dtic.mil/dpmo/news/2000/001117-white- house-national-univ-remarks.htm.
650. Among the many stories run by the Blade in October and November 2003, see, in particular, "Untold Story of Savage Force", October 19, 2003;
651. and "Vietnam Inquiry Yields No Justice", October 20, 2003.
652. "Buried Secrets", Toledo Blade, October 24, 2004, A-26.
653. Sallah and Weiss later turned the articles into a fascinating and horrifying book, Tiger Force: A True Story of Men and War (New York: Little, Brown, 2006).
654. "Uncovered" ("Talk of the Town" item), New Yorker, November 10, 2003, 41.
655. Scott Sherman, "The Other My Lai", Nation, March 1, 2004, 9.
656. "Kerry and Agent Orange", Newsweek, March 8, 2004.
657. "Legal Action by Vietnamese Agent Orange Victims Was Inevitable", Agence France-Presse, February 9, 2004.
658. See also Environmental Conference on Cambodia, Laos and Vietnam, Long-Term Consequences of the Vietnam War, 43, http://www.nnn. se/vietnam/ethics.pdf;
659. Arnold Schecter et al., "Food as a Source of Dioxin Exposure in the Residents of Bien Hoa City, Vietnam", Journal of Oc cupational and Environmental Medicine 45, no. 8(August 2003):781-88;
660. "Decades Later, Vietnam War Toxin Still Torments", WP, February 16, 2004;
661. "New Study into Agent Orange", BBC News Online, March 10, 2002
662. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/world/asia-pacific/1865730.stm.
663. Robert Dreyfuss, "Apocalypse Still", Mother Jones 25, no. 1(January-February 2000):42-51;
664. Philip Jones Griffiths, Agent Orange: Collateral Damage in Vietnam (London: Trolley, 2003).
665. H. Bruce Franklin, Vietnam and Other American Fantasies (Amherst: Uni versity of Massachusetts Press, 2000), 173.
666. "Bid to Honor South Vietnamese Elicits Anger", WP, January 29, 2003.
667. "Va. Bill Promoting South Vietnamese Flag Dies", WP, February 17, 2003.