The modern period: Menstruation in twentieth-century America

The Modern Period: Menstruation in Twentieth-Century America

Volumn , Issue , 2009, Pages 1-242

  Freidenfelds, Lara ^a  

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References (336)

1. See Marina Moskowitz, Standard of Living: The Measure of the Middle Class in Modern America (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2004) for an insightful and concrete description of how this occurred in several specific arenas.
2. Also Ruth Schwartz Cowan, More Work for Mother: The Ironies of Household Technology from the Open Hearth to the Microwave (New York: Basic Books, 1983), 194-95.
3. Samuel Haber, Efficiency and Uplift: Scientific Management in the Progressive Era 1890-1920 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1964);
4. Olivier Zunz, Making America Corporate, 1870-1920 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1990);
5. Paula S. Fass, Outside In: Minorities and the Transformation of American Education (New York: Oxford University Press, 1989);
6. Daniel Eli Burnstein, Next to Godliness: Confronting Dirt and Despair in Progressive Era New York City (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2006).
7. Fass, Outside In;
8. William Leach, Land of Desire: Merchants, Power, and the Rise of a New American Culture (New York: Pantheon, 1993);
9. Gary S. Cross, An All-Consuming Century: Why Commercialism Won in Modern America (New York: Columbia University Press, 2000);
10. Roland Marchand, Advertising the American Dream: Making Way for Modernity, 1920-1940 (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1985);
11. Lizabeth Cohen, A Consumer's Republic: The Politics of Mass Consumption in Postwar America (New York: Knopf, 2003);
12. Andrea Tone, The Business of Benevolence: Industrial Paternalism in Progressive America (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1997), 80-83;
13. Adele Clarke, "Modernity, Postmodernity and Reproductive Processes Ca. 1890-1990 or, 'Mommy, Where Do Cyborgs Come from Anyway?' " in The Cyborg Handbook, ed. Chris Hables Gray (New York: Routledge, 1995).
14. Mary P. Ryan, Mysteries of Sex: Tracing Women and Men through American History (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2006), 207-14, 258.
15. Wendy Kline, Building a Better Race: Gender, Sexuality, and Eugenics from the Turn of the Century to the Baby Boom (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 2001);
16. Joan Jacobs Brumberg, Fasting Girls: The Emergence of Anorexia Nervosa as a Modern Disease (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1988).
17. Brumberg, Fasting Girls;
18. Susan Bordo, Unbearable Weight: Feminism, Western Culture, and the Body (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1993).
19. Michel Foucault, Discipline and Punish: The Birth of the Prison (New York: Vintage Books, 1995).
20. An example of applying Foucault is Carole Spitzack, Confessing Excess: Women and the Politics of Body Reduction (Albany: SUNY Press, 1990).
21. Kline, Building a Better Race;
22. Rosalyn Terborg-Penn, "African-American Women's Networks in the Anti-Lynching Crusade", in Gender, Class, Race, and Reform in the Progressive Era, ed. Noralee Frankel and Nancy S. Dye (Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 1991);
23. Mark Thomas Connelly, The Response to Prostitution in the Progressive Era (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1980), 143-46;
24. Allan M. Brandt, No Magic Bullet: A Social History of Venereal Disease in the United States since 1880, expanded ed. (New York: Oxford University Press, 1987), 84-92;
25. Thomas R. Pegram, Battling Demon Rum: The Struggle for a Dry America, 1800-1933 (Chicago: Ivan R. Dee, 1998).
26. Joan Jacobs Brumberg", 'Something Happens to Girls': Menarche and the Emergence of the Modern American Hygienic Imperative", Journal of the History of Sexuality 4, no. 1(1993):99-127;
27. Elizabeth Arveda Kissling, Capitalizing on the Curse: The Business of Menstruation (Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner, 2006);
28. Julie-Marie Strange, "The Assault on Ignorance: Teaching Menstrual Etiquette in England, c. 1920s to 1960s", Social History of Medicine 14, no. 2(2001):247-65;
29. Barbara Brookes and Margaret Tennant, "Making Girls Modern: Pakeha Women and Menstruation in New Zealand, 1930-70", Women's History Review 7, no. 4(1998):565-81.
30. Monica H. Green, "Flowers, Poisons and Men: Menstruation in Medieval Western Europe", in Menstruation: A Cultural History, ed. Andrew Shail and Gillian Howie (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2005), 61-62;
31. Monica Helen Green, "From 'Diseases of Women' To 'Secrets of Women': The Transformation of Gynecological Literature in the Later Middle Ages", Journal of Medieval and Early Modern Studies 30, no. 1(2000):7-11.
32. Katharine Park, Secrets of Women: Gender, Generation, and the Origins of Human Dissection (New York: Zone Books, 2006), 91-93, 97-103;
33. Judith Walzer Leavitt, Brought to Bed: Childbearing in America, 1750 to 1950 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1986).
34. Carroll Smith-Rosenberg has demonstrated the existence of social and affective networks that tied women together, often in more intimate and affectionate relationships than those with husbands, fathers, and sons, at least by the late eighteenth century and through the nineteenth century (Carroll Smith-Rosenberg, "The Female World of Love and Ritual: Relations between Women in Nineteenth-Century America", in Disorderly Conduct: Visions of Gender in Victorian America, ed. Carroll Smith-Rosenberg [Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1986]). These networks were often made tangible and organized by childbirth and child care.
35. Laura Gowing, Common Bodies: Women, Touch, and Power in Seventeenth-Century England (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2003).
36. William Buchan, Domestic Medicine; or, the Family Physician: Being an Attempt to Render the Medical Art More Generally Useful, by Shewing People What Is in Their Own Power Both with Respect to the Prevention and Cure of Diseases. Chiefly Calculated to Recommend a Proper Attention to Regimen and Simple Medicines (Edinburgh: Balfour Auld and Smellie, 1769). One scenario commonly cited through the nineteenth century was that a girl would see her first menses and be frightened, and the blood would be stopped up from the fright, causing health problems. This scenario had at least somewhat older roots; Duden cites an example from around 1730 where an analogous story is told about a man and his experience with a first hemorrhoidal bleeding, understood to be the male equivalent of menstruation.
37. Barbara Duden, The Woman beneath the Skin: A Doctor's Patients in Eighteenth-Century Germany (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1991), 224-25, n. 24.
38. Nancy F. Cott, "Passionlessness: An Interpretation of Victorian Sexual Ideology, 1790-1850", in Women and Health in America: Historical Readings, ed. Judith Walzer Leavitt (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1984);
39. Mary P. Ryan, Mysteries of Sex: Tracing Women and Men through American History (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2006), 88-100;
40. Carroll Smith-Rosenberg, "Puberty to Menopause: The Cycle of Femininity in Nineteenth-Century America", in Smith-Rosenberg, Disorderly Conduct, 24-25;
41. Marilyn R. Brown, "Images of Childhood", in Encyclopedia of Children and Childhood, ed. Paula S. Fass (New York: Macmillan Reference USA, 2004), 454;
42. Leavitt, Brought to Bed, 40-42.
43. Marie Jenkins Schwartz, Birthing a Slave: Motherhood and Medicine in the Antebellum South (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2006), 102.
44. For a discussion of the vernacular sexual culture of the nineteenth century as a carryover from previous centuries, see Helen Lefkowitz Horowitz, Rereading Sex: Battles over Sexual Knowledge and Suppression in Nineteenth-Century America (New York: Vintage, 2003), chaps. 2 and 9.
45. Emil Novak, The Woman Asks the Doctor (Baltimore: Williams and Wilkins, 1935), 134.
46. Leslie J. Reagan, When Abortion Was a Crime: Women, Medicine, and Law in the United States, 1867-1973 (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1997), 24.
47. Vivian Nutton, "Humoralism", in Companion Encyclopedia of the History of Medicine, ed. W. F. Bynum and Roy Porter (New York: Routledge, 1993). As Shigehisa Kuriyama notes about bloodletting-a treatment central to humoral medical practice, and relevant to humoral understanding of menstruation- "Beliefs already dear to Galen still informed [diarist] Charles Waterton's devotion to bleeding some seventeen hundred years later [in 1871]"
48. ("Interpreting the History of Bloodletting", Journal of the History of Medicine and Allied Sciences 50, no. 1 [1995]: 13).
49. Joan Cadden, Meanings of Sex Difference in the Middle Ages: Medicine, Science, and Culture (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1993), 19, 28-30.
50. Green, "Flowers, Poisons and Men", 60-61.
51. Cadden, Meanings of Sex Difference in the Middle Ages, 41-42.
52. Green, "From 'Diseases of Women' To 'Secrets of Women. ' "
53. Cadden, Meanings of Sex Difference in the Middle Ages, 26-30;
54. Michael Stolberg, "Menstruation and Sexual Difference in Early Modern Medicine", in Shail and Howie, Menstruation: A Cultural History, 91-94.
55. For a typical, and widely read, example of advice based on this understanding of menstruation, see "Of the Menstrual Discharge", in Buchan, Domestic Medicine.
56. Susan E. Klepp, "Colds, Worms, and Hysteria: Menstrual Regulation in Eighteenth-Century America", in Regulating Menstruation: Beliefs, Practices, Interpretations, ed. Etienne Van de Walle and Elisha P. Renne (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2001).
57. For example, see Bartholomew Parr, The London Medical Dictionary; Including under Distinct Heads of Every Branch of Medicine, Viz. Anatomy, Physiology, and Pathology, the Practice of Physic and Surgery, Therapeutics, and Materia Medica; with Whatever Relates to Medicine in Natural Philosophy, Chemistry, and Natural History (London: Johnson, 1809), 189.
58. Stolberg, "Menstruation and Sexual Difference in Early Modern Medicine", 98-99.
59. For example, Michael Ryan, A Manual of Midwifery: Or, Compendium of Gynaecology and Paidonosology; Comprising a New Nomenclature of Obstetric Medicine, with a Concise Account of the Symptoms and Treatment of the Most Important Diseases of Women and Children, and the Management of the Various Forms of Parturition, 1st American from the 3d London ed. (Burlington, VT: Smith and Harrington, 1835), 229.
60. Thomas Walter Laqueur, Making Sex: Body and Gender from the Greeks to Freud (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1990), 207-27.
61. John C. Gunn, Gunn' s Domestic Medicine: A Facsimile of the First Edition (1830; Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1986), 297-98.
62. Edward B. Foote, Plain Home Talk About the Human System: The Habits of Men and Women, the Causes and Prevention of Disease, Our Sexual Relations and Social Natures: Embracing Medical Common Sense Applied to Causes, Prevention, and Cure of Chronic Diseases (New York: Murray Hill, 1874), 459-60.
63. Frederick Hollick, The Diseases of Woman, Their Causes and Cure Familiarly Explained: With Practical Hints for Their Prevention, and for the Preservation of Female Health (New York: Burgess, Stringer, 1847), 153.
64. Cadden, Meanings of Sex Difference in the Middle Ages, 268.
65. Hermann Senator and Siegfried Kaminer, Health and Disease in Relation to Marriage and the Married State (New York: Rebman, 1904), 249.
66. Charles William Malchow, The Sexual Life, Embracing the Natural Sexual Impulse, Normal Sexual Habits and Propagation, Together with Sexual Physiology and Hygiene (St. Louis: C. V. Mosby Co., 1923), 161.
67. Hugh Northcote, Christianity and Sex Problems (Philadelphia: Davis, 1907), 125.
68. See, for instance, ongoing debate among authors throughout Senator and Kaminer, Health and Disease in Relation to Marriage.
69. Theodoor H. Van De Velde and Stella Browne, Ideal Marriage: Its Physiology and Technique (New York: Random House, 1930).
70. Laura Klosterman Kidd, "Menstrual Technology in the United States, 1854-1921" (Ph. D. diss., Iowa State University, 1994), 122.
71. Susan Strasser, Waste and Want: A Social History of Trash (New York: Metropolitan Books, 1999), 170.
72. Ellen J. Buckland, Now Science Helps Women Solve an Age-Old Problem (Cellucotton Products Co., 1923), 11.
73. Strasser, Waste and Want, 199-201.
74. Use of pocketbooks became much more common among middle-class women in the 1920s, when women began to carry cosmetics to "freshen up" (a practice that created a controversial spectacle on many occasions, until it became accepted practice). Vincent Vinikas, Hard Sell: American Hygiene in an Age of Advertisement (Ames: Iowa State University Press, 1992), 56;
75. Kathy Lee Peiss, Hope in a Jar: The Making of America's Beauty Culture (New York: Metropolitan Books, 1998), 186. This practice seems to have taken a generation to catch on more generally, especially among high school girls.
76. Sabine Wilms, "The Art and Science of Menstrual Balancing in Early Medieval China", in Shail and Howie, Menstruation: A Cultural History;
77. Francesca Bray, Technology and Gender: Fabrics of Power in Late Imperial China (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1997), 326-34;
78. Charlotte Furth, "Blood, Body and Gender: Medical Images of the Female Condition in China: 1600-1850", Chinese Science 7(1986):43-66;
79. Charlotte Furth and Shu-Yueh Ch'en, "Chinese Medicine and the Anthropology of Menstruation in Contemporary Taiwan", Medical Anthropology Quarterly 6, no. 1(1992):31-32.
80. Furth and Ch'en, "Chinese Medicine", 41-42.
81. Hildagarde Esper, Your Sex Questions Answered; What Every Modern Mother and Father Should Know (Hollywood, CA: 1934), 22.
82. William Salmon, Culpepper's Compleat and Experienc'd Midwife: In Two Parts. I. A Guide for Child-Bearing Women... Ii. Proper and Safe Remedies for the Curing All Those Distempers That Are Incident to the Female Sex... A Work Far More Perfect Than Any yet Extant, and Highly Necessary for All Surgeons, Midwives, Nurses, and Child-Bearing Women, 7th ed. (London: printed, and sold by the booksellers, 1740), 143-52.
83. William Buchan, chap. 48, "Diseases of Women", in Domestic Medicine; or, the Family Physician: Being an Attempt to Render the Medical Art More Generally Useful, by Shewing People What Is in Their Own Power Both with Respect to the Prevention and Cure of Diseases. Chiefly Calculated to Recommend a Proper Attention to Regimen and Simple Medicines (Edinburgh: Balfour Auld and Smellie, 1769).
84. Sarah Stage, Female Complaints: Lydia Pinkham and the Business of Women's Medicine (New York: Norton, 1979), 45-63.
85. John C. Gunn, Gunn' s Domestic Medicine: A Facsimile of the First Edition (1830; Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1986), 295-302.
86. Stage, Female Complaints; Private Textbook, n. d., vol. 401, Microfilm M-79, Lydia E. Pinkham Medicine Company, Records, 1776-1968, Schlesinger Library, Radcliffe Institute, Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts;
87. M. Mattson, Anatomical Chart with Explanation of the Uterus, Vagina, Ovaries, Intestinal Canal, &C: Theory of Reproduction or Origin of Human Life; Description and Use of Mattson' s "Improved Irrigator", Termed the "Vaginal Irrigator", 7th ed. (New York: printed for the Mattson Syringe Company, 1871);
88. Joseph Ralph, A Domestic Guide to Medicine: By Which Individuals, Both Male and Female, Are Enabled to Treat Their Own Complaints on a Safe and Easy Principle (New York: sold by the author, 1835), 124-27.
89. Janet Farrell Brodie, Contraception and Abortion in Nineteenth-Century America (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1994), 6-7.
90. Martha H. Verbrugge, Able-Bodied Womanhood: Personal Health and Social Change in Nineteenth-Century Boston (New York: Oxford University Press, 1988), 89, cites menstruation specifically as a lecture topic at the Boston Ladies' Physiological Institute in the 1880s.
91. Alexandra Lord", 'The Great Arcana of the Deity': Menstruation and Menstrual Disorders in Eighteenth-Century British Medical Thought", Bulletin of the History of Medicine 73, no. 1(1999):45-46;
92. Bartholomew Parr, The London Medical Dictionary; Including under Distinct Heads of Every Branch of Medicine, Viz. Anatomy, Physiology, and Pathology, the Practice of Physic and Surgery, Therapeutics, and Materia Medica; with Whatever Relates to Medicine in Natural Philosophy, Chemistry, and Natural History (London: Johnson, 1809), 189.
93. Even before Bischoff's landmark 1843 experiment, some scientists had already begun to speculate that ovulation was linked to menstruation; for example, see Thomas Laycock, A Treatise on the Nervous Diseases of Women; Comprising an Inquiry into the Nature, Causes, and Treatment of Spinal and Hysterical Disorders (London: Longman, Orme, Brown, Green, and Longmans, 1840).
94. For a description of Bischoff's experiment and an extended discussion of nineteenth-century views of ovulation and of menstruation as "heat", see Thomas Walter Laqueur, Making Sex: Body and Gender from the Greeks to Freud (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1990), 207-27.
95. For a summary of these different viewpoints, see [No first name] Zinke, "Menstruation: Its Anatomy, Physiology, and Relation to Ovulation", American Journal of Obstetrics 24(1891):810;
96. Mary Putnam Jacobi, The Question of Rest for Women During Menstruation (New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1877);
97. or Albert Henry Buck and Thomas Lathrop Stedman, A Reference Handbook of the Medical Sciences Embracing the Entire Range of Scientific and Practical Medicine and Allied Science (New York: W. Wood, 1900).
98. For a twentieth-century example of the last viewpoint, which was the first to be abandoned, see Francis Marshall and William Jolly, "Contributions to the Physiology of Mammalian Reproduction. Part I.-the Oestrus Cycle in the Dog. Part Ii.-the Ovary as an Organ of Internal Secretion", Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London 198B (1906): 99-121.
99. See Horrock's commentary appended to Walter Heape, "The Menstruation and Ovulation of Monkeys and the Human Female", Obstetrical Society of London Transactions 40(1898):161-74.
100. See also Havelock Ellis, The Evolution of Modesty: The Phenomena of Sexual Periodicity: Auto-Erotism (Philadelphia: F. A. Davis, 1900). Ellis, an early sex researcher, acknowledged over and over again that most women insisted that they did not feel particularly sexually interested during menstruation, but he attributed this to social taboos and insisted that without the weight of the taboos women would experience estrus and therefore heightened sexual feeling during menstruation.
101. John Harvey Kellogg, Ladies' Guide in Health and Disease: Girlhood, Maidenhood, Wifehood, Motherhood (Battle Creek, MI: Good Health Pub. Co., 1891), 61-64, 176-78;
102. John Harvey Kellogg, Plain Facts for Old and Young (Burlington, IA: I. F. Segner, 1890), 89.
103. Edward B. Foote, Plain Home Talk About the Human System: The Habits of Men and Women, the Causes and Prevention of Disease, Our Sexual Relations and Social Natures: Embracing Medical Common Sense Applied to Causes, Prevention, and Cure of Chronic Diseases (New York: Murray Hill, 1874), 456.
104. Jeffrey P. Moran, Teaching Sex: The Shaping of Adolescence in the 20th Century (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2000);
105. Regina Markell Morantz, "Making Women Modern: Middle-Class Women and Health Reform in 19th-Century America", in Women and Health in America: Historical Readings, ed. Judith Walzer Leavitt (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1984), 353;
106. Nancy Tomes, The Gospel of Germs (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1998), 185-204;
107. Paula S. Fass, Outside In: Minorities and the Transformation of American Education (New York: Oxford University Press, 1989), 13-35.
108. Evelyn Brooks Higginbotham, Righteous Discontent: The Women' s Movement in the Black Baptist Church, 1880-1920 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1993), 34-5, 190-229.
109. Jaqueline Jones, Labor of Love, Labor of Sorrow: Black Women, Work, and the Family from Slavery to the Present (New York: Basic Books, 1985), 96-99, 142-46;
110. Mary P. Ryan, Mysteries of Sex: Tracing Women and Men through American History (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2006), 162-98, 207-14.
111. Patricia J. Campbell, Sex Education Books for Young Adults, 1892-1979 (New York: R. R. Bowker Co., 1979).
112. Moran, Teaching Sex, 98-104.
113. For example, Edith Belle Lowry, Teaching Sex Hygiene in the Public Schools (Chicago: Forbes and Co., 1914);
114. Walter M. Gallichan, A Textbook of Sex Education for Parents and Teachers (Boston: Small, Maynard and Co., 1921).
115. Joan Jacobs Brumberg, The Body Project: An Intimate History of American Girls (New York: Random House, 1997), 46.
116. Campbell, Sex Education Books, 72.
117. Ellen J. Buckland, Now Science Helps Women Solve an Age-Old Problem (Cellucotton Products Co., 1923), 2, 7, 13 and 14.
118. Margaret A. Lowe, Looking Good: College Women and Body Image, 1875-1930 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2003), 103-33;
119. Ryan, Mysteries of Sex, 214-22;
120. Paula S. Fass, The Damned and the Beautiful: American Youth in the 1920's (New York: Oxford University Press, 1977).
121. Geo. H. Williamson, Personal Hygiene for Women (Kotex Co., 1928), 4 and 6.
122. Preparing for Womanhood, c. 1928, 3-4, folder 44, box 9-418, Kimberly-Clark Archives, The History Factory, Chantilly, Virginia (hereafter cited as K-C).
123. Mary Pauline Callender, Marjorie May's Twelfth Birthday (London: Kotex Ltd., 1929), 11.
124. Lloyd Arnold, Health Facts on Menstruation (Kotex Co., 1933), 2.
125. Laqueur, Making Sex, 211-12, and 94, n. 47 and 48;
126. Carl Gottfried Hartman, Time of Ovulation in Women: A Study on the Fertile Period in the Menstrual Cycle (Baltimore: Williams and Wilkins Co., 1936), 24-50, 57-60.
127. Arnold, Health Facts on Menstruation, 4-5.
128. Mary Pauline Callender, Marjorie May Learns About Life (Chicago: International Cellu cotton Products Co., 1936), 8.
129. Personal Products Corp., The Periodic Cycle, c. 1938, foreword, available at www.mum.org/percyc1.htm (accessed Sept. 6, 2008);
130. Personal Products Corp., What a Trained Nurse Wrote to her Young Sister, c. 1938, 1 and 3, available at www.mum.org/trainur2.htm (accessed Sept. 6, 2008).
131. Personal Products Corp., The Periodic Cycle, 4.
132. Marion Jones, Kotex Educational Program, Feb. 17, 1964, p. 3, folder 15, box 9-426, K-C.
133. Ad, "The Story of Menstruation", c. 1947, folder 12, box 9-423, K-C.
134. Thomas Heinrich and Bob Batchelor, Kotex, Kleenex, Huggies: Kimberly-Clark and the Consumer Revolution in American Business (Columbus: Ohio State University Press, 2004), 123.
135. "The Story of Menstruation" publicity materials reprinted from The Catholic School Journal, January 1957, folder 44, box 9-418, K-C.
136. Elaine Tyler May, Homeward Bound: American Families in the Cold War Era (New York: Basic Books, 1988).
137. Susan K. Freeman, Sex Goes to School: Girls and Sex Education before the 1960s (Champaign: University of Illinois Press, 2008).
138. Joanne J. Meyerowitz, Not June Cleaver: Women and Gender in Postwar America, 1945-1960 (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1994).
139. Ryan, Mysteries of Sex, 228-38.
140. Jones, Kotex Educational Program, 9.
141. Heinrich and Batchelor, Kotex, Kleenex, Huggies, 121.
142. Woodward's authorship was kept secret from the public but mentioned in a Kimberly-Clark internal memo; see Jones, Kotex Educational Program, 2.
143. Heinrich and Batchelor, Kotex, Kleenex, Huggies, 88.
144. Jones, Kotex Educational Program, 2.
145. Warren Russell Johnson, Human Sexual Behavior and Sex Education: Perspectives and Problems (Philadelphia: Lea and Febiger, 1968), 67.
146. Joan Jacobs Brumberg", 'Something Happens to Girls': Menarche and the Emergence of the Modern American Hygienic Imperative", Journal of the History of Sexuality 4, no. 1(1993):99-127.
147. Fass, Outside In, 168.
148. Brumberg", 'Something Happens to Girls'", 123, n. 53.
149. Ryan, Mysteries of Sex, 260-61, 279-81.
150. T. J. Mathews and Brady E. Hamilton, "Mean Age of Mother, 1970-2000", National Vital Statistics Reports 51, no. 1(2002):1-16.
151. The Life Cycle Center, Getting Married (Kimberly-Clark Corporation, 1975), 19.
152. See Emily Martin, The Woman in the Body: A Cultural Analysis of Reproduction (Boston: Beacon Press, 1987), 52-53, advocating a similar alternative narrative.
153. Judy Blume, Are You There, God? It's Me, Margaret (New York: Dell, 1970), 96.
154. "Trauma-Rama", Seventeen, Dec. 1998, 12 and 16. It is notable that the embarrassment was about the bra, not the period.
155. Jen Maxwell, "Accidents Happen", Seventeen, Mar. 1998, 134.
156. "Trauma-Rama", Seventeen, June 1998, 24.
157. Edward H. Clarke, Sex in Education: Or, a Fair Chance for the Girls (Boston: J. R. Osgood and Co., 1873);
158. Cynthia Eagle Russett, Sexual Science: The Victorian Construction of Womanhood (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1989), 112-25.
159. Carroll Smith-Rosenberg and Charles Rosenberg, "The Female Animal: Medical and Biological Views of Woman and Her Role in Nineteenth-Century America", Journal of American History 60(1973):332-56.
160. Jan Lewis and Kenneth A. Lockridge", 'Sally Has Been Sick': Pregnancy and Family Limitation among Virginian Gentry Women, 1780-1830", Journal of Social History 22(1988-89):5-19.
161. Linda Gordon, The Moral Property of Women: A History of Birth Control Politics in America (Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 2007), 86-104.
162. Julia Ward Howe, ed., Sex and Education: A Reply to Dr. E. H. Clarke's "Sex in Education" (1874; reprint, New York: Arno, 1972), 129;
163. Azel Ames Jr., Sex in Industry (Boston: James R. Osgood, 1875).
164. Howe, Sex and Education, 94-95.
165. Mary Putnam Jacobi, The Question of Rest for Women During Menstruation (New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1877).
166. John Harvey Kellogg, Ladies' Guide in Health and Disease: Girlhood, Maidenhood, Wifehood, Motherhood (Battle Creek, MI: Good Health Pub. Co., 1891), 182-83;
167. Henry M. Lyman, The Book of Health; a Reliable Family Physician Giving in Detail the Cause, Symptoms, Treatment and History of All Diseases of the Human Body and Plain Instructions for the Care of the Sick with Full Directions for Treating Emergency Cases (Providence, RI: W. P. Mason, 1898), 888;
168. Alice B. Stockham, Tokology, a Book for Every Woman, 29th ed. (Chicago: Sanitary Publishing Co., 1885), 253 and 257.
169. Stockham, Tokology, 253.
170. Margaret A. Lowe, Looking Good: College Women and Body Image, 1875-1930 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2003), 47-50.
171. Martha Verbrugge, "Gym Periods and Monthly Periods: Concepts of Menstruation in American Physical Education, 1900-1940", in Body Talk: Rhetoric, Technology, Reproduction, ed. Mary M. Lay et al. (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 2000);
172. Russett, Sexual Science, 160-64.
173. Verbrugge, "Gym Periods", 79-83.
174. Clelia Duel Mosher, Woman' s Physical Freedom, 3d rev. and enl. ed. (New York: The Womans Press, 1923), 22-31, 35.
175. Russett, Sexual Science, 161-62.
176. Paula S. Fass, The Damned and the Beautiful: American Youth in the 1920's (New York: Oxford University Press, 1977).
177. Stuart M. Blumin, The Emergence of the Middle Class: Social Experience in the American City, 1760-1900 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989), 290.
178. Mary P. Ryan, Mysteries of Sex: Tracing Women and Men through American History (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2006), 285;
179. Jaqueline Jones, Labor of Love, Labor of Sorrow: Black Women, Work, and the Family from Slavery to the Present (New York: Basic Books, 1985), 91, 96-99, 169.
180. Andrea Tone, The Business of Benevolence: Industrial Paternalism in Progressive America (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1997), 80-83.
181. Olivier Zunz, Making America Corporate, 1870-1920 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1990), 115-20.
182. Ruth E. Ewing, "A Study of Dysmenorrhea at the Home Office of the Metropolitan Life Insurance Company", Journal of Industrial Hygiene 13, no. 7(1931):244-51.
183. For example, a summary of C. L. Farrell, "Women in Industry", Rhode Island Medical Journal 26 (1943)
184. cited in Journal of Industrial Hygiene and Toxicology 26(1944):303, among many others.
185. Margaret Castex Sturgis, "Observations on Dysmenorrhea Occurring in Women Employed in a Large Department Store", Journal of Industrial Hygiene 5, no. 2(1923):56.
186. Harry Walker Hepner, "Absenteeism of Women Office Workers", Journal of Personnel Research 3(1924-25):454-56.
187. Ellen J. Buckland, Now Science Helps Women Solve an Age-Old Problem (Cellucotton Products Co., 1923), 14.
188. Mary Pauline Callender, Marjorie May's Twelfth Birthday (Chicago: International Cellucotton Products Co., 1932), no page numbers.
189. Suellen M. Hoy, Chasing Dirt: The American Pursuit of Cleanliness (New York: Oxford University Press, 1995), 7, 22, 93, 123-28.
190. Eli F. Greer and Joseph H. Brown, The New Tokology; Mother and Child Culture (Chicago: Laird and Lee, 1903), 220;
191. As One Girl to Another (International Cellucotton Products Co., 1940), 15.
192. Callender, Marjorie May's Twelfth Birthday.
193. Karl John Karnaky, "Vaginal Tampons for Menstrual Hygiene", Western Journal of Surgery 51(1943):152.
194. See cases in the medical literature as well: I. Lewis Sandler, "Dermatitis from a Sanitary Belt", Medical Annals of the District of Columbia 9, no. 1(1940):53;
195. Frank E. Cormia, "Contact Dermatitis from Menstrual Pad", JAMA 107, no. 6(1936):429-30.
196. Emma Elizabeth Walker, Beauty through Hygiene; Common Sense Ways to Health for Girls (New York: A. S. Barnes Co., 1905), 180.
197. Growing up and Liking It (Milltown, NJ: Personal Products Corp., 1949), 7.
198. You're a Young Lady Now (Neenah, WI: Kimberly-Clark Corp., 1952), 5.
199. For example, Frederick A. Cleland, "A Method of Treatment of Severe Types of Dysmenorrhea with a Report of Results in 230 Cases", American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology 8(1924):337-45;
200. A. J. Rongy, "The Use of X-Ray Therapy in Disturbed Menstruation", in Thirty-Sixth Annual Meeting of the American Association of Obstetricians, Gynecologists an Abdominal Surgeons (Philadelphia: American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology, 1923);
201. John Cooke Hirst, "The Comparative Value of Whole Ovarian Extract, Corpus Luteum Extract, and Ovarian Residue in Menstrual Disorder", New York Medical Journal (1921): 391-94.
202. Beth L. Bailey, Sex in the Heartland (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1999).
203. Dorothy Walter Baruch and Hyman Miller, Sex in Marriage: New Understandings (New York: Harper, 1962), 111;
204. James Leslie McCary, Human Sexuality: Physiological and Psychological Factors of Sexual Behavior (New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1967), 323;
205. Allen Lein, The Cycling Female, Her Menstrual Rhythm (San Francisco: W. H. Freeman, 1979), 93.
206. Ladies' Home Journal, Feb. 1974, 20;
207. Ladies' Home Journal, Oct. 1979, 63.
208. Katharina Dalton, The Premenstrual Syndrome (pringfield, IL: C. C. Thomas, 1964).
209. Robert T. Frank, "The Hormonal Causes of Pre-Menstrual Tension", Archives of Neurological Psychiatry 26(1931):1053-57;
210. Dalton, Premenstrual Syndrome.
211. Some examples of feminist sociology and anthropology are Sophie Laws, Valerie Hey, and Andrea Boroff Eagan, Seeing Red: The Politics of Premenstrual Tension, Explorations in Feminism (London: Hutchinson, 1985);
212. Susan Markens, "The Problematic Of 'Experience': A Political and Cultural Critique of PMS", Gender and Society 10, no. 1(1996):53;
213. Emily Martin, The Woman in the Body: A Cultural Analysis of Reproduction (Boston: Beacon Press, 1987), 113-38.
214. Michael Stolberg, "The Monthly Malady: A History of Premenstrual Suffering", Medical History 44(2000):312-15. Stolberg claims that the range of physical and emotional symptoms associated with PMS are evident as early as the late Renaissance, but he does not give convincing examples of emotional symptoms before the nineteenth century.
215. For example, Sandra S. Soria, "PMS: Battling the Monthly Blues", Teen Magazine, Dec. 1983, 24-26;
216. Stephanie Young, "PMS Update: Practical Guidance from the Latest Research", Glamour 88, no. 4(1990):94-95;
217. Joan K. Smith, "Eat to Beat PMS", Redbook 192, no. 5(1999):40;
218. Michelle Meadows, "PMS Solutions: Calm the Storm with These Strategies", Essence, July 1998, 38.
219. Cosmopolitan, June 1937, 161.
220. T. J. Jackson Lears, "American Advertising and the Reconstruction of the Body, 1880-1930", in Fitness in American Culture: Images of Health, Sport, and the Body, 1830-1940, ed. Kathryn Grover (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1989), 56.
221. Nancy Tomes, The Gospel of Germs (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1998), 62-66, 135-54.
222. Ladies' Home Journal, Apr. 1929, 53.
223. Olivier Zunz, Making America Corporate, 1870-1920 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1990);
224. Susan Porter Benson, Counter Cultures: Saleswomen, Managers, and Customers in American Department Stores, 1890-1940 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1986).
225. Jane Farrell-Beck and Laura Klosterman Kidd, "The Roles of Health Professionals in the Development and Dissemination of Women's Sanitary Products, 1880-1940", Journal of the History of Medicine and Allied Sciences 51(1996):332-36.
226. Taylor Adams, "How Lasker Maneuvered for Kotex Ad Acceptance in 'Ladies' Home Journal'", Advertising Age 2(1974):106-7.
227. Ronald H. Bailey, Small Wonders: How Tambrands Began, Prospered and Grew (Tambrands, Inc., 1986). Most of the ads explicitly cited below are from Cosmopolitan, but they are representative of those found in Ladies' Home Journal, Good Housekeeping, Hygeia, Life, etc.
228. Bailey, Small Wonders, 22-24.
229. See advertisements in Printers Ink promoting advertising space in magazines, for example, ad for Hygiea, June 17, 1949, 58;
230. ad for Mademoiselle, Feb. 6, 1942, 71;
231. ad for Cosmopolitan, June 6, 1947;
232. ad for the Dell Modern Group (Modern Screen, Modern Romances, Screen Stories), Sept. 3, 1948.
233. Roland Marchand, Advertising the American Dream: Making Way for Modernity, 1920-1940 (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1985), 64.
234. The Gallup Poll: Public Opinion (Wilmington, DE: Scholarly Resources, 1972), 148.
235. Ladies' Home Journal, May 1929, 97.
236. Cosmopolitan, Mar. 1936, 127; July 1938, 121; July 1937, 154; Aug. 1948, 129.
237. Cosmopolitan, June 1941, 76; Aug. 1947, 125; Sept. 1936, 2.
238. Cosmopolitan, Mar. 1939, 73; Sept. 1938, 76; Sept. 1945, 116.
239. Lillian Gilbreth, "Report of Gilbreth, Inc.", Jan. 1, 1927, p. 63-64, folder 0704-2 NGRJ3, box 95, "N" series, Papers of Frank and Lillian Gilbreth, Special Collections, Purdue University Libraries, West Lafayette, Indiana.
240. Cosmopolitan, Sept. 1941, 111.
241. Ladies' Home Journal, Feb. 1929, 57;
242. Cosmopolitan, Sept. 1945, 116; Sept. 1948, 96; Apr. 1947, 88.
243. Lears, "American Advertising", makes the argument that odor became a concern as people moved into cities (and therefore closer together), but this seems like an unsatisfactory explanation, since Europeans seemed to show so much less concern than Americans about the same process of urbanization.
244. Listerine ad, Cosmopolitan, Jan. 1948, 3;
245. Packers Pine Tar Shampoo: "Don't let 'Scalp Odor' ruin romance", in Cosmopolitan, Oct. 1942, 112;
246. Kleinert's Dress Shields, Cosmopolitan, Apr. 1941, 141;
247. Mum deodorant, Cosmopolitan, Dec. 1938, 75. In addition to body deodorizers, home deodorizers were also advertised. They included not only cleaning products but also simple air fresheners.
248. See ad for Air-wick, Cosmopolitan, Feb. 1950, 27.
249. Ladies' Home Journal, May 1901, 34-35;
250. Cosmopolitan, Dec. 1938, 75.
251. Cosmopolitan, Dec. 1943, 174; Apr. 1950, 103; Jan. 1948, 3.
252. Cosmopolitan, Sept. 1936, 177; Mar. 1937, 179; May 1939, 142.
253. Cosmopolitan, Nov. 1948, 92; Mar. 1937, 179.
254. Warren Susman, Culture as History: The Transformation of American Society in the Twentieth Century (New York: Pantheon, 1984), chap. 14;
255. Elizabeth Haiken, Venus Envy: A History of Cosmetic Surgery (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1997), 100.
256. Cosmopolitan, Feb. 1950, 119.
257. Cosmopolitan, Feb. 1940, 105;
258. Hygeia, Sept. 1943, 685;
259. Cosmopolitan, Nov. 1939, 77.
260. Kathy Lee Peiss, Cheap Amusements: Working Women and Leisure in New York City, 1880 to 1920 (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1985), 88-114;
261. Fass, Damned and the Beautiful, 191-208.
262. Ladies' Home Journal, Nov. 1939, 44;
263. Sharon Hartman Strom, Beyond the Typewriter: Gender, Class, and the Origins of Modern American Office Work, 1900-1930 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1992).
264. Fass, Damned and the Beautiful, 137, 234.
265. Cosmopolitan, June 1938, 124; Sept. 1939, 94; June 1949, 82.
266. Cosmopolitan, June 1942, 9, ad for Kotex showing women in various uniforms: nurse, factory, and army. In April 1944 came the last of explicit reference to women doing blue-collar work in Cosmopolitan, though there were still occasional women in military uniforms in Kotex ads, and references to the war continued, though less prominently. There is a lone reference to war work in a 1945 Midol ad
267. (Cosmopolitan, Mar. 1945, 118).
268. One ad, in 1944, does mention gardeners and taxi drivers; taxi drivers were presumably part of the war effort, and gardeners may have been a reference to women who created "victory gardens" to help feed their families. Cosmopolitan, Apr. 1944, 106.
269. For a direct reference to victory gardens, with illustration, see Kotex ad, Cosmopolitan, May 1944, 9.
270. Cosmopolitan, Apr. 1944, 131; June 1944, 131; Aug. 1944, 79; Sept. 1944, 159; June 1946, 132; Aug. 1946, 150; Oct. 1946, 80.
271. For these examples and more of mothers in ads, see Ladies Home Journal, Feb. 1929, 151, 168, 173 and 179; Mar. 1929, 58-59.
272. Farrell-Beck and Kidd, "The Roles of Health Professionals", 332-36.
273. Susan Strasser, Waste and Want: A Social History of Trash (New York: Metropolitan Books, 1999).
274. Ida Smithson was characteristic of many African American mothers, in her hard work, self-sacrifice, and educational ambitions for her children. See Jaqueline Jones, Labor of Love, Labor of Sorrow: Black Women, Work, and the Family from Slavery to the Present (New York: Basic Books, 1985), 96-99.
275. Joan Jacobs Brumberg, The Body Project: An Intimate History of American Girls (New York: Random House, 1997), 44.
276. Ruth Schwartz Cowan, More Work for Mother: The Ironies of Household Technology from the Open Hearth to the Microwave (New York: Basic Books, 1983), 194-95.
277. R. W. Ebert, Brand Manager, "History of Kotex Feminine Napkins, 1914-1969", folder 18, box 9-12, Kimberly-Clark Archives, The History Factory, Chantilly, Virginia (hereafter cited as K-C).
278. Sharra Louise Vostral, "Conspicuous Menstruation: The History of Menstruation and Menstrual Hygiene Products in America, 1870-1960" (Ph. D. diss., Washington University, 2000), 135-37.
279. For example, Shelley M. Park, "From Sanitation to Liberation?: The Modern and Postmodern Marketing of Menstrual Products", Journal of Popular Culture 30, no. 2(1996):149-69;
280. Rebecca Ginsberg", 'Don't Tell, Dear': The Material Culture of Tampons and Napkins", Journal of Material Culture 1, no. 3(1996):365-75;
281. Janice Delaney, Mary Jane Lupton, and Emily Toth, The Curse: A Cultural History of Menstruation (Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 1988), 132.
282. Ebert, "History of Kotex", 1922-23, p. 3; 1924, p. 4; 1928, p. 1.
283. As One Girl to Another (International Cellucotton Products Co., 1940), 8.
284. Ebert, "History of Kotex", 1937-38, p. 4; 1951, p. 6.
285. "Kotex Packaging", Dec. 16, 1958, folder 8, box 9-357, K-C.
286. Strasser, Waste and Want, 167.
287. Ebert, "History of Kotex", 1937-38, p. 6.
288. Susan Strasser, Satisfaction Guaranteed: The Making of the American Mass Market (New York: Pantheon, 1989), chap. 2.
289. "Report of Gilbreth, Inc.", p. 60, 62.
290. Ebert, "History of Kotex", 1936, p. 1.
291. Strasser, Waste and Want, 164.
292. Ebert, "History of Kotex", 1937-38, p. 3.
293. Theodore Caplow, Louis Hicks, and Ben J. Wattenberg, The First Measured Century: An Illustrated Guide to Trends in America, 1900-2000 (Washington, DC: AEI Press, 2001), 99.
294. Marina Moskowitz, Standard of Living: The Measure of the Middle Class in Modern America (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2004), 64-104.
295. "Report of Gilbreth, Inc.", 63-64.
296. This pattern of change and distancing between generations is also evident in Gertrude Jacinta Fraser's account of rural African Americans' explanations of how and why their health beliefs and practices changed over the twentieth century ("Modern Bodies, Modern Minds: Midwifery and Reproductive Change in an African American Community", in Conceiving the New World Order: The Global Politics of Reproduction, ed. Faye D. Ginsburg and Rayna Rapp [Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1995]).
297. Evelyn Brooks Higginbotham, Righteous Discontent: The Women's Movement in the Black Baptist Church, 1880-1920 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1993), 34-5, 190-229, 188-94.
298. For a fascinating history of Pill dial technology, see Patricia Peck Gossel, "Packaging the Pill", in Manifesting Medicine: Bodies and Machines, ed. Robert Bud, Bernard S. Finn, and Helmuth Trischler (Amsterdam: Harwood Academic, 1999).
299. J. Milton Singleton and Herbert F. Vanorden, "Vaginal Tampons in Menstrual Hygiene", Western Journal of Surgery 51(1943):146-49.
300. Lloyd Arnold and Marie Hagele, "Vaginal Tamponage for Catamenial Sanitary Protection", Journal of the American Medical Association 110(1938):791.
301. Harry Sackren, "Vaginal Tampons for Menstrual Absorption", Clinical Medicine and Surgery 46(1939):327-29.
302. Maurice O. Magid and Jacob Geiger, "The Intravaginal Tampon in Menstrual Hygiene", Medical Record 155(1942):316-20;
303. Karl John Karnaky, "Vaginal Tampons for Menstrual Hygiene", Western Journal of Surgery 51(1943):150-52.
304. Singleton and Vanorden, "Vaginal Tampons in Menstrual Hygiene"
305. Arthur Hale Curtis, A Textbook of Gynecology (Philadelphia: W. B. Saunders Company, 1942), 122;
306. Arthur Hale Curtis and John William Huffman, A Textbook of Gynecology (Philadelphia: W. B. Saunders Co., 1950), 129.
307. Arnold and Hagele, "Vaginal Tamponage for Catamenial Sanitary Protection", 790-92.
308. Sackren, "Vaginal Tampons for Menstrual Absorption;"
309. Magid and Geiger, "The Intravaginal Tampon in Menstrual Hygiene"
310. Singleton and Vanorden, "Vaginal Tampons in Menstrual Hygiene", 149.
311. Robert Latou Dickinson, "Tampons as Menstrual Guards", JAMA 128(1945):490.
312. Compare "Sanitary Napkins", Consumer Reports 2(1937):24
313. with "Sanitary Pads and Tampons", Consumer Reports 10(1945):240
314. and Robert Latou Dickinson, "Tampons as Menstrual Guards", Consumer Reports 10(1945):246-47.
315. Museum of Menstruation material culture collection. Available at www.mum.org (accessed Sept. 6, 2008).
316. As One Girl to Another, folder 6, box 9-416, Kimberly-Clark Archives, The History Factory, Chantilly, Virginia (hereafter cited as K-C);
317. "You can wear a Meds tampon when the vaginal opening is large enough to permit you to insert it easily. This is generally true when you are fully grown-toward the end of your teens. Consult your doctor", from Modess/Meds, Growing up and Liking It (Milltown, NJ: Personal Products Corp., 1949), folder 15, box 9-416, K-C.
318. Minutes of meeting held Thursday, July 31, 1952: Kotams, p. 6, folder 3, box 9-357, K-C.
319. Beth L. Bailey, Sex in the Heartland (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1999).
320. Melanie Mannarino, "Sex + Body", Seventeen, Nov. 1998.
321. Joan Jacobs Brumberg, The Body Project: An Intimate History of American Girls (New York: Random House, 1997).
322. Ladies' Home Journal, Jan. 1984, 96.
323. Virginia L. Olesen, "Analyzing Emergent Issues in Women's Health: The Case of the Toxic-Shock Syndrome", in Culture, Society, and Menstruation, ed. Virginia L. Olesen and Nancy Fugate Woods (Washington, DC: Hemisphere Pub. Corp., 1986), 53-56.
324. According to a Kimberly-Clark memo, "The tampon share of the total feminine care market shifted from a historical 47 percent to 36 percent for the January/February, 1981 bimonthly period" ("Kotex Security Tampons Five Year Plan", May 5, 1981, p. 1-2, folder 103, box 9-341, K-C).
325. While the author of this memo projected that sales would bounce back by late 1981 as publicity about TSS subsided (p. 2), in fact, the trend continued. Between 1978 and 1984, as TSS persisted as a topic in the news, the percentage of women using tampons dropped from 67% to 56%, the percentage using tampons exclusively dropped from 31% to 11%, and tampons' share of the feminine care market dropped from 47% to 34% ("Tampon Update", Sept. 25, 1984, folder 144, box 9-346, K-C).
326. By 2001, a poll conducted by another company concluded that 37% of American women over the age of eighteen used tampons, skewed heavily toward young women ("The U. S. Market for Women's OTC Reproductive Healthcare Products", Report LA496 (1997) by Packaged Facts, 625 Avenue of the Americas, New York, NY). Concern about TSS coincided with the development of significantly thinner, more absorbent and more reliable pads, which seems to have persuaded many women, especially older women, to forgo tampons completely. It also seems likely that the two polling organizations were measuring use of tampons differently; Kimberly-Clark seems to have measured whether women ever used tampons at all, and the Packaged Facts description does not specify.
327. For example, Emily Martin, The Woman in the Body: A Cultural Analysis of Reproduction (Boston: Beacon Press, 1987), 54-68;
328. Rose Weitz, The Politics of Women' s Bodies: Sexuality, Appearance, and Behavior (New York: Oxford University Press, 1998)
329. Sharlene Janice Hesse-Biber, Am I Thin Enough Yet?: The Cult of Thinness and the Commercialization of Identity (New York: Oxford University Press, 1996).
330. Elizabeth Arveda Kissling, Capitalizing on the Curse: The Business of Menstruation (Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner, 2006), 67.
331. "Barr Pharmaceuticals, Inc.; Approvable Letter Issued for Seasonique Extended-Cycle Oral Contraceptives", Patient Care Law Weekly, Sept. 18, 2005, 26.
332. In a trial conducted to obtain FDA approval, researchers followed 682 women who took either the extended cycle Pill or the typical twenty-eight-day Pill. They found that it took more than three-quarters of a year for the median number of breakthrough bleeding days to be about the same for extended-cycle users as for regular Pill users. During the first three-month cycle, half of the women on the extended-cycle Pill experienced twelve or more days of breakthrough bleeding or spotting. This figure gradually reduced to four days during the fourth three-month cycle, similar to the results with the conventional twentyeight-day Pill. Ultimately, 7.7 percent of the women taking the extended cycle oral contraceptive dropped out of the study because of unacceptable bleeding, compared to 1.8 percent of women taking the conventional Pill. F. D. Anderson, Howard Hait, and the Seasonale-301 Study Group, "A Multicenter, Randomized Study of an Extended Cycle Oral Contraceptive", Contraception 68(2003):89-96.
333. Inc. Washington Business Information, "Barr Told to Halt TV Ad Promoting Seasonale", Pharmaceutical Corporate Compliance Report, Jan. 17, 2005.
334. It is difficult to evaluate just how successful or unsuccessful extended-cycle oral contraceptives will eventually be. As of the beginning of 2007, they appeared to have enough potential that one of Barr Pharmaceutical's competitors had brought out a generic version of Seasonale, and Barr had found it worth responding by developing a secondgeneration extended-cycle Pill, Seasonique, as well as their own generic version of Seasonale. In May of 2007 Wyeth received FDA approval for Lybrel, a birth control pill that eliminated withdrawal bleeding completely. At the same time, investment analysts were disappointed with the performance of Barr's extended-cycle products, enough to name this as a significant reason to downgrade the value of Barr's stocks. Robert Uhl and Alan Meyers, "Barr Pharmaceuticals Inc." (FBR Research, 2006).
335. Kathleen Canning, "Feminist History after the Linguistic Turn: Historicizing Discourse and Experience", Signs 19, no. 2(1994):373;
336. Joan Scott, "Experience", in Feminists Theorize the Political, ed. Judith P. Butler and Joan Wallach Scott (New York: Routledge, 1992).