The monthly malady: A history of premenstrual suffering

Medical History

Volumn 44, Issue 3, 2000, Pages 301-322

  Stolberg, Michael ^a  

^a TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY OF MUNICH   (Germany)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ARTICLE; FEMALE; HISTORY; HUMAN; MENSTRUATION; PHYSIOLOGY; PREMENSTRUAL SYNDROME;

FEMALE; HISTORY, 15TH CENTURY; HISTORY, 16TH CENTURY; HISTORY, 17TH CENTURY; HISTORY, 18TH CENTURY; HISTORY, 19TH CENTURY; HISTORY, 20TH CENTURY; HUMANS; MENSTRUATION; PREMENSTRUAL SYNDROME;

EID: 0034219305     PISSN: 00257273     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1017/s0025727300066722     Document Type: Review

References (238)

1. Robert T Frank, 'The hormonal causes of premenstrual tension', Arch Neurol. Psychiatry, 1931, 26: 1053-7, pp. 1054-5; Frank had already briefly mentioned the condition in his The female sex hormone, London, Baillière, Tindall and Cox, 1929, p. 236.
2. Robert T Frank, 'The hormonal causes of premenstrual tension', Arch Neurol. Psychiatry, 1931, 26: 1053-7, pp. 1054-5; Frank had already briefly mentioned the condition in his The female sex hormone, London, Baillière, Tindall and Cox, 1929, p. 236.
3. Karen Homey, 'Premenstrual tension', in idem, Feminine psychology, London, Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1967, pp. 99-106; the meaning of the German term "Verstimmungen" in the original title ('Die prämenstruellen Verstimmungen', Zeitschrift für psychoanalytische Pädagogik, 1931, 5 (5/6): 1-7) is closer to "negative mood swings".
4. Karen Homey, 'Premenstrual tension', in idem, Feminine psychology, London, Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1967, pp. 99-106; the meaning of the German term "Verstimmungen" in the original title ('Die prämenstruellen Verstimmungen', Zeitschrift für psychoanalytische Pädagogik, 1931, 5 (5/6): 1-7) is closer to "negative mood swings".
5. Raymond Greene and Katharina Dalton, The premenstrual syndrome', Br. med. J., 1953, i: 1007-14;
6. Katharina Dalton, The premenstrual syndrome, London, Heinemann, 1964.
7. Sharon Golub, Periods: from menarche to menopause, Newbury Park, Sage, 1992, pp. 181-5; Thomas M Johnson, 'Premenstrual syndrome as a Western culture-specific disorder', Cult. Med. Psychiatry, 1987, 11: 337-56; John T E Richardson, The premenstrual syndrome: a brief history', Soc. Sci. Med., 1995, 41: 761-7.
8. Sharon Golub, Periods: from menarche to menopause, Newbury Park, Sage, 1992, pp. 181-5; Thomas M Johnson, 'Premenstrual syndrome as a Western culture-specific disorder', Cult. Med. Psychiatry, 1987, 11: 337-56; John T E Richardson, The premenstrual syndrome: a brief history', Soc. Sci. Med., 1995, 41: 761-7.
9. Sharon Golub, Periods: from menarche to menopause, Newbury Park, Sage, 1992, pp. 181-5; Thomas M Johnson, 'Premenstrual syndrome as a Western culture-specific disorder', Cult. Med. Psychiatry, 1987, 11: 337-56; John T E Richardson, The premenstrual syndrome: a brief history', Soc. Sci. Med., 1995, 41: 761-7.
10. Psychiatry has recently seen attempts to define a specific Late Luteal Phase Dysphoric Disorder (LLPDD) (Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders. Third edition - revised, Washington, American Psychiatric Association, 1987, pp. 367-9).
11. Thus, e.g., Anton M Bergant, et al., 'Ärgerbewältigung und prämenstruelles Syndrom', Wien. Klin. Wochenschr., 1998, 110: 370-5; some would add that the complaints have to be serious enough to interfere with normal activities.
12. Golub, op. cit., note 4 above, pp. 203-6; Mari Rodin, 'The social construction of the premenstrual syndrome', Soc. Sci. Med., 1992, 35: 49-56; Janet M Stoppard, 'A suitable case for treatment? Premenstrual syndrome and the medicalization of women's bodies', in Dawn H Currie and Valerie Raoul (eds), The anatomy of gender, Ottawa, Carleton University Press, 1992, pp. 119-29.
13. Golub, op. cit., note 4 above, pp. 203-6; Mari Rodin, 'The social construction of the premenstrual syndrome', Soc. Sci. Med., 1992, 35: 49-56; Janet M Stoppard, 'A suitable case for treatment? Premenstrual syndrome and the medicalization of women's bodies', in Dawn H Currie and Valerie Raoul (eds), The anatomy of gender, Ottawa, Carleton University Press, 1992, pp. 119-29.
14. Golub, op. cit., note 4 above, pp. 203-6; Mari Rodin, 'The social construction of the premenstrual syndrome', Soc. Sci. Med., 1992, 35: 49-56; Janet M Stoppard, 'A suitable case for treatment? Premenstrual syndrome and the medicalization of women's bodies', in Dawn H Currie and Valerie Raoul (eds), The anatomy of gender, Ottawa, Carleton University Press, 1992, pp. 119-29.
15. Esther Rome, 'Premenstrual Syndrome (PMS) examined through a feminist lens', in Virginia L Olesen and Nancy Fugate Woods (eds), Culture, society, and menstruation, New York, Hemisphere, 1986, pp. 145-57.
16. Jane M Ussher, The psychology of the female body, London and New York, Routledge, 1989, p. 69; Kathy Kendall, 'Sexual difference and the law: premenstrual syndrome as legal defense', in Currie and Raoul (eds), op. cit., note 7 above, pp. 130-46; Jacquelyn Zita, 'The premenstrual syndrome: "dis-easing" the female cycle', in Nancy Tuana (ed.), Feminism and science, Bloomington, Indiana University Press, 1989, pp. 188-210.
17. Jane M Ussher, The psychology of the female body, London and New York, Routledge, 1989, p. 69; Kathy Kendall, 'Sexual difference and the law: premenstrual syndrome as legal defense', in Currie and Raoul (eds), op. cit., note 7 above, pp. 130-46; Jacquelyn Zita, 'The premenstrual syndrome: "dis-easing" the female cycle', in Nancy Tuana (ed.), Feminism and science, Bloomington, Indiana University Press, 1989, pp. 188-210.
18. Jane M Ussher, The psychology of the female body, London and New York, Routledge, 1989, p. 69; Kathy Kendall, 'Sexual difference and the law: premenstrual syndrome as legal defense', in Currie and Raoul (eds), op. cit., note 7 above, pp. 130-46; Jacquelyn Zita, 'The premenstrual syndrome: "dis-easing" the female cycle', in Nancy Tuana (ed.), Feminism and science, Bloomington, Indiana University Press, 1989, pp. 188-210.
19. Emily Martin, 'Premenstrual syndrome: discipline, work, and anger in late industrial societies', in Thomas Buckley and Alma Gottlieb (eds), Blood magic: the anthropology of menstruation, Berkeley, University of California Press, 1988, pp. 161-81; Martin stresses, at the same time, that women's altered premenstrual mental and physical state "gives them trouble only given a particular kind of industrialized society" (ibid., p. 165, her emphasis);
20. Emily Martin, 'Premenstrual syndrome: discipline, work, and anger in late industrial societies', in Thomas Buckley and Alma Gottlieb (eds), Blood magic: the anthropology of menstruation, Berkeley, University of California Press, 1988, pp. 161-81; Martin stresses, at the same time, that women's altered premenstrual mental and physical state "gives them trouble only given a particular kind of industrialized society" (ibid., p. 165, her emphasis);
21. see also Alma Gottlieb, 'American premenstrual syndrome: a mute voice', Anthropology Today, 1988, 4 (6): 10-13; Susan Markens, The problematic of "experience": a political and cultural critique of PMS', Gender and Society, 1996, 10: 42-58.
22. see also Alma Gottlieb, 'American premenstrual syndrome: a mute voice', Anthropology Today, 1988, 4 (6): 10-13; Susan Markens, The problematic of "experience": a political and cultural critique of PMS', Gender and Society, 1996, 10: 42-58.
23. Johnson, op. cit., note 4 above; for a useful introduction into the ongoing debate on this concept see Ronald C Simons and Charles C Hughes (eds), The culture-bound syndromes: folk illnesses of psychiatric and anthropological interest, Dordrecht and Boston, D Reidel, 1985.
24. Johnson, op. cit., note 4 above; for a useful introduction into the ongoing debate on this concept see Ronald C Simons and Charles C Hughes (eds), The culture-bound syndromes: folk illnesses of psychiatric and anthropological interest, Dordrecht and Boston, D Reidel, 1985.
25. I borrow this term from Charles E Rosenberg, 'Framing disease: illness, society, and history', in C E Rosenberg and J Golden (eds), Framing disease: studies in cultural history, New Brunswick, Rutgers University Press, 1992, pp. xiii-xxvi; in contrast to terms like "social construction" the term "framing" acknowledges that the human body itself, due to its natural properties, may play an important part in this process, even though we have access to these properties only via our culturally and historically contingent modes of experience and interpretation.
26. Richardson, op. cit., note 4 above, p. 762; ignoring scores of older works on issues like dysmenorrhoea and suppressed menstruation, Mari Rodin even goes so far as to claim that Frank was the first "modern physician to delineate a set of symptoms related to menstruation as a clinical entity" (op. cit., note 7 above, p. 51).
27. Richardson, op. cit., note 4 above, p. 762; ignoring scores of older works on issues like dysmenorrhoea and suppressed menstruation, Mari Rodin even goes so far as to claim that Frank was the first "modern physician to delineate a set of symptoms related to menstruation as a clinical entity" (op. cit., note 7 above, p. 51).
28. Johnson, op. cit., note 4 above, p. 347.
29. Richardson, op. cit., note 4 above, bases his claim primarily on the findings of what he calls "a fairly extensive survey of historical and anthropological sources" presented in Oscar Janiger, Ralph Riffenburgh and Ronald Kersh, 'Cross cultural study of premenstrual symptoms', Psychosomatics, 1972, 13: 226-35; this survey does not use a single source preceding Frank's paper, however.
30. Richardson, op. cit., note 4 above, bases his claim primarily on the findings of what he calls "a fairly extensive survey of historical and anthropological sources" presented in Oscar Janiger, Ralph Riffenburgh and Ronald Kersh, 'Cross cultural study of premenstrual symptoms', Psychosomatics, 1972, 13: 226-35; this survey does not use a single source preceding Frank's paper, however.
31. Unfortunately, there is no good and comprehensive modern study on the history of medical ideas on menstruation; the best overview for the pre-modern era is still Hans-Georg Müller-Heß, Die Lehre von der Menstruation vom Beginn der Neuzeit bis zur Begründung der Zellenlehre, Berlin, Ebering, 1938.
32. Cf. Giovanni Marinello, Le medicine partenenti alle infermità delle donne, Venice, de'Franceschi Senese, 1563, fols. 86v-87v; Paracelsus, 'Opus paramirum', in idem, Bücher vnd Schrifften, ed. Johannes Huser, Frankfurt, J Wechels Erben, 1603, p. 119; Alessandro Massaria, Practica medico, Lyons, Durand, 1616, pp. 490-1.
33. Cf. Giovanni Marinello, Le medicine partenenti alle infermità delle donne, Venice, de'Franceschi Senese, 1563, fols. 86v-87v; Paracelsus, 'Opus paramirum', in idem, Bücher vnd Schrifften, ed. Johannes Huser, Frankfurt, J Wechels Erben, 1603, p. 119; Alessandro Massaria, Practica medico, Lyons, Durand, 1616, pp. 490-1.
34. Cf. Giovanni Marinello, Le medicine partenenti alle infermità delle donne, Venice, de'Franceschi Senese, 1563, fols. 86v-87v; Paracelsus, 'Opus paramirum', in idem, Bücher vnd Schrifften, ed. Johannes Huser, Frankfurt, J Wechels Erben, 1603, p. 119; Alessandro Massaria, Practica medico, Lyons, Durand, 1616, pp. 490-1.
35. Jacques Dubois (Jacobus Sylvius), De mensibus mulierum, et hominis generatione, Paris, Hulpeau, 1555, fol. 2v; if not indicated otherwise, translations from sources other than English are mine.
36. Albertino Bottoni, De morbis muliebribus, Padua, Meietus, 1585, fol. 12r.
37. Ibid., fols. 13r and 15r.
38. Neglecting the literature in Latin, the then dominant language of science and medicine, Patricia Crawford in her ground-breaking paper on 'Attitudes to menstruation in seventeenth-century England', Past and Present, 1981, 91: 47-73, arrives at a somewhat unbalanced account of contemporary medical views and hardly takes any notice of this important change.
39. Johannes Bohn, Circulus anatomicophysiologicus seu oeconomia corporis animalis, Leipzig, Gleditsch, [1686], p. 258; Daniel Sennert, Practica medicina, 2nd ed., Wittenberg, hered. Merii, 1649, p. 130.
40. Johannes Bohn, Circulus anatomicophysiologicus seu oeconomia corporis animalis, Leipzig, Gleditsch, [1686], p. 258; Daniel Sennert, Practica medicina, 2nd ed., Wittenberg, hered. Merii, 1649, p. 130.
41. Felix Platter, Praxeos medicae opus, quinque libris adornatum, 3rd ed., Basel, König, 1666, p. 525; James Primrose, De mulierum morbis et symptomatis libri quinque, London, Robinson, 1655, pp. 3-5; Sennert, op. cit., note 22 above, p. 131; Bohn, op. cit., note 22 above, pp. 240-1.
42. Felix Platter, Praxeos medicae opus, quinque libris adornatum, 3rd ed., Basel, König, 1666, p. 525; James Primrose, De mulierum morbis et symptomatis libri quinque, London, Robinson, 1655, pp. 3-5; Sennert, op. cit., note 22 above, p. 131; Bohn, op. cit., note 22 above, pp. 240-1.
43. Felix Platter, Praxeos medicae opus, quinque libris adornatum, 3rd ed., Basel, König, 1666, p. 525; James Primrose, De mulierum morbis et symptomatis libri quinque, London, Robinson, 1655, pp. 3-5; Sennert, op. cit., note 22 above, p. 131; Bohn, op. cit., note 22 above, pp. 240-1.
44. Felix Platter, Praxeos medicae opus, quinque libris adornatum, 3rd ed., Basel, König, 1666, p. 525; James Primrose, De mulierum morbis et symptomatis libri quinque, London, Robinson, 1655, pp. 3-5; Sennert, op. cit., note 22 above, p. 131; Bohn, op. cit., note 22 above, pp. 240-1.
45. Archibald Pitcairn, The philosophical and mathematical elements of physick, London, Bell and Osborn, 1718, pp. 328-9.
46. Girolamo Mercuriale, 'De morbis muliebribus', in Gynaeciorum sive de mulierum affectibus commentarii, part 2, Basel, Waldkirch, 1586, pp. 7-195, on pp. 96-9; Luis de Mercado, De mulierum affectionibus libri IIII, Venice, Valgrisius, 1587, p. 16; Massaria, op. cit., note 17 above, pp. 489-91.
47. Girolamo Mercuriale, 'De morbis muliebribus', in Gynaeciorum sive de mulierum affectibus commentarii, part 2, Basel, Waldkirch, 1586, pp. 7-195, on pp. 96-9; Luis de Mercado, De mulierum affectionibus libri IIII, Venice, Valgrisius, 1587, p. 16; Massaria, op. cit., note 17 above, pp. 489-91.
48. Girolamo Mercuriale, 'De morbis muliebribus', in Gynaeciorum sive de mulierum affectibus commentarii, part 2, Basel, Waldkirch, 1586, pp. 7-195, on pp. 96-9; Luis de Mercado, De mulierum affectionibus libri IIII, Venice, Valgrisius, 1587, p. 16; Massaria, op. cit., note 17 above, pp. 489-91.
49. See Sennert, op. cit. note 22 above, p. 130, just to quote a particularly influential authority; cf. Ian Maclean, The Renaissance notion of woman: a study in the fortunes of scholasticism and medical science in European intellectual life, Cambridge University Press, 1980, pp. 33-4.
50. See Sennert, op. cit. note 22 above, p. 130, just to quote a particularly influential authority; cf. Ian Maclean, The Renaissance notion of woman: a study in the fortunes of scholasticism and medical science in European intellectual life, Cambridge University Press, 1980, pp. 33-4.
51. Regnier de Graaf, De virorum organis generationi inservientibus, Leiden and Rotterdam, Off. Hackiana, 1668, pp. 3-4; similarly Primrose, op. cit., note 23 above, pp. 1-2.
52. Regnier de Graaf, De virorum organis generationi inservientibus, Leiden and Rotterdam, Off. Hackiana, 1668, pp. 3-4; similarly Primrose, op. cit., note 23 above, pp. 1-2.
53. On the "expulsive" or "ekcritic" faculty see Galen, 'Galeni in Hippocratis librum de alimento commentarius II', in C G Kühn (ed.), Claudii Galeni opera omnia, vol. 15, Leipzig, C Cnobloch, 1828 (repr. Hildesheim, Olms, 1965), pp. 229-50, on p. 246.
54. Sennert, op. cit., note 22 above, p. 133; Primrose, op. cit., note 23 above, pp. 36-40; Roderigo de Castro, De universa muliebrium morborum medicina ... pars prima theorica, 4th ed., Hamburg, Hirtelius, 1662, pp. 81-2.
55. Sennert, op. cit., note 22 above, p. 133; Primrose, op. cit., note 23 above, pp. 36-40; Roderigo de Castro, De universa muliebrium morborum medicina ... pars prima theorica, 4th ed., Hamburg, Hirtelius, 1662, pp. 81-2.
56. Sennert, op. cit., note 22 above, p. 133; Primrose, op. cit., note 23 above, pp. 36-40; Roderigo de Castro, De universa muliebrium morborum medicina ... pars prima theorica, 4th ed., Hamburg, Hirtelius, 1662, pp. 81-2.
57. Primrose, op. cit., note 23 above, pp. 36-40, cit. 36.
58. Mercuriale, op. cit., note 25 above, p. 99.
59. Giambattista Da Monte, 'De uterinis affectibus', in Opuscula varia ac praeclara, vol. 2, Basel, Perna, 1558, pp. 704-85, cit. 737-8.
60. Thomas B Bertrand, Quaestio medica: An catamenia à plethora?, Prop. Andreas Delaleu, Paris, 1711, p. 5.
61. C A F Heumann, De cessante, ob aetatem, mensium fluxu et morbis inde oriundis, Helmstedt, Widow of Schnorr, 1776, pp. XXIV-XXV, XXVI.
62. Johannes Georg König, De mensibus dolorificis, Altdorf, Meyer, 1709, p. 9; Ernst Wilhelm Westenberg, De catameniis, resp. Johannes Georgius Vette, Harderovici, Sas, 1711, p. 9; John Freind, Emmenologia, London, Cox, 1729, pp. 56-7; Philippus de la Cour, De naturali catameniorum fluxu, Leiden, Verbeek, 1733, p. 16; Gerald Fitzgerald, Traité des maladies de femmes, Paris, Duchesne, 1758, p. 33.
63. Johannes Georg König, De mensibus dolorificis, Altdorf, Meyer, 1709, p. 9; Ernst Wilhelm Westenberg, De catameniis, resp. Johannes Georgius Vette, Harderovici, Sas, 1711, p. 9; John Freind, Emmenologia, London, Cox, 1729, pp. 56-7; Philippus de la Cour, De naturali catameniorum fluxu, Leiden, Verbeek, 1733, p. 16; Gerald Fitzgerald, Traité des maladies de femmes, Paris, Duchesne, 1758, p. 33.
64. Johannes Georg König, De mensibus dolorificis, Altdorf, Meyer, 1709, p. 9; Ernst Wilhelm Westenberg, De catameniis, resp. Johannes Georgius Vette, Harderovici, Sas, 1711, p. 9; John Freind, Emmenologia, London, Cox, 1729, pp. 56-7; Philippus de la Cour, De naturali catameniorum fluxu, Leiden, Verbeek, 1733, p. 16; Gerald Fitzgerald, Traité des maladies de femmes, Paris, Duchesne, 1758, p. 33.
65. Johannes Georg König, De mensibus dolorificis, Altdorf, Meyer, 1709, p. 9; Ernst Wilhelm Westenberg, De catameniis, resp. Johannes Georgius Vette, Harderovici, Sas, 1711, p. 9; John Freind, Emmenologia, London, Cox, 1729, pp. 56-7; Philippus de la Cour, De naturali catameniorum fluxu, Leiden, Verbeek, 1733, p. 16; Gerald Fitzgerald, Traité des maladies de femmes, Paris, Duchesne, 1758, p. 33.
66. Johannes Georg König, De mensibus dolorificis, Altdorf, Meyer, 1709, p. 9; Ernst Wilhelm Westenberg, De catameniis, resp. Johannes Georgius Vette, Harderovici, Sas, 1711, p. 9; John Freind, Emmenologia, London, Cox, 1729, pp. 56-7; Philippus de la Cour, De naturali catameniorum fluxu, Leiden, Verbeek, 1733, p. 16; Gerald Fitzgerald, Traité des maladies de femmes, Paris, Duchesne, 1758, p. 33.
67. Lazare Rivière, 'Institutionum medicarum libri quinque', in idem, Opera medica universa, Lyons, Anisson and Posuel 1698, pp. 93-4, 'De signis futurae criseos per menses aut haemorrhoïdas'.
68. Santorio Santorio, De statica medicina, The Hague, Vlacq, 1657 (orig. 1614), p. 19.
69. Louis François Lignac, De l'homme et de la femme, considérés physiquement dans l'état du mariage, vol. 3, Lille, Henry, 1774, pp. 497-8.
70. Walter Charleton, Inquisitio physica de causis catameniorum et uteri rheumatismo, London, Imp. Kettilby, 1685, pp. 91-5, p. 108; François Bayle, 'De causis fluxus menstrui mulierum', in idem, Dissertationes medicae tres, Brugge, van der Meulen, 1678, pp. 3-51.
71. Walter Charleton, Inquisitio physica de causis catameniorum et uteri rheumatismo, London, Imp. Kettilby, 1685, pp. 91-5, p. 108; François Bayle, 'De causis fluxus menstrui mulierum', in idem, Dissertationes medicae tres, Brugge, van der Meulen, 1678, pp. 3-51.
72. Regnier de Graaf, De mulierum organis generationi inserventibus tractatus novus, Leiden, Off. Hackiana, 1672, p. 132; Michael Ettmüller, Pratique de médecine spéciale sur les maladies propres des hommes, des femmes et des petits enfans, Lyons, Amaulry, 1691, p. 69; Nicolas Venette, La génération de l'homme, ou tableau de l'amour conjugal, vol. 2, n. p., 1764, pp. 93-4; Hendrik Snellen, Theoriae mechanicae physicomedica delineatio in qua damnosa ejus praecepta ad rationis et experientiae lancem revocantur ac practice emendantur, Leiden, Luchtmans, 1705, pp. 104-5; Snellen thought that fermentation was limited to the serous and lymphatic parts of the blood.
73. Regnier de Graaf, De mulierum organis generationi inserventibus tractatus novus, Leiden, Off. Hackiana, 1672, p. 132; Michael Ettmüller, Pratique de médecine spéciale sur les maladies propres des hommes, des femmes et des petits enfans, Lyons, Amaulry, 1691, p. 69; Nicolas Venette, La génération de l'homme, ou tableau de l'amour conjugal, vol. 2, n. p., 1764, pp. 93-4; Hendrik Snellen, Theoriae mechanicae physicomedica delineatio in qua damnosa ejus praecepta ad rationis et experientiae lancem revocantur ac practice emendantur, Leiden, Luchtmans, 1705, pp. 104-5; Snellen thought that fermentation was limited to the serous and lymphatic parts of the blood.
74. Regnier de Graaf, De mulierum organis generationi inserventibus tractatus novus, Leiden, Off. Hackiana, 1672, p. 132; Michael Ettmüller, Pratique de médecine spéciale sur les maladies propres des hommes, des femmes et des petits enfans, Lyons, Amaulry, 1691, p. 69; Nicolas Venette, La génération de l'homme, ou tableau de l'amour conjugal, vol. 2, n. p., 1764, pp. 93-4; Hendrik Snellen, Theoriae mechanicae physicomedica delineatio in qua damnosa ejus praecepta ad rationis et experientiae lancem revocantur ac practice emendantur, Leiden, Luchtmans, 1705, pp. 104-5; Snellen thought that fermentation was limited to the serous and lymphatic parts of the blood.
75. Regnier de Graaf, De mulierum organis generationi inserventibus tractatus novus, Leiden, Off. Hackiana, 1672, p. 132; Michael Ettmüller, Pratique de médecine spéciale sur les maladies propres des hommes, des femmes et des petits enfans, Lyons, Amaulry, 1691, p. 69; Nicolas Venette, La génération de l'homme, ou tableau de l'amour conjugal, vol. 2, n. p., 1764, pp. 93-4; Hendrik Snellen, Theoriae mechanicae physicomedica delineatio in qua damnosa ejus praecepta ad rationis et experientiae lancem revocantur ac practice emendantur, Leiden, Luchtmans, 1705, pp. 104-5; Snellen thought that fermentation was limited to the serous and lymphatic parts of the blood.
76. Ettmüller, op. cit., note 40 above, p. 69, traced the ferment to the ovaries and the uterus, for example; Venette, op. cit., note 40 above, p. 99, wrote of "spermatic vapours"; Charles Barbeyrac, Traités nouveaux de médecine, Lyons, Certe, 1722, p. 206, assumed a particular ferment in the blood.
77. Ettmüller, op. cit., note 40 above, p. 69, traced the ferment to the ovaries and the uterus, for example; Venette, op. cit., note 40 above, p. 99, wrote of "spermatic vapours"; Charles Barbeyrac, Traités nouveaux de médecine, Lyons, Certe, 1722, p. 206, assumed a particular ferment in the blood.
78. Ettmüller, op. cit., note 40 above, p. 69, traced the ferment to the ovaries and the uterus, for example; Venette, op. cit., note 40 above, p. 99, wrote of "spermatic vapours"; Charles Barbeyrac, Traités nouveaux de médecine, Lyons, Certe, 1722, p. 206, assumed a particular ferment in the blood.
79. Carlo Musitano, De morbis mulierum tractatus, Coligny, Choüet, et al. 1709, pp. 47 (cit.), 55; some thought, however, that menstrual blood was originally pure and acquired a corrupt nature only due to its long stasis in the uterus.
80. Snellen, op. cit., note 40 above, p. 104.
81. Ettmüller, op. cit., note 40 above, pp. 102-3.
82. Charleton, op. cit., note 39 above, p. 91; Musitano, op. cit., note 42 above, p. 56; Bayle, op. cit., note 39 above, p. 23; Cornelis Stalpart vander Wiel, Observationum rariorum medicarum anatomicarum chirurgicarum centuriae posterioris pars prior, Leiden, a Kerkhem, 1727, pp. 232-3; Martin Lister, Dissertatio de humoribus, London, Bowyer, 1709, pp. 420, 442.
83. Charleton, op. cit., note 39 above, p. 91; Musitano, op. cit., note 42 above, p. 56; Bayle, op. cit., note 39 above, p. 23; Cornelis Stalpart vander Wiel, Observationum rariorum medicarum anatomicarum chirurgicarum centuriae posterioris pars prior, Leiden, a Kerkhem, 1727, pp. 232-3; Martin Lister, Dissertatio de humoribus, London, Bowyer, 1709, pp. 420, 442.
84. Charleton, op. cit., note 39 above, p. 91; Musitano, op. cit., note 42 above, p. 56; Bayle, op. cit., note 39 above, p. 23; Cornelis Stalpart vander Wiel, Observationum rariorum medicarum anatomicarum chirurgicarum centuriae posterioris pars prior, Leiden, a Kerkhem, 1727, pp. 232-3; Martin Lister, Dissertatio de humoribus, London, Bowyer, 1709, pp. 420, 442.
85. Charleton, op. cit., note 39 above, p. 91; Musitano, op. cit., note 42 above, p. 56; Bayle, op. cit., note 39 above, p. 23; Cornelis Stalpart vander Wiel, Observationum rariorum medicarum anatomicarum chirurgicarum centuriae posterioris pars prior, Leiden, a Kerkhem, 1727, pp. 232-3; Martin Lister, Dissertatio de humoribus, London, Bowyer, 1709, pp. 420, 442.
86. Charleton, op. cit., note 39 above, p. 91; Musitano, op. cit., note 42 above, p. 56; Bayle, op. cit., note 39 above, p. 23; Cornelis Stalpart vander Wiel, Observationum rariorum medicarum anatomicarum chirurgicarum centuriae posterioris pars prior, Leiden, a Kerkhem, 1727, pp. 232-3; Martin Lister, Dissertatio de humoribus, London, Bowyer, 1709, pp. 420, 442.
87. Often terms like "instante fluxu" or "sub initium purgationis" were used, which can, in principle, refer not only to an event which is near but also to one which has just begun; it follows from the logic of the model, however, that fermentation had to begin before the actual flux set in.
88. Venette, op. cit., note 40 above, p. 100; Ettmüller, op. cit., note 40 above, p. 70; notions of fever and increased blood circulation were then closely linked; cf. Herman Boerhaave, Aphorisms, concerning the knowledge and cure of diseases, London, Bettesworth and Hitch, 1735, p. 139.
89. Venette, op. cit., note 40 above, p. 100; Ettmüller, op. cit., note 40 above, p. 70; notions of fever and increased blood circulation were then closely linked; cf. Herman Boerhaave, Aphorisms, concerning the knowledge and cure of diseases, London, Bettesworth and Hitch, 1735, p. 139.
90. Venette, op. cit., note 40 above, p. 100; Ettmüller, p. cit., note 40 above, p. 70; notions of fever and increased blood circulation were then closely linked; cf. Herman Boerhaave, Aphorisms, concerning the knowledge and cure of diseases, London, Bettesworth and Hitch, 1735, p. 139.
91. François Bayle, 'De consensu variarum corporis partium cum utero', in Bayle, op. cit., note 39 above, p. 72; the nervous influence, he thought, was exerted via the relaxation and constriction of the affluent and the effluent vessels respectively.
92. Charleton, op. cit., note 39 above, pp. 73-5.
93. For a useful analysis see François Duchesneau, La physiologie des lumières: Empirisme, modèles et theories, The Hague, Nijhoff, 1982.
94. Georg Ernst Stahl, Proempticon inaugurale de fluxu muliebris, quatenus menstrui causa, Halle-Magdeburg, 1702.
95. Johann Storch, Von Kranckheiten der Weiber, Ilter Band, Darinnen vornehmlich solche Casus, Welche den Jungfern-Stand betreffen, Gotha, Mevius, 1748, pp. 246-8.
96. Théophile de Bordeu, 'Recherches anatomiques sur la position des glandes, et sur leur action', in idem, Oeuvres complètes, vol. 1, Paris, Caille and Ravier, 1818 (orig. 1752), pp. 45-208, here pp. 190-4; Nicolaus Salmon, Dissertatio physiologica de fluxu menstruo, Montpellier, Martel, 1745, p. 3; other loading proponents of this model were Jean B Jeannet des Longrois, Conseils aux femmes de quarante ans, Paris, Méquignon, 1787, p. 41; Philippe Pinel, Nosographie philosophique, ou la méthode de l'analyse appliquée a la médecine, vol. 1, Paris, Richard, Caille and Ravier, an VII (1798), pp. 273-4; Joseph-Marie-Joachim Vigarous, Cours élémentaire de maladies des femmes, ou essai sur une nouvelle méthode pour étudier et pour classer les maladies de ce sexe, vol. 1, Paris, Crapelet for Deterville, an X (1801), p. 71; Alexandre Surun, Théorie de la menstruation fondée sur les caractères naturels de la vie, des organes, et particulièrement de l'action nerveuse, Paris, Croullebois, 1819; Édouard Dauby, Quelques considérations sur la menstruation dans ses rapports avec la folie, Paris, A Parent, 1866, pp. 12-13.
97. Théophile de Bordeu, 'Recherches anatomiques sur la position des glandes, et sur leur action', in idem, Oeuvres complètes, vol. 1, Paris, Caille and Ravier, 1818 (orig. 1752), pp. 45-208, here pp. 190-4; Nicolaus Salmon, Dissertatio physiologica de fluxu menstruo, Montpellier, Martel, 1745, p. 3; other loading proponents of this model were Jean B Jeannet des Longrois, Conseils aux femmes de quarante ans, Paris, Méquignon, 1787, p. 41; Philippe Pinel, Nosographie philosophique, ou la méthode de l'analyse appliquée a la médecine, vol. 1, Paris, Richard, Caille and Ravier, an VII (1798), pp. 273-4; Joseph-Marie-Joachim Vigarous, Cours élémentaire de maladies des femmes, ou essai sur une nouvelle méthode pour étudier et pour classer les maladies de ce sexe, vol. 1, Paris, Crapelet for Deterville, an X (1801), p. 71; Alexandre Surun, Théorie de la menstruation fondée sur les caractères naturels de la vie, des organes, et particulièrement de l'action nerveuse, Paris, Croullebois, 1819; Édouard Dauby, Quelques considérations sur la menstruation dans ses rapports avec la folie, Paris, A Parent, 1866, pp. 12-13.
98. Théophile de Bordeu, 'Recherches anatomiques sur la position des glandes, et sur leur action', in idem, Oeuvres complètes, vol. 1, Paris, Caille and Ravier, 1818 (orig. 1752), pp. 45-208, here pp. 190-4; Nicolaus Salmon, Dissertatio physiologica de fluxu menstruo, Montpellier, Martel, 1745, p. 3; other loading proponents of this model were Jean B Jeannet des Longrois, Conseils aux femmes de quarante ans, Paris, Méquignon, 1787, p. 41; Philippe Pinel, Nosographie philosophique, ou la méthode de l'analyse appliquée a la médecine, vol. 1, Paris, Richard, Caille and Ravier, an VII (1798), pp. 273-4; Joseph-Marie-Joachim Vigarous, Cours élémentaire de maladies des femmes, ou essai sur une nouvelle méthode pour étudier et pour classer les maladies de ce sexe, vol. 1, Paris, Crapelet for Deterville, an X (1801), p. 71; Alexandre Surun, Théorie de la menstruation fondée sur les caractères naturels de la vie, des organes, et particulièrement de l'action nerveuse, Paris, Croullebois, 1819; Édouard Dauby, Quelques considérations sur la menstruation dans ses rapports avec la folie, Paris, A Parent, 1866, pp. 12-13.
99. Théophile de Bordeu, 'Recherches anatomiques sur la position des glandes, et sur leur action', in idem, Oeuvres complètes, vol. 1, Paris, Caille and Ravier, 1818 (orig. 1752), pp. 45-208, here pp. 190-4; Nicolaus Salmon, Dissertatio physiologica de fluxu menstruo, Montpellier, Martel, 1745, p. 3; other loading proponents of this model were Jean B Jeannet des Longrois, Conseils aux femmes de quarante ans, Paris, Méquignon, 1787, p. 41; Philippe Pinel, Nosographie philosophique, ou la méthode de l'analyse appliquée a la médecine, vol. 1, Paris, Richard, Caille and Ravier, an VII (1798), pp. 273-4; Joseph-Marie-Joachim Vigarous, Cours élémentaire de maladies des femmes, ou essai sur une nouvelle méthode pour étudier et pour classer les maladies de ce sexe, vol. 1, Paris, Crapelet for Deterville, an X (1801), p. 71; Alexandre Surun, Théorie de la menstruation fondée sur les caractères naturels de la vie, des organes, et particulièrement de l'action nerveuse, Paris, Croullebois, 1819; Édouard Dauby, Quelques considérations sur la menstruation dans ses rapports avec la folie, Paris, A Parent, 1866, pp. 12-13.
100. Théophile de Bordeu, 'Recherches anatomiques sur la position des glandes, et sur leur action', in idem, Oeuvres complètes, vol. 1, Paris, Caille and Ravier, 1818 (orig. 1752), pp. 45-208, here pp. 190-4; Nicolaus Salmon, Dissertatio physiologica de fluxu menstruo, Montpellier, Martel, 1745, p. 3; other loading proponents of this model were Jean B Jeannet des Longrois, Conseils aux femmes de quarante ans, Paris, Méquignon, 1787, p. 41; Philippe Pinel, Nosographie philosophique, ou la méthode de l'analyse appliquée a la médecine, vol. 1, Paris, Richard, Caille and Ravier, an VII (1798), pp. 273-4; Joseph-Marie-Joachim Vigarous, Cours élémentaire de maladies des femmes, ou essai sur une nouvelle méthode pour étudier et pour classer les maladies de ce sexe, vol. 1, Paris, Crapelet for Deterville, an X (1801), p. 71; Alexandre Surun, Théorie de la menstruation fondée sur les caractères naturels de la vie, des organes, et particulièrement de l'action nerveuse, Paris, Croullebois, 1819; Édouard Dauby, Quelques considérations sur la menstruation dans ses rapports avec la folie, Paris, A Parent, 1866, pp. 12-13.
101. Théophile de Bordeu, 'Recherches anatomiques sur la position des glandes, et sur leur action', in idem, Oeuvres complètes, vol. 1, Paris, Caille and Ravier, 1818 (orig. 1752), pp. 45-208, here pp. 190-4; Nicolaus Salmon, Dissertatio physiologica de fluxu menstruo, Montpellier, Martel, 1745, p. 3; other loading proponents of this model were Jean B Jeannet des Longrois, Conseils aux femmes de quarante ans, Paris, Méquignon, 1787, p. 41; Philippe Pinel, Nosographie philosophique, ou la méthode de l'analyse appliquée a la médecine, vol. 1, Paris, Richard, Caille and Ravier, an VII (1798), pp. 273-4; Joseph-Marie-Joachim Vigarous, Cours élémentaire de maladies des femmes, ou essai sur une nouvelle méthode pour étudier et pour classer les maladies de ce sexe, vol. 1, Paris, Crapelet for Deterville, an X (1801), p. 71; Alexandre Surun, Théorie de la menstruation fondée sur les caractères naturels de la vie, des organes, et particulièrement de l'action nerveuse, Paris, Croullebois, 1819; Édouard Dauby, Quelques considérations sur la menstruation dans ses rapports avec la folie, Paris, A Parent, 1866, pp. 12-13.
102. Théophile de Bordeu, 'Recherches anatomiques sur la position des glandes, et sur leur action', in idem, Oeuvres complètes, vol. 1, Paris, Caille and Ravier, 1818 (orig. 1752), pp. 45-208, here pp. 190-4; Nicolaus Salmon, Dissertatio physiologica de fluxu menstruo, Montpellier, Martel, 1745, p. 3; other loading proponents of this model were Jean B Jeannet des Longrois, Conseils aux femmes de quarante ans, Paris, Méquignon, 1787, p. 41; Philippe Pinel, Nosographie philosophique, ou la méthode de l'analyse appliquée a la médecine, vol. 1, Paris, Richard, Caille and Ravier, an VII (1798), pp. 273-4; Joseph-Marie-Joachim Vigarous, Cours élémentaire de maladies des femmes, ou essai sur une nouvelle méthode pour étudier et pour classer les maladies de ce sexe, vol. 1, Paris, Crapelet for Deterville, an X (1801), p. 71; Alexandre Surun, Théorie de la menstruation fondée sur les caractères naturels de la vie, des organes, et particulièrement de l'action nerveuse, Paris, Croullebois, 1819; Édouard Dauby, Quelques considérations sur la menstruation dans ses rapports avec la folie, Paris, A Parent, 1866, pp. 12-13.
103. Augustin Nicholas Gendrin, Traité philosophique de médecine pratique, vol. 2, Paris, Germer Baillière, 1839, pp. 6-53; Edward John Tilt, On diseases of women and ovarian inflammation in relation to morbid menstruation, sterility, pelvic tumours, and affections of the womb, 2nd ed., London, Churchill, 1853, p. 23; on Pflüger, see Hans H Simmer, 'Experimentelle Prüfungen der Pflügerschen Reflexhypothese der Menstruation im späten 19. Jahrhundert', Clio Medica, 1979/80, 14: 235-54.
104. Augustin Nicholas Gendrin, Traité philosophique de médecine pratique, vol. 2, Paris, Germer Baillière, 1839, pp. 6-53; Edward John Tilt, On diseases of women and ovarian inflammation in relation to morbid menstruation, sterility, pelvic tumours, and affections of the womb, 2nd ed., London, Churchill, 1853, p. 23; on Pflüger, see Hans H Simmer, 'Experimentelle Prüfungen der Pflügerschen Reflexhypothese der Menstruation im späten 19. Jahrhundert', Clio Medica, 1979/80, 14: 235-54.
105. Augustin Nicholas Gendrin, Traité philosophique de médecine pratique, vol. 2, Paris, Germer Baillière, 1839, pp. 6-53; Edward John Tilt, On diseases of women and ovarian inflammation in relation to morbid menstruation, sterility, pelvic tumours, and affections of the womb, 2nd ed., London, Churchill, 1853, p. 23; on Pflüger, see Hans H Simmer, 'Experimentelle Prüfungen der Pflügerschen Reflexhypothese der Menstruation im späten 19. Jahrhundert', Clio Medica, 1979/80, 14: 235-54.
106. Following Jean Astruc, Traité des maladies des femmes, vol. 1, Lyons, Libraries associés, 1765, pp. 18-35, various authors held that menstruation resulted from a local plethora only, which was presumably caused by the position and the specific vascular anatomy of the uterus; cf., for example, Franz Anton Mai, Fata ac incommoda ex menstruis naturae lege tandent cessantibus oriunda, prop. F J Vanderlinde, Heidelberg, Wiesen, 1789, p. 3.
107. Following Jean Astruc, Traité des maladies des femmes, vol. 1, Lyons, Libraries associés, 1765, pp. 18-35, various authors held that menstruation resulted from a local plethora only, which was presumably caused by the position and the specific vascular anatomy of the uterus; cf., for example, Franz Anton Mai, Fata ac incommoda ex menstruis naturae lege tandent cessantibus oriunda, prop. F J Vanderlinde, Heidelberg, Wiesen, 1789, p. 3.
108. Bordeu, op. cit., note 53 above, p. 194; verbatim also in Vigarous, op. cit., note 53 above, p. 86; similarly Constant Saucerotte, Nouveaux conseils aux femmes, sur l'âge prétendu critique, ou conduite à tenir lors de la cessation des règles, 2nd ed., Paris, Auger-Méquigon and Delaunay, 1829, p. 47.
109. Bordeu, op. cit., note 53 above, p. 194; verbatim also in Vigarous, op. cit., note 53 above, p. 86; similarly Constant Saucerotte, Nouveaux conseils aux femmes, sur l'âge prétendu critique, ou conduite à tenir lors de la cessation des règles, 2nd ed., Paris, Auger-Méquigon and Delaunay, 1829, p. 47.
110. Bordeu, op. cit., note 53 above, p. 194; verbatim also in Vigarous, op. cit., note 53 above, p. 86; similarly Constant Saucerotte, Nouveaux conseils aux femmes, sur l'âge prétendu critique, ou conduite à tenir lors de la cessation des règles, 2nd ed., Paris, Auger-Méquigon and Delaunay, 1829, p. 47.
111. John Leake, Medical instructions towards the prevention and cure of chronic diseases peculiar to women, 4th ed., London, Baldwin, 1777, p. 49.
112. Pierre Roussel, Système physique et moral de la femme, Paris, Vincent, 1775, p. 207.
113. Vigarous, op. cit., note 53 above, pp. 93 (cit.), 142-51.
114. François Victor Merat, 'Ménostasie', in Dictionaire [sic] des sciences médicales, Paris, Panckoucke, 1819 (Microfiche-Reprint Erlangen, Fischer, 1993), vol. 32, p. 374; Johannes H D Effler, De menstruatione vitiosa, MD thesis, Göttingen, Off. Grapiana, 1800, p. 27, refers to "menostasia" in the context of a total suppression.
115. François Victor Merat, 'Ménostasie', in Dictionaire [sic] des sciences médicales, Paris, Panckoucke, 1819 (Microfiche-Reprint Erlangen, Fischer, 1993), vol. 32, p. 374; Johannes H D Effler, De menstruatione vitiosa, MD thesis, Göttingen, Off. Grapiana, 1800, p. 27, refers to "menostasia" in the context of a total suppression.
116. Charles François Menville de Ponsan, L'âge critique chez les femmes, Paris, Baillière, 1840, pp. 70-1; similarly Johannes David Beerstecher, De fluxu menstruorum doloroso, Duisburg, Widow of Benthon, 1784, p. 9.
117. Charles François Menville de Ponsan, L'âge critique chez les femmes, Paris, Baillière, 1840, pp. 70-1; similarly Johannes David Beerstecher, De fluxu menstruorum doloroso, Duisburg, Widow of Benthon, 1784, p. 9.
118. Tilt, op. cit., note 54 above, p. 162; Astruc, op. cit., note 55 above, p. 17; Mai, op. cit., note 55 above, p. 3; Salmon, op. cit., note 53 above, p. 26; Charles Louis de Jaucovrt, 'Règles, maladies des', in Encyclopédie ou dictionnaire raisonné des sciences, des arts et des métiers, Neufchastel, Faulche, 1765, vol. 14, pp. 26-8; Gendrin, op. cit., note 54 above, pp. 7-8.
119. Tilt, op. cit., note 54 above, p. 162; Astruc, op. cit., note 55 above, p. 17; Mai, op. cit., note 55 above, p. 3; Salmon, op. cit., note 53 above, p. 26; Charles Louis de Jaucovrt, 'Règles, maladies des', in Encyclopédie ou dictionnaire raisonné des sciences, des arts et des métiers, Neufchastel, Faulche, 1765, vol. 14, pp. 26-8; Gendrin, op. cit., note 54 above, pp. 7-8.
120. Tilt, op. cit., note 54 above, p. 162; Astruc, op. cit., note 55 above, p. 17; Mai, op. cit., note 55 above, p. 3; Salmon, op. cit., note 53 above, p. 26; Charles Louis de Jaucovrt, 'Règles, maladies des', in Encyclopédie ou dictionnaire raisonné des sciences, des arts et des métiers, Neufchastel, Faulche, 1765, vol. 14, pp. 26-8; Gendrin, op. cit., note 54 above, pp. 7-8.
121. Tilt, op. cit., note 54 above, p. 162; Astruc, op. cit., note 55 above, p. 17; Mai, op. cit., note 55 above, p. 3; Salmon, op. cit., note 53 above, p. 26; Charles Louis de Jaucovrt, 'Règles, maladies des', in Encyclopédie ou dictionnaire raisonné des sciences, des arts et des métiers, Neufchastel, Faulche, 1765, vol. 14, pp. 26-8; Gendrin, op. cit., note 54 above, pp. 7-8.
122. Tilt, op. cit., note 54 above, p. 162; Astruc, op. cit., note 55 above, p. 17; Mai, op. cit., note 55 above, p. 3; Salmon, op. cit., note 53 above, p. 26; Charles Louis de Jaucovrt, 'Règles, maladies des', in Encyclopédie ou dictionnaire raisonné des sciences, des arts et des métiers, Neufchastel, Faulche, 1765, vol. 14, pp. 26-8; Gendrin, op. cit., note 54 above, pp. 7-8.
123. Tilt, op. cit., note 54 above, p. 162; Astruc, op. cit., note 55 above, p. 17; Mai, op. cit., note 55 above, p. 3; Salmon, op. cit., note 53 above, p. 26; Charles Louis de Jaucovrt, 'Règles, maladies des', in Encyclopédie ou dictionnaire raisonné des sciences, des arts et des métiers, Neufchastel, Faulche, 1765, vol. 14, pp. 26-8; Gendrin, op. cit., note 54 above, pp. 7-8.
124. Bordeu, op. cit., note 53 above, p. 194; Samuel Auguste Tissot, Advice to the people in general with regard to their health, London, Decket and de Hondt, 1765, pp. 358-9; similarly John Fothergill, Of the management proper at the cessation of the menses', Medical Observations and Inquiries, 1774, 5: 160-86, pp. 185-6.
125. Bordeu, op. cit., note 53 above, p. 194; Samuel Auguste Tissot, Advice to the people in general with regard to their health, London, Decket and de Hondt, 1765, pp. 358-9; similarly John Fothergill, Of the management proper at the cessation of the menses', Medical Observations and Inquiries, 1774, 5: 160-86, pp. 185-6.
126. Bordeu, op. cit., note 53 above, p. 194; Samuel Auguste Tissot, Advice to the people in general with regard to their health, London, Decket and de Hondt, 1765, pp. 358-9; similarly John Fothergill, Of the management proper at the cessation of the menses', Medical Observations and Inquiries, 1774, 5: 160-86, pp. 185-6.
127. Beerstecher, op. cit., note 61 above, p. 11; Tilt, op. cit., note 54 above, p. 162.
128. Beerstecher, op. cit., note 61 above, p. 11; Tilt, op. cit., note 54 above, p. 162.
129. Bordeu, op. cit., note 53, p. 194.
130. Astruc, op. cit., note 55 above, p. 18; Jaucourt, op. cit., note 62 above; Tissot, op. cit., note 63 above, p. 359; Gendrin, op. cit., note 54 above, p. 10; Pinel op. cit., note 53 above, pp. 623-4; J A Henri Depaul and Alexandre Guéniot, 'Menstruation' in Dictionnaire encyclopédique des sciences médicales, second series, Paris, Masson, 1877 (microfiche-reprint, Erlangen, Fischer, 1994), vol. 2, pp. 678-736.
131. Astruc, op. cit., note 55 above, p. 18; Jaucourt, op. cit., note 62 above; Tissot, op. cit., note 63 above, p. 359; Gendrin, op. cit., note 54 above, p. 10; Pinel op. cit., note 53 above, pp. 623-4; J A Henri Depaul and Alexandre Guéniot, 'Menstruation' in Dictionnaire encyclopédique des sciences médicales, second series, Paris, Masson, 1877 (microfiche-reprint, Erlangen, Fischer, 1994), vol. 2, pp. 678-736.
132. Astruc, op. cit., note 55 above, p. 18; Jaucourt, op. cit., note 62 above; Tissot, op. cit., note 63 above, p. 359; Gendrin, op. cit., note 54 above, p. 10; Pinel op. cit., note 53 above, pp. 623-4; J A Henri Depaul and Alexandre Guéniot, 'Menstruation' in Dictionnaire encyclopédique des sciences médicales, second series, Paris, Masson, 1877 (microfiche-reprint, Erlangen, Fischer, 1994), vol. 2, pp. 678-736.
133. Astruc, op. cit., note 55 above, p. 18; Jaucourt, op. cit., note 62 above; Tissot, op. cit., note 63 above, p. 359; Gendrin, op. cit., note 54 above, p. 10; Pinel op. cit., note 53 above, pp. 623-4; J A Henri Depaul and Alexandre Guéniot, 'Menstruation' in Dictionnaire encyclopédique des sciences médicales, second series, Paris, Masson, 1877 (microfiche-reprint, Erlangen, Fischer, 1994), vol. 2, pp. 678-736.
134. Astruc, op. cit., note 55 above, p. 18; Jaucourt, op. cit., note 62 above; Tissot, op. cit., note 63 above, p. 359; Gendrin, op. cit., note 54 above, p. 10; Pinel op. cit., note 53 above, pp. 623-4; J A Henri Depaul and Alexandre Guéniot, 'Menstruation' in Dictionnaire encyclopédique des sciences médicales, second series, Paris, Masson, 1877 (microfiche-reprint, Erlangen, Fischer, 1994), vol. 2, pp. 678-736.
135. Astruc, op. cit., note 55 above, p. 18; Jaucourt, op. cit., note 62 above; Tissot, op. cit., note 63 above, p. 359; Gendrin, op. cit., note 54 above, p. 10; Pinel op. cit., note 53 above, pp. 623-4; J A Henri Depaul and Alexandre Guéniot, 'Menstruation' in Dictionnaire encyclopédique des sciences médicales, second series, Paris, Masson, 1877 (microfiche-reprint, Erlangen, Fischer, 1994), vol. 2, pp. 678-736.
136. Bordeu, op. cit., note 53 above, p. 194; Mai, op. cit., note 55 above, p. 3.; Joseph Capuron, Traité des maladies des femmes, depuis la puberté jusqu'à l'âge critique inclusivement, Paris, Crapelet, 1812, p. 20.
137. Bordeu, op. cit., note 53 above, p. 194; Mai, op. cit., note 55 above, p. 3.; Joseph Capuron, Traité des maladies des femmes, depuis la puberté jusqu'à l'âge critique inclusivement, Paris, Crapelet, 1812, p. 20.
138. Bordeu, op. cit., note 53 above, p. 194; Mai, op. cit., note 55 above, p. 3.; Joseph Capuron, Traité des maladies des femmes, depuis la puberté jusqu'à l'âge critique inclusivement, Paris, Crapelet, 1812, p. 20.
139. Cf. Friedrich Hoffmann, A system of the practice of medicine, London, Murray and Johnson, 1783, vol. 2, pp. 60-1, on period-related hypochondriasis, with anger, fear, despair and strange imaginations as occasional symptoms.
140. Alexandre J F Brierre de Boismont, De la menstruation, considérée dans ses rapports physiologiques et pathologiques, Paris, Baillière, 1842; the figure was based on interviews with 223 women.
141. Tissot, op. cit., note 63 above, p. 360.
142. Menville de Ponsan, op. cit., note 61 above, p. 70; Henri Taguet, De l'influence de la menstruation sur le système nerveux, MD thesis, Paris, Parent, 1872, pp. 13-14; Dauby, op. cit., note 53 above, p. 32; Brierre de Boismont, op. cit., note 69 above, p. 95; some women also became more gentle and amiable.
143. Menville de Ponsan, op. cit., note 61 above, p. 70; Henri Taguet, De l'influence de la menstruation sur le système nerveux, MD thesis, Paris, Parent, 1872, pp. 13-14; Dauby, op. cit., note 53 above, p. 32; Brierre de Boismont, op. cit., note 69 above, p. 95; some women also became more gentle and amiable.
144. Menville de Ponsan, op. cit., note 61 above, p. 70; Henri Taguet, De l'influence de la menstruation sur le système nerveux, MD thesis, Paris, Parent, 1872, pp. 13-14; Dauby, op. cit., note 53 above, p. 32; Brierre de Boismont, op. cit., note 69 above, p. 95; some women also became more gentle and amiable.
145. Menville de Ponsan, op. cit., note 61 above, p. 70; Henri Taguet, De l'influence de la menstruation sur le système nerveux, MD thesis, Paris, Parent, 1872, pp. 13-14; Dauby, op. cit., note 53 above, p. 32; Brierre de Boismont, op. cit., note 69 above, p. 95; some women also became more gentle and amiable.
146. Merat, op. cit., note 60 above; Beerstecher, op. cit., note 61 above, p.
147. Merat, op. cit., note 60 above; Beerstecher, op. cit., note 61 above, p. 9; Brierre de Boismont, op. cit., note 69 above pp. 95-6; Capuron, op. cit., note 67 above, p. 20.
148. Merat, op. cit., note 60 above; Beerstecher, op. cit., note 61 above, p. 9; Brierre de Boismont, op. cit., note 69 above pp. 95-6; Capuron, op. cit., note 67 above, p. 20.
149. Merat, op. cit., note 60 above; Beerstecher, op. cit., note 61 above, p. 9; Brierre de Boismont, op. cit., note 69 above pp. 95-6; Capuron, op. cit., note 67 above, p. 20.
150. J E D Esquirol, Des maladies mentales considérées sous les rapports médical, hygiénique et médico-légal, Paris, Baillière, 1838, vol. 1, pp. 69-70; Taguet, op. cit., note 71 above; H Dagonet, Traité des maladies mentales, Paris, Baillière et fils, 1894, p. 157; Richard von Krafft-Ebing, Psychosis menstrualis. Eine klinischforensische Studie, Stuttgart, Enke, 1902; Menville de Ponsan, op. cit., note 61 above, p. 70; François Emmanuel Fodéré, Traité du délire, appliqué à la médecine, à la morale et à la législation, Paris, Croullebois, 1817, vol. 1, pp. 517, 553; Gendrin, op. cit., note 54 above, pp. 10-11.
151. J E D Esquirol, Des maladies mentales considérées sous les rapports médical, hygiénique et médico-légal, Paris, Baillière, 1838, vol. 1, pp. 69-70; Taguet, op. cit., note 71 above; H Dagonet, Traité des maladies mentales, Paris, Baillière et fils, 1894, p. 157; Richard von Krafft-Ebing, Psychosis menstrualis. Eine klinischforensische Studie, Stuttgart, Enke, 1902; Menville de Ponsan, op. cit., note 61 above, p. 70; François Emmanuel Fodéré, Traité du délire, appliqué à la médecine, à la morale et à la législation, Paris, Croullebois, 1817, vol. 1, pp. 517, 553; Gendrin, op. cit., note 54 above, pp. 10-11.
152. J E D Esquirol, Des maladies mentales considérées sous les rapports médical, hygiénique et médico-légal, Paris, Baillière, 1838, vol. 1, pp. 69-70; Taguet, op. cit., note 71 above; H Dagonet, Traité des maladies mentales, Paris, Baillière et fils, 1894, p. 157; Richard von Krafft-Ebing, Psychosis menstrualis. Eine klinischforensische Studie, Stuttgart, Enke, 1902; Menville de Ponsan, op. cit., note 61 above, p. 70; François Emmanuel Fodéré, Traité du délire, appliqué à la médecine, à la morale et à la législation, Paris, Croullebois, 1817, vol. 1, pp. 517, 553; Gendrin, op. cit., note 54 above, pp. 10-11.
153. J E D Esquirol, Des maladies mentales considérées sous les rapports médical, hygiénique et médico-légal, Paris, Baillière, 1838, vol. 1, pp. 69-70; Taguet, op. cit., note 71 above; H Dagonet, Traité des maladies mentales, Paris, Baillière et fils, 1894, p. 157; Richard von Krafft-Ebing, Psychosis menstrualis. Eine klinischforensische Studie, Stuttgart, Enke, 1902; Menville de Ponsan, op. cit., note 61 above, p. 70; François Emmanuel Fodéré, Traité du délire, appliqué à la médecine, à la morale et à la législation, Paris, Croullebois, 1817, vol. 1, pp. 517, 553; Gendrin, op. cit., note 54 above, pp. 10-11.
154. J E D Esquirol, Des maladies mentales considérées sous les rapports médical, hygiénique et médico-légal, Paris, Baillière, 1838, vol. 1, pp. 69-70; Taguet, op. cit., note 71 above; H Dagonet, Traité des maladies mentales, Paris, Baillière et fils, 1894, p. 157; Richard von Krafft-Ebing, Psychosis menstrualis. Eine klinischforensische Studie, Stuttgart, Enke, 1902; Menville de Ponsan, op. cit., note 61 above, p. 70; François Emmanuel Fodéré, Traité du délire, appliqué à la médecine, à la morale et à la législation, Paris, Croullebois, 1817, vol. 1, pp. 517, 553; Gendrin, op. cit., note 54 above, pp. 10-11.
155. J E D Esquirol, Des maladies mentales considérées sous les rapports médical, hygiénique et médico-légal, Paris, Baillière, 1838, vol. 1, pp. 69-70; Taguet, op. cit., note 71 above; H Dagonet, Traité des maladies mentales, Paris, Baillière et fils, 1894, p. 157; Richard von Krafft-Ebing, Psychosis menstrualis. Eine klinischforensische Studie, Stuttgart, Enke, 1902; Menville de Ponsan, op. cit., note 61 above, p. 70; François Emmanuel Fodéré, Traité du délire, appliqué à la médecine, à la morale et à la législation, Paris, Croullebois, 1817, vol. 1, pp. 517, 553; Gendrin, op. cit., note 54 above, pp. 10-11.
156. J E D Esquirol, Des maladies mentales considérées sous les rapports médical, hygiénique et médico-légal, Paris, Baillière, 1838, vol. 1, pp. 69-70; Taguet, op. cit., note 71 above; H Dagonet, Traité des maladies mentales, Paris, Baillière et fils, 1894, p. 157; Richard von Krafft-Ebing, Psychosis menstrualis. Eine klinischforensische Studie, Stuttgart, Enke, 1902; Menville de Ponsan, op. cit., note 61 above, p. 70; François Emmanuel Fodéré, Traité du délire, appliqué à la médecine, à la morale et à la législation, Paris, Croullebois, 1817, vol. 1, pp. 517, 553; Gendrin, op. cit., note 54 above, pp. 10-11.
157. Brierre de Boismoint, op. cit., note 69 above, p. 95; Ambroise Tardieu, Étude médicolégale sur la folie, Paris, Baillière et fils, 1872, p. 80.
158. Brierre de Boismoint, op. cit., note 69 above, p. 95; Ambroise Tardieu, Étude médicolégale sur la folie, Paris, Baillière et fils, 1872, p. 80.
159. Brierre de Boismont, op. cit., note 69 above, p. 95.
160. Eduard Krieger, Die Menstruation. Eine gynäkologische Studie, Berlin, Hirschwald, 1869, pp. 82-3, p. 86.
161. Jeannet des Longrois, op. cit., note 53 above, pp. 10-11.
162. Brierre de Boismont, op. cit., note 69 above, p. 97; according to some authors sexual desire also increased around the time of menstruation.
163. Roussel, op. cit., note 58 above.
164. Lignac op. cit., note 38 above, pp. 479-80; similarly Astruc, op. cit., note 55 above, p. 17; see also, referring primarily to complaints during the periods, Alexander Hamilton, A treatise on the management of female complaints and of children in early infancy, Edinburgh, Hill, and London, Murray, 1792, p. 131; Taguet, op. cit., note 71 above, p. 11.
165. Lignac op. cit., note 38 above, pp. 479-80; similarly Astruc, op. cit., note 55 above, p. 17; see also, referring primarily to complaints during the periods, Alexander Hamilton, A treatise on the management of female complaints and of children in early infancy, Edinburgh, Hill, and London, Murray, 1792, p. 131; Taguet, op. cit., note 71 above, p. 11.
166. Lignac op. cit., note 38 above, pp. 479-80; similarly Astruc, op. cit., note 55 above, p. 17; see also, referring primarily to complaints during the periods, Alexander Hamilton, A treatise on the management of female complaints and of children in early infancy, Edinburgh, Hill, and London, Murray, 1792, p. 131; Taguet, op. cit., note 71 above, p. 11.
167. Lignac op. cit., note 38 above, pp. 479-80; similarly Astruc, op. cit., note 55 above, p. 17; see also, referring primarily to complaints during the periods, Alexander Hamilton, A treatise on the management of female complaints and of children in early infancy, Edinburgh, Hill, and London, Murray, 1792, p. 131; Taguet, op. cit., note 71 above, p. 11.
168. Further examples are J Henry Bennet, On healthy and morbid menstruation, Lancet, 1852, i: 35-6, 65-8, 215-17, 328-9, 353-4, here pp. 65-6; S V Kaiser, Ein Regulator der weiblichen Gesundheit oder Bleichsucht, Regelstörungen und Weiβfluβ der Mädchen, Jungfrauen und Frauen nach ihrem Wesen, ihren Ursachen und ihrer homöopathischen Heilung, Delitzsch, Pabst, 1868, p. 13.
169. Further examples are J Henry Bennet, On healthy and morbid menstruation, Lancet, 1852, i: 35-6, 65-8, 215-17, 328-9, 353-4, here pp. 65-6; S V Kaiser, Ein Regulator der weiblichen Gesundheit oder Bleichsucht, Regelstörungen und Weiβfluβ der Mädchen, Jungfrauen und Frauen nach ihrem Wesen, ihren Ursachen und ihrer homöopathischen Heilung, Delitzsch, Pabst, 1868, p. 13.
170. Pinel, op. cit., note 53 above, pp. 623-4.
171. Cf. Nelly Oudshoorn, Beyond the natural body: an archaeology of sex hormones, New York and London, Routledge, 1994; for a useful contemporary survey see William P Graves, Female sex hormonology: a review, Philadelphia and London, Saunders, 1931.
172. Cf. Nelly Oudshoorn, Beyond the natural body: an archaeology of sex hormones, New York and London, Routledge, 1994; for a useful contemporary survey see William P Graves, Female sex hormonology: a review, Philadelphia and London, Saunders, 1931.
173. Frank, Female sex hormone, op. cit., note 1 above; Charles Mazer and Leopold Goldstein, Clinical endocrinology of the female, Philadelphia and London, Saunders, 1932.
174. Frank, Female sex hormone, op. cit., note 1 above; Charles Mazer and Leopold Goldstein, Clinical endocrinology of the female, Philadelphia and London, Saunders, 1932.
175. This goes against Oudshoorn's unsatisfying explanation in an otherwise very recommendable study (Oudshoorn, op. cit., note 83 above, p. 96).
176. Mary Putnam Jacobi, The question of rest for women during menstruation, New York, Putnam's Sons, 1877; Josef von Jaworski, 'Ueber den Einfluss der Menstruation auf die neuropsychische Sphäre der Frau', Wien. klin. Wochenschr. 1910, 23: 1641-3; Georgene H Seward, 'Psychological effects of the menstrual cycle on women workers', Psychol. Bull., 1944, 41: 90-102; Seward (ibid., p. 99) concluded that recognition "of the increasing need for women workers both by industry and by the women themselves is causing a rapid shift in menstrual mores and a realization that female biology in no way makes for inferiority."
177. Mary Putnam Jacobi, The question of rest for women during menstruation, New York, Putnam's Sons, 1877; Josef von Jaworski, 'Ueber den Einfluss der Menstruation auf die neuropsychische Sphäre der Frau', Wien. klin. Wochenschr. 1910, 23: 1641-3; Georgene H Seward, 'Psychological effects of the menstrual cycle on women workers', Psychol. Bull., 1944, 41: 90-102; Seward (ibid., p. 99) concluded that recognition "of the increasing need for women workers both by industry and by the women themselves is causing a rapid shift in menstrual mores and a realization that female biology in no way makes for inferiority."
178. Mary Putnam Jacobi, The question of rest for women during menstruation, New York, Putnam's Sons, 1877; Josef von Jaworski, 'Ueber den Einfluss der Menstruation auf die neuropsychische Sphäre der Frau', Wien. klin. Wochenschr. 1910, 23: 1641-3; Georgene H Seward, 'Psychological effects of the menstrual cycle on women workers', Psychol. Bull., 1944, 41: 90-102; Seward (ibid., p. 99) concluded that recognition "of the increasing need for women workers both by industry and by the women themselves is causing a rapid shift in menstrual mores and a realization that female biology in no way makes for inferiority."
179. Mary Putnam Jacobi, The question of rest for women during menstruation, New York, Putnam's Sons, 1877; Josef von Jaworski, 'Ueber den Einfluss der Menstruation auf die neuropsychische Sphäre der Frau', Wien. klin. Wochenschr. 1910, 23: 1641-3; Georgene H Seward, 'Psychological effects of the menstrual cycle on women workers', Psychol. Bull., 1944, 41: 90-102; Seward (ibid., p. 99) concluded that recognition "of the increasing need for women workers both by industry and by the women themselves is causing a rapid shift in menstrual mores and a realization that female biology in no way makes for inferiority."
180. A comparison of patient letters from the late eighteenth and the mid-nineteenth centuries (see below) is very revealing in this respect; for the "language of the nerves" see George Rousseau, 'Cultural history in a new key: towards a semiotics of the nerve', in Joan H Pittock and Andrew Wear (eds), Interpretation and cultural history, Basingstoke and London, Macmillan, 1991, pp. 25-81.
181. Maria Tobler, 'Ueber den Einfluss der Menstruation auf den Gesamtorganismus der Frau. Auf Grund von 1000 [sic] Beobachtungen', Monatsschrift für Geburtshilfe und Gynäkologie, 1905, 22: 1-45; in a further 45 cases with exclusively "local" complaints the premenstrual or intramenstrual timing is not indicated; for an English summary, see Emil Novak, Menstruation and its disorders, New York and London, Appleton, 1921, pp. 82-4.
182. Maria Tobler, 'Ueber den Einfluss der Menstruation auf den Gesamtorganismus der Frau. Auf Grund von 1000 [sic] Beobachtungen', Monatsschrift für Geburtshilfe und Gynäkologie, 1905, 22: 1-45; in a further 45 cases with exclusively "local" complaints the premenstrual or intramenstrual timing is not indicated; for an English summary, see Emil Novak, Menstruation and its disorders, New York and London, Appleton, 1921, pp. 82-4.
183. Though Richardson (op. cit., note 4 above, p. 761) wrongly denies this; see Horney, op. cit., note 2 above.
184. Though Richardson (op. cit., note 4 above, p. 761) wrongly denies this; see Horney, op. cit., note 2 above.
185. Frank, 'Premenstrual tension', op. cit., note 1 above, p. 1057.
186. The following discussion is based on my current work on various collections of letter consultations written by lay people. For this paper I have used letters addressed to Étienne François Geoffroy (1672-1731), Bibliothèque Interuniversitaire de Médecine, Paris, MSS 5241-5245 (henceforth: BIUM), to S A Tissot (1728-1797), Bibliothèque Cantonale et Universitaire de Lausanne, Fonds Tissot (henceforth: FT), and to the founder of homoeopathy, Samuel Hahnemann (1755-1843), Institut für Geschichte der Medizin der Robert Bosch Stiftung, Stuttgart (Hahnemannarchiv, henceforth: HA), Bestand B and C.
187. P N Glinel, Sur l'âge critique des femmes, MD thesis, Paris, Didot, 1818.
188. Édouard de Massia, Âge critique chez la femme, Montpellier, Boehm, 1851, p. 19 (cit.); Fothergill, op. cit., note 63 above, p. 163.
189. Édouard de Massia, Âge critique chez la femme, Montpellier, Boehm, 1851, p. 19 (cit.); Fothergill, op. cit., note 63 above, p. 163.
190. FT, letter from Mme du Neville, 15 Jan. 1774.
191. Guillaume Mauquest de la Motte, Traité complet des accouchemens naturels, non naturels, et contre nature, Paris, L d'Houry, 1702, pp. 71-2.
192. An early example is in Sächsische Landesund Universitätsbibliothek Dresden, MS C 457 (c. fifteenth century), 'Aller handt sehr nützliches vnndt propierte Recept für Schwangere vnndt gebehrende Frawen', fols. 18v-19r: "Die weibliche Kranckheit zue pringen."
193. FT, letter from the patient's husband, the Marquis d'Aglie, 6 Nov. 1776.
194. FT, letter from the patient, 17 Dec. 1783, illegible signature.
195. Recent research shows significant differences in the outcome of retrospective and prospective subjective assessments of menstrual complaints; cf. Jessica McFarlane, et al., 'Mood fluctuations: women versus men and menstrual versus other cycles', Psychology of Women Quarterly, 1988, 12: 201-23.
196. Reinhard Hickmann, Das psorische Leiden der Antonie Volkmann. Edition und Kommentar einer Krankengeschichte aus Hahnemanns Krankenjournalen von 1819-1831, Heidelberg, Haug, 1996, pp. 352-92, 374 (cit.), 389.
197. FT, letters from the patient, Mme Viton, and her husband, 25 March and 6 June 1775.
198. Bayerische Staatsbibliothek Munich, 4 L.impr. n. MSS 57, printed calendar with manuscript entries on the Elector's family's state of health, presumably by their personal physician.
199. FT, letter from the patient, 21 Feb. 1785.
200. FT, letter from the patient, 1 March 1767.
201. Jean Louis Baudelocque, L'art des accouchemens, Paris, Méquignon, 1781, vol. 1, pp. 102-3.
202. HA B 33349, diary of Emma von Hedemann, entry for 18 Feb. 1835.
203. BIUM MS 5245, fols. 263r-264v, unsigned letter, probably from a friend of the patient's family, 11 Nov. 1729.
204. BIUM MS 5241, fols. 162r-165v, unsigned letter, possibly from the patient's physician, June 1729; FT, letter from Mme Ostervald, 29 Jan. 1784; FT, undated letter from the thirty-year-old Countess de Balon (?); HA B 34083, letter from a patient's husband, W Grosse, 1 Jan. 1834.
205. FT, letter from the patient, Mme la présidente de Verthamon, 6 Jan. 1777.
206. FT, letter from the patient, 15 Jan. 1774.
207. HA B 32250 Hahnemann's notes on a personal consultation by Christiane Rennicken, 1832; the German words "Zusammenklumpen des ganzen Bauches" connote contractions as well as some kind of a lump.
208. FT, letters from Mme Viton and her husband, 25 March and 6 Sep. 1775.
209. FT, letter from the patient, Mme de Vury, 2 Apr. 1774.
210. BIUM MS 5244, fols. 130r-133r, letter from her physician, 28 June 1729.
211. BIUM MS 5245, fols. 187r-188r, undated letter, possibly from a relative.
212. FT, letter from the patient, 26 June 1793, illegible signature.
213. BIUM 5241, undated letter from the patient's sister, Mme Doyen of Strasbourg.
214. BIUM MS 5244, fols. 139r-140v, undated letter concerning an unnamed 22-year-old, probably written by the patient herself.
215. FT, letter from the patient, 29 Jan. 1784; she also suffered from irregular bleeding between her periods, and was convinced that the menstrual blood loss contributed to her weakness.
216. FT, undated letter from the patient, Mme de ChancrierC?).
217. HA C 9,3, letter from Mme de Fontenay concerning her daughter.
218. Cf. Barbara Duden, The woman beneath the skin: a doctor's patients in eighteenth-century Germany, Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press, 1991; Crawford, op. cit., note 21 above; Ulinka Rublack, 'Pregnancy, childbirth and the female body in early modern Germany', Past and Present, 1996, 150: 84-110. Though recipe books are often somewhat mistakenly called "popular" they are primarily found among the literate middle and upper classes.
219. Cf. Barbara Duden, The woman beneath the skin: a doctor's patients in eighteenth-century Germany, Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press, 1991; Crawford, op. cit., note 21 above; Ulinka Rublack, 'Pregnancy, childbirth and the female body in early modern Germany', Past and Present, 1996, 150: 84-110. Though recipe books are often somewhat mistakenly called "popular" they are primarily found among the literate middle and upper classes.
220. Cf. Barbara Duden, The woman beneath the skin: a doctor's patients in eighteenth-century Germany, Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press, 1991; Crawford, op. cit., note 21 above; Ulinka Rublack, 'Pregnancy, childbirth and the female body in early modern Germany', Past and Present, 1996, 150: 84-110. Though recipe books are often somewhat mistakenly called "popular" they are primarily found among the literate middle and upper classes.
221. Brierre de Boismont, op. cit., note 69 above, pp. 77-117; in 80 cases with general symptoms no exact temporal relationship between them and the onset of menstruation was established. The class composition of the sample is not well identified but the study seems to have been done among the predominantly poor inmates of the Paris hospitals, where Brierre was working.
222. Tobler, op. cit., note 88 above; the figure includes those whose symptoms continued during menstruation; Tobler distinguished working-class from upper-class women and from women without a profession; Tobler's figures for the "upper-class" patients did not differ significantly, except for the small group of women (71 out of 1020) whose well-being improved with menstruation: only 4 per cent of working-class women but a remarkable 30 per cent of upper-class women reported this positive experience.
223. For an even earlier account of the signs of an approaching menstruation but possibly referring primarily to menarche, see Soranos of Ephesos, Maladies des femmes, French and Greek text, vol. 1, ed. Paul Burguière, Danielle Gourevitch and Yves Malinas, Paris, Les belles lettres, 1988, pp. 15-29.
224. Cf. Oudshoorn, op. cit., note 83 above.
225. Hamilton, op. cit., note 80 above, p. 131. Fothergill, op. cit, note 63 above, p. 184; Merat, op. cit., note 60 above; Saucerotte, op. cit., note 56 above, p. 47.
226. Hamilton, op. cit., note 80 above, p. 131. Fothergill, op. cit, note 63 above, p. 184; Merat, op. cit., note 60 above; Saucerotte, op. cit., note 56 above, p. 47.
227. Hamilton, op. cit., note 80 above, p. 131. Fothergill, op. cit, note 63 above, p. 184; Merat, op. cit., note 60 above; Saucerotte, op. cit., note 56 above, p. 47.
228. Hamilton, op. cit., note 80 above, p. 131. Fothergill, op. cit, note 63 above, p. 184; Merat, op. cit., note 60 above; Saucerotte, op. cit., note 56 above, p. 47.
229. Loudell F Snow and Shirley M Johnson, 'Modern day menstrual folklore', J. Am. med. Ass., 1977, 237: 2736-9; Yvonne Verdier, Façons de dire, façons de faire. La laveuse, la couturière, la cuisinière, Paris, Gallimard, 1979.
230. Loudell F Snow and Shirley M Johnson, 'Modern day menstrual folklore', J. Am. med. Ass., 1977, 237: 2736-9; Yvonne Verdier, Façons de dire, façons de faire. La laveuse, la couturière, la cuisinière, Paris, Gallimard, 1979.
231. Da Monte, op. cit., note 32 above, p. 738.
232. Tobler, op. cit., note 88 above, pp. 40-2.
233. See Michael Stolberg, 'A woman's hell? Medical perceptions of menopause in preindustrial Europe', Bull. Hist. Med., 1999, 73: 404-28.
234. A point well made by Gail Kern Paster, The body embarrassed: drama and the disciplines of shame in early modern England, Ithaca, Cornell University Press, 1993.
235. FT, letter from Mme Du Neville, 15 Jan. 1774.
236. HA C 9,3, letter from the patient's mother.
237. Susan Sontaa, Illness as metaphor, London, Allen Lane, 1979.
238. Cf. Arthur and Joan Kleinman, 'Somatization: the interconnections in Chinese society among culture, depressive experiences, and meanings of pain', in A Kleinman and B Good (eds), Culture and depression: studies in the anthropology and cross-cultural psychiatry of affect and disorder, Berkeley, University of California Press, 1985, pp. 429-90.