'Speaking together openly, honestly and profoundly': Men and women as public intellectuals in early-twentieth-century France

Gender and History

Volumn 26, Issue 1, 2014, Pages 36-51

  Pedersen, Jean Elisabeth ^a  

^a NONE

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE; HISTORICAL GEOGRAPHY; SOCIAL HISTORY; TWENTIETH CENTURY; WOMENS STATUS;

FRANCE;

EID: 84896116932     PISSN: 09535233     EISSN: 14680424     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1111/1468-0424.12050     Document Type: Article

References (122)

1. Paul Desjardins, 'Avant-Propos', Libres entretiens (1904-05), p. 1.
2. See e.g., François Beilecke, Französische Intellektuelle und dieDritte Republik:Das Beispiel einer Intellektuellenassoziation (Frankfurt: Campus Verlag, 2003)
3. François Chaubet, Paul Desjardins et les décades de Pontigny (Villeneuve d'Ascq: Presses universitaires du Septentrion, 2000). Jacques Julliard and Michel Winock's biographical dictionary of French intellectuals contains entries for Paul Desjardins and twentyseven of his male Union colleagues, but the only Union woman in the dictionary is Cécile Brunschvicg.
4. See Jacques Julliard and Michel Winock (eds), Dictionnaire des intellectuels français, nouvelle édition, rédigée et augmentée (Paris: Seuil, 2002). On the under-representation of women in histories of the French intellectual past more generally, see Sylvie Chaperon, 'Beauvoir à la croisée de l'histoire des femmes et des intellectuels', in Nicole Racine and Michel Trebitsch (eds), Intellectuelles: Du genre en histoire des intellectuels (Paris: Éditions complexe, 2004), pp. 115-33, esp. pp. 118-20 also notes 4 and 6 below.
5. See Racine and Trebitsch (eds), Intellectuelles
6. Françoise Blum and Muriel Loosfelt (eds), Figures d'intellectuelles, special issue of Mil neuf cent: Revue d'histoire intellectuelle 16 (1998)
7. FlorenceRochefort and Mathilde Dubesset (eds), Intellectuelles, special issue of Clio: histoire, femmes, et sociétés 13 (2001)
8. Anne R. Epstein, 'Gender, Intellectual Sociability, and Political Culture in the French Third Republic, 1890-1914' (unpublished doctoral thesis, Indiana University, 2004)
9. Anne R. Epstein, 'Gender and the Creation of the French Intellectual: The Case of the Revue de morale sociale, 1899-1903', in Kevin J. Callahan and Sarah A. Curtis (eds), Views from the Margins? Creating Identities in Modern France (Omaha: University of Nebraska Press, 2008), pp. 218-50
10. Anne R. Epstein, 'Women on the Margins? Intellectual Sociability and Citizenship in Belle Époque France', International Review of Sociology: Revue internationale de sociologie 20 (2010), pp. 273-90
11. Anne R. Epstein, 'Gender and the Rise of the Female Expert during the Belle Époque', Histoire@Politique: Politique, culture, société 14 (2011), .
12. See e.g., Chaubet, Paul Desjardins et les Décades de Pontigny
13. Anne Heurgon-Desjardins (ed.), Paul Desjardins et les Décades de Pontigny: études, témoignages et documents inédits (Paris: Presses universitaires de France, 1964)
14. François Chaubet, Edith Heurgon and Claire Paulhan (eds), S.I.E.C.L.E., colloque de Cerisy: Cent ans de rencontres intellectuelles de Pontigny à Cerisy (Paris: Éditions de l'IMEC, 2005)
15. Sylvain Allemand, Edith Heurgon and Claire Paulhan (eds), De Pontigny à Cerisy: Des lieux pour 'penser ensemble' (Paris: Éditions Hermann, 2011).
16. See Anne-Marie Duranton-Crabol, Nicole Racine and Rémy Rieffel (eds), Pontigny, Royaumont, Cerisy: Au miroir du genre (n.p.: Éditions le Manuscrit, 2008)
17. Christopher Benfey and Karen Remmler (eds), Artists, Intellectuals, and World War II: The Pontigny Encounters at Mount Holyoke College, 1942-1944 (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 2006).
18. Glenda K. McLeod (ed.), The Reception of Christine de Pizan from the Fifteenth through the Nineteenth Centuries (Lewiston, NY: Edwin Mellen Press, 1991). On the life, work and legacy of Ban Zhao, see Harriet Zurndorfer, 'Women in Chinese Learned Culture: Complexities, Exclusivities and Connecting Narratives', Gender & History 26 (2014), pp. 23-35
19. SusanMann, Precious Records:Women in China's Long Eighteenth Century (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1997). On the complex pattern of apparent similarities and, more importantly, significant differences between the European and Chinese settings in the pertinent historical periods, however, see Mann, Precious Records, pp. 1-18, esp. pp. 8-17.
20. See e.g., Marie d'Agoult's advice to Juliette Adam on the proper proportion of men to women in a political salon: 'twenty male friends and five female friends', quoted in Sylvie Aprile, 'Bourgeoise et républicaine: deux termes inconciliables?', in Alain Corbin et al. (eds), Femmes dans la cité, 1815-1871 (Grâne: Éditions Créaphis, 1997), pp. 211-23, here p. 220. For one introduction to current debates over how to assess the significance of the salon, see StevenD.Kale, 'Women, the Public Sphere, and the Persistence of the Salons', French Historical Studies 25 (2002), pp. 115-48. On nineteenth-century salons more specifically, see Sylvie Aprile, 'La République au salon: Vie et mort d'une forme de sociabilité politique (1865-1895)', La Revue d'histoire moderne et contemporaine 38 (1991), pp. 473-87
21. Anne Martin-Fugier, La Vie élégante: La formation du Tout-Paris, 1815-1848 (Paris: Fayard, 1990)
22. Anne Martin-Fugier, 'Les Cercles, clubs, et salons', in Vincent Duclert and Christophe Prochasson (eds), Le Dictionnaire critique de la République (Paris: Flammarion, 2002), pp. 475-80
23. Anne Martin-Fugier, Les Salons de la Troisième République: Art, littérature, politique (Paris: Perrin, 2009)
24. Pascal Ory, 'Le Salon', in Jean-François Sirinelli (ed.), L'Histoire des droites en France, vol. 2, Cultures (Paris: Gallimard, 1992), pp. 113-27.
25. See Louis-Henri Parias (ed.), L'Histoire générale de l'enseignement et de l'éducation en France (Paris: Nouvelle Librairie de France, 1981), esp. vol. 3: FrançoiseMayeur, De la Révolution àl'école républicaine (1789-1930), chs. 2, 9, 10.
26. See Françoise Mayeur, L'éducation des filles en France au XIXe siècle (Paris: Perrin, 2008)
27. Rebecca Rogers, Les Bourgeoises au pensionnat: L'éducation féminine au XIXe siècle (Rennes: Presses universitaires de Rennes, 2007)
28. Jo Burr Margadant, Madame le Professeur: Women Educators in the Third Republic (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1990).
29. See Linda Clark, Women and Achievement in Nineteenth-Century Europe (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2008), p. 187
30. Jean François Condette, '"Les Cervelines", ou les femmes indésirables: L'étudiante dans la France des années 1880-1914', Carrefours de l'éducation 15 (2003), pp. 38-61
31. Carole Lécuyer, 'Une nouvelle figure de la jeune fille sous la IIIe République: l'étudiante', Clio: Histoire, femmes et sociétés 4 (1996), pp. 166-76
32. Pierre Moulinier, La Naissance de l'étudiant moderne (XIXe siècle) (Paris: Belin, 2002), esp. pp. 69-86
33. Michelle Zancarini-Fournel, Histoire des femmes en France: XIXe-XXe siècles (Rennes: Presses universitaires de Rennes, 2005), pp. 108-11. On women's similarly improving place in the allied liberal professions of medicine and law, see further Clark,Women and Achievement in Nineteenth-Century Europe, esp. chs. 5-6
34. Julie Fette, 'Pride and Prejudice in the Professions: Women Doctors and Lawyers in Third Republic France', Journal of Women's History 19 (2007), pp. 60-86
35. Marynel Ryan, 'Different Paths to the Public: European Women, Educational Opportunity, and Expertise, 1890-1930', Continuity and Change 19 (2004), pp. 367-86
36. Marynel Ryan Van Zee, 'Women's Way to the Professions: a European Perspective', contribution to the web-feature 'European History - Gender History', in Themenportal Europäische Geschichte (2009), .
37. Marie Curie shared her 1903 Nobel Prize in Physics with Pierre Curie and Henri Becquerel. In 1911, she received the Nobel Prize in Chemistry on her own. This dual achievement has made her not only the first woman to receive a Nobel Prize but also the only woman so far to receive two Nobel Prizes. On the significance of gender as a factor in the determination of who should receive these prestigious awards, see Marika Hedin, 'A Prize for Grumpy Old Men? Reflections on the Lack of Female Nobel Laureates', Gender & History 26 (2014), pp. 52-63.
38. See Susan Quinn, Marie Curie: A Life (Reading: Perseus Books, 1995), pp. 273-94
39. quoted phrase from Monsieur Bétolaud's 4 January 1911 speech to the Institut de France, quoted in Quinn, Marie Curie, p. 286.
40. SeeMargadant, Madame le Professeur, pp. 249-72
41. KarenM. Offen, 'The Second Sex and the Baccalauréat in Republican France, 1880-1924', French Historical Studies 13 (1983), pp. 252-86.
42. See Condette, 'Les Cervelines'.
43. Marguerite Perey, who discovered the last natural radioactive element in 1939 and named it Francium in 1946, had already won admission to the Académie des sciences in 1962, but only as a corresponding member. See Quinn, Marie Curie, pp. 403, 406
44. Jean-Pierre Adloff and George B. Kauffman, 'Francium (Atomic Number 87), the Last Discovered Natural Element', Chemical Educator 10 (2005), pp. 387-94
45. Jean-Pierre Adloff and George B. Kauffman, 'Triumph over Prejudice: the Election of Radiochemist Marguerite Perey (1909-1975) to the Académie des sciences', Chemical Educator 10 (2005), pp. 395-9.
46. On the French women writers of the fin de siècle and the Belle Époque, see Margaret Cohen, The Sentimental Education of the Novel (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1999)
47. Alison Finch, Women's Writing in Nineteenth-Century France (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000)
48. Diana Holmes, French Women's Writing, 1848-1994 (London: Athlone Press, 1996)
49. Diana Holmes, Romance and Readership in Twentieth-Century France (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2006)
50. Diana Holmes and Carrie Tarr (eds), A 'Belle époque'? Women in French Society and Culture, 1890-1914 (New York: Berghahn Books, 2007)
51. Rachel Mesch, The Hysteric's Revenge: French Women Writers at the Fin de Siècle (Nashville: Vanderbilt University Press, 2006)
52. JulietteM. Rogers, Career Stories: Belle époque Novels of Professional Development (University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 2007)
53. Timothy Unwin (ed.), The Cambridge Companion to the French Novel: From 1800 to the Present (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997)
54. Jennifer Waelti-Walters, Feminist Novelists of the Belle époque: Love as a Lifestyle (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1990).
55. See Judith Walkowitz, City of Dreadful Delight: Narratives of Sexual Danger in Late-Victorian London (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992), pp. 135-70
56. Marynel Ryan Van Zee, 'Shifting Foundations: Women Economists in the Weimar Republic', Women's History Review 18 (2009), pp. 97-119.
57. André Lalande, 'Philosophy in France (1905)', Philosophical Review 15 (1906), pp. 241-66, here p. 262
58. Jean Dietz, M. Paul Desjardins (Paris: L'Artisan du livre, 1930), p. 66.
59. See Pour nos enfants: Petit bulletin dans l'esprit de l'Union (1897-1905) 'Compte rendu de la réunion générale du 2 octobre', Bulletin de l'Union pour l'action morale, 15 September 1897, pp. 472-5, here p. 475.
60. Liste des membres de l'Union (Paris: Union pour la vérité, 1908).
61. See ' Élections', Correspondance de l'Union pour la vérité (January-May 1906), pp. 31-5 'Comité d'administration', in Liste des membres de l'Union, pp. 56-60.
62. The remaining ten included the general secretary of the Ligue sociale d'acheteurs de France, representatives of the Cercle amicitia and the Mutualité Maintenon, a Protestant missionary in Madagascar, a children's hospital doctor in Italy, a hospital director, two countesses and two baronesses. See Liste des membres de l'Union, pp. 1-55.
63. See Libres entretiens (1904-13, 1918-19) Correspondance de l'Union pour la vérité (1913-14).
64. See Libres entretiens (1904-13, 1918-19).
65. On Cécile Brunschvicg, see further Cécile Formaglio, 'Le Féminisme de Cécile Brunschvicg (1877-1946)', (DEA, École des chartes, 2006) on Pauline Kergomard, Linda Clark, The Rise of Professional Women in France: Gender and Public Administration since 1830 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000), esp. ch. 2.
66. On Louise Compain, see Sandrine Roll, 'De la ménagère parfaite à la consommatrice engagée: histoire culturelle de la ménagère nouvelle en France au tournant des XIXe-XXe siècles' (unpublished doctoral thesis, UniversitéMarc Bloch, Strasbourg II, 2008), esp. pp. 510-33 and, on Compain's literary work, note 31 below.
67. See Libres entretiens (1904-13, 1918-19). On French feminism generally, see Steven Hause with Anne R. Kenney, Women's Suffrage and Social Politics in the French Third Republic (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1984)
68. Laurence Klejmann and Florence Rochefort, L'égaliteÉn marche: le féminisme sous la Troisième République (Paris: Presses de la Fondation nationale des sciences politiques et des femmes, 1989)
69. Christine Bard, Les Filles de Marianne: Histoire des féminismes, 1914-1940 (Paris: Librairie Arthème Fayard, 1995)
70. Karen Offen, European Feminisms, 1700-1950 (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2000).
71. While less than 10 per cent of the active men appeared without organisational or occupational information, however, roughly 20 per cent of the active women appeared without such identifying information.
72. On Compain's literary work, see Rogers, Career Stories, esp. pp. 99-111, 220
73. Roll, 'De la ménagère parfaite à la consommatrice engagée', esp. pp. 526-33
74. Waelti-Walters, Feminist Novelists, esp. pp. 97-9, 126-37.
75. On Simone Bodève, see Henry Poulaille, Le Nouvel âge littéraire (1930 Bassac: Plein Chant, 1986) Waelti-Walters, Feminist Novelists, pp. 92-7, 187.
76. On Augusta Moll-Weiss, see also Roll, 'De la ménagère parfaite à la consommatrice engagée', esp. pp. 286-321
77. Sandrine Roll, '"Ni bas bleu, ni pot-au-feu": La conception de "la" femme selon Augusta Moll-Weiss (France, tournant des XIXe-XXe siècles)', Genre et histoire [Online] 5 (2009), .
78. The government's Extra-parliamentary Commission on the Morals Police is particularly important because it was the first such commission to include a female member, the noted feminist Ghénia Avril de Sainte Croix. See further Andrea Mansker, Sex, Honor, and Citizenship in Early Third Republic France (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2011), esp. pp. 207-225
79. Jill Harsin, Policing Prostitution in Nineteenth- Century Paris (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1985), esp. pp. 330-34 and, on French attitudes toward prostitution more generally, Alain Corbin, Women for Hire: Prostitution and Sexuality in France after 1850, tr. Alan Sheridan (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1990)
80. Charles Bernheimer, Figures of Ill Repute: Representing Prostitution in Nineteenth-Century France (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1990).
81. See Hause with Kenney, Women's Suffrage and Social Politics, pp. 132-6.
82. See Epstein, 'Gender, Intellectual Sociability, and Political Culture in the French Third Republic' Epstein, 'Gender and the Creation of the French Intellectual'.
83. See Libres entretiens (1904-13) Correspondance de l'Union pour la vérité (1913-14).
84. See Libres entretiens (1908-09, 1909-10).
85. See Augusta Moll-Weiss, Gustave Belot and Jean Jaurès, in 'Après la Séparation: La famille', Libres entretiens 1 (1904-05), pp. 509-60, esp. pp. 545-7.
86. See Émile Durkheim, Louise Compain, Simone Bodève, Jeanne Chambon, Hélène Porgès and Paul Desjardins, in 'Mariage et divorce', Libres entretiens 5 (1908-09), pp. 241-303, esp. pp. 258-9, 261-73, 277- 83, 293, 303 and, for further analysis, Jean Elisabeth Pedersen, 'Sexual Politics in Comte and Durkheim: Feminism, History, and the Social Scientific Canon', Signs: A Journal of Women in Culture and Society 27 (2001), pp. 229-63.
87. See Ferdinand Buisson and Paul Desjardins, in ' Égalité electoral et suffrage des femmes', Libres entretiens 6 (1909-1910), pp. 53-105, esp. pp. 96-105.
88. The characterisation is Robert Nye's. See Robert Alun Nye, Crime, Madness, and Politics in Modern France: The Medical Concept of National Decline (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1984), pp. 139-40. On the gender dimensions of the depopulation debates, see especially Karen M. Offen, 'Depopulation, Nationalism, and Feminism in Fin-de-Siècle France', American Historical Review 89 (1984), pp. 648-76
89. Rachel G. Fuchs (ed.), 'Forum: Population and the State in the Third Republic', French Historical Studies 19 (1996), pp. 633-754
90. Joshua H. Cole, The Power of Large Numbers: Population, Politics, and Gender in Nineteenth-Century France (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2000)
91. Jean Elisabeth Pedersen, Legislating the French Family: Feminism, Theater, and Republican Politics, 1870-1920 (New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 2003), esp. ch. 6
92. Mary Louise Roberts, Civilization without Sexes: Reconstructing Gender in Post-War France (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1994), esp. ch. 4.
93. See Charles Gide, Anatole Leroy-Beaulieu, Cécile Brunschvicg, Louise Compain and Hélène Porges, 'Causes de l'état stationnaire de la population française', Libres entretiens 7 (1910-11), pp. 23-50, esp. pp. 40-42.
94. Louise Compain, in 'Remèdes d'ordremorale', Libres entretiens 7 (1910-11), pp. 187-234, esp. pp. 221-2 Libres entretiens 8 (1911-12).
95. See David Steel, 'Femmes à Pontigny: Voix anglo-américaines', in Duranton-Crabol, Racine and Rieffel (eds), Pontigny, Royaumont, Cerisy, pp. 17-44, here p. 20
96. François Beilecke, 'L'Union pour la vérité pendant l'entre deux guerres', in Chaubet, Heurgon and Paulhan (eds), S.I.E.C.L.E., pp. 39-54.
97. See Louise Compain, 'L'Union pour la vérité', Progrès civique, 3 January 1931, pp. 9-10, excerpted in 'Parmi nos lettres: deux courants', Bulletin de l'Union pour la vérité (February-March 1931), pp. 95-102, excerpt on pp. 96-7.
98. See 'Parmi nos lettres: deux courants', Bulletin de l'Union pour la vérité (February-March 1931), p. 96, n. 1.
99. See e.g., Christophe Charle, La Naissance des 'intellectuels', 1880-1900 (Paris: Éditions du Minuit, 1990)
100. Jean-François Sirinelli, Intellectuels et passions françaises: Manifestes et pétitions au XXe siècle (Paris: Fayard, 1990).
101. See Christian Topolov (ed.), Laboratoires du nouveau siècle: La nébuleuse réformatrice et ses réseaux en France, 1880-1914 (Paris: Éditions de l' École des hautes études en sciences sociales, 1999), esp. pp. 109-10, 223-4, 232-3, 346, 353.
102. See note 4 above, especially Epstein, 'Gender and the Rise of the Female Expert'.
103. See Roll, 'De la ménagère parfaite à la consommatrice engagée', pp. 27, 80, 220, 286-7, 299, 537 Roll, 'Ni bas bleu, ni pot-au-feu' and, on women at the Musée social more generally, Françoise Blum and Janet Horne (eds), Féminisme et Musée social (1916-1939), special issue of Vie sociale 8-9 (1988). On Henriette Brunhes, see Marie-Emmanuelle Chessel, Consommateurs à la Belle époque: La Ligue sociale des acheteurs (Paris: Presses de la Fondation nationale des sciences politique, 2012) Roll, 'De la ménagère parfaite à la consommatrice engagée', esp. pp. 534-603.
104. See Roll, 'De la ménagère parfaite à la consommatrice engagée', esp. pp. 465-95 510-33 544-50.
105. See Formaglio, 'Le Féminisme de Cécile Brunschvicg'
106. Jean Elisabeth Pedersen, '"To Make Universal Suffrage Even MoreUniversal":Cécile Brunschvicg, the Union for Truth, and the French Fight forWomen's Suffrage in 1909', unpublished paper, Society for French Historical Studies, 2010.
107. See 'Actes de l'Association', Correspondance (January-May 1906), pp. 7-35, here p. 9
108. Entretiens de Pontigny, p. 14, quoted in Steel, 'Femmes à Pontigny', p. 17.
109. See Elizabeth Shepley Sergeant, 'A Modern Coenobium', in Elizabeth Shepley Sergeant, French Perspectives (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1916), pp. 197-214 Steel, 'Femmes à Pontigny', pp. 25, 36-9
110. David Steel, 'Document: "Amodern coenobium", le Pontigny d'Elizabeth Shepley Sergeant', inDuranton-Crabol, Racine and Rieffel (eds), Pontigny, Royaumont, Cerisy, pp. 43-6.
111. See e.g., the contributions to Heurgon-Desjardins (ed.), Paul Desjardins et les Décades de Pontigny.While Louise Compain remembered that teachers, and especially female teachers, had constituted the majority of the membership at the Union pour l'action morale in its earliest years, she also implied that women were markedly less present both in the Union pour la vérité and at the Open Conversations. See Compain, 'L'Union pour la vérité', p. 10.
112. See note 9 above.
113. Steel, 'Femmes à Pontigny', pp. 21-3. See also Claire Paulhan, 'Femmes photographiés et femmes photographes à Pontigny', in Duranton-Crabol, Racine and Rieffel (eds), Pontigny, Royaumont, Cerisy, pp.119-43.
114. On the complex patterns of conversation and correspondance at Pontigny, see Steel, 'Femmes à Pontigny' Paulhan, 'Femmes photographiés et femmes photographes à Pontigny'
115. Gaby Sonnabend, 'AlineMayrisch et Andrée Viennot: Deux Luxembourgeoises à Pontigny', in Duranton-Crabol, Racine and Rieffel (eds), Pontigny, Royaumont, Cerisy, pp. 63-84
116. Nicole Racine, 'Anne Heurgon-Desjardins de Pontigny à Cerisy', in Duranton-Crabol, Racine and Rieffel (eds), Pontigny, Royaumont, Cerisy, pp. 85-117.
117. See e.g., on his participation in the 1912 debate over sex education, Jean Elisabeth Pedersen, '"Something Mysterious": Sex Education, Victorian Morality, and Durkheim's Comparative Social Science', Journal of the History of the Behavioral Sciences 34 (1998), pp. 135-51
118. Pedersen, 'Durkheim et l'éducation sexuelle', in Florence Rochefort (ed.), Le Pouvoir du genre: Laïcités et religions 1905-2005 (Toulouse: Presses universitaires du Mirail, 2007), pp. 111-26.
119. Anne Epstein makes a similar point here when she compares Durkheim's Année sociologique to his competitor René Worms's Société de sociologie de Paris. See Epstein, 'Women on the Margins?' pp. 276-7.
120. See Pedersen, 'Sexual Politics in Comte and Durkheim'. I am developing this point further in '"What is this Rule?" Social Science, Social Novels, and Social Reform in the Belle Époque of Émile Durkheim', an article in progress.
121. For one introduction to these issues, see Jean Elisabeth Pedersen, 'Confronting the Canon in the Classroom: Approaches to Teaching the Significance ofWomen, Sex, and Gender in theWork of Émile Durkheim', in Terry Godlove (ed.), Teaching Durkheim (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005), pp. 187-212.
122. Anne-Marie Duranton-Crabol, 'Introduction', in Duranton-Crabol, Racine and Rieffel (eds), Pontigny, Royaumont, Cerisy, pp. 13-16, here p. 13.