The battle for the mind: War and peace in the era of mass communication

The Battle for the Mind: War and Peace in the Era of Mass Communication

Volumn , Issue , 2011, Pages 1-293

  Messinger, Gary S ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF MASSACHUSETTS BOSTON   (United States)

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EID: 84895574856     PISSN: None     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book    
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References (565)

1. John Hohenberg, Foreign Correspondence: The Great Reporters and Their Times (New York: Columbia University Press, 1964), 10.
2. On Napoleon, see Philip M. Taylor, Munitions of the Mind: A History of Propaganda from the Ancient World to the Present Day, 3rd ed. (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2003), 153-57. On Wellington
3. see Antony Brett-James, ed., Wel - lington at War, 1794-1815: A Selection of his War time Letters (London: Macmillan, 1961).
4. For an exploration of the origins and changing meaning of this widely used word, see Asa Briggs, "The Language of 'Mass' and 'Masses' in Nineteenth-Century England", in Collected Essays of Asa Briggs: Words, Numbers, Places, People (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1988), 34-54.
5. On Northcliffe, see Gary S. Messinger, British Propaganda and the State in the First World War (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1992), 144-61.
6. On yellow journalism, see David Nasaw, The Chief: The Life of William Randolph Hearst (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 2000)
7. and W. A. Swanberg, Pulitzer (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1967).
8. For an informative discussion of the emergence of public opinion in the newly expanding cities, see Hans Speier, "The Rise of Public Opinion", in Propaganda, ed. Robert Jackall (New York: New York University Press, 1995), 26-46.
9. For analysis of the growing importance of the urban press, see Peter Fritzsche, Reading Berlin 1900 (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1996)
10. with its extensive list of citations regarding research in this field. For additional information on journalism in Berlin around the turn to the twentieth century, see Gerhard Masur, Imperial Berlin (New York: Dorset Press, 1970), esp. 60-70, 69-73, and 173-87.
11. Useful discussions of the press before 1914 are Stephen Koss, The Rise and Fall of the Political Press in Britain: The Nineteenth Century (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1981)
12. and The Rise and Fall of the Political Press in Britain II: The Twentieth Century (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1984);
13. and Alan J. Lee, The Origins of the Popular Press, 1855-1914 (London: Croom Helm, 1976).
14. For extensive statistical information about the press in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, see the article "Newspapers" in Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th ed. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1910-1911), 19:544-81.
15. Hohenberg, Foreign Correspondence, 62.
16. Phillip Knightley, The First Casualty: From the Crimea to Vietnam; The War Correspondent as Hero, Propagandist, and Myth Maker (New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1975), 20-39;
17. Drew Gilpin Faust, This Republic of Suffering: Death and the American Civil War (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2008).
18. An invaluable study of the relationship of the press to the state's sphere in making war and peace is Oron J. Hale, Publicity and Diplomacy, with Special Reference to England and Germany, 1890-1914 (New York: D. Appleton Company, 1940).
19. David Ayerst, The Manchester Guardian: Biography of a Newspaper (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1971), 273-86.
20. Knightley, First Casualty, 67-69.
21. Jacqueline Beaumont, "The British Press during the South African War: The Sieges of Mafeking, Kimberley and Ladysmith", in War and the Media: Reportage and Propaganda, 1900-2003, ed. Mark Connelly and David Welch (London: I. B. Taurus, 2005), 1-18.
22. Knightley, First Casualty, 66-78.
23. I. F. Clarke, Voices Prophesying War, 1763-1984 (London: Oxford University Press, 1966);
24. John A. Hobson, The Psychology of Jingoism (London: Grant Richards, 1901);
25. Paul M. Kennedy, The Rise of the Anglo-German Antagonism, 1860-1914 (1980; London: Ashfield Press, 1987);
26. and Anthony Morris, The Scaremongers: The Advocacy of War and Rearmament, 1896-1914 (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1984).
27. See the seminal analysis by Asa Briggs, "The Communications Revolution", in Serious Pursuits: Communications and Education, vol. 3, The Collected Essays of Asa Briggs (London: Harvester Wheatsheaf, 1991), 62-76.
28. Also very informative is Anthony Smith, The Newspaper: An International History (London: Thames and Hudson, 1979.
29. Stephen Kern, The Culture of Time and Space, 1880-1918 (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1983), 258-77.
30. Quotations from Edward Timms, Karl Kraus: Apocalyptic Satirist (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1986)
31. cited in Niall Ferguson, The Pity of War (New York: Basic Books, 1999), 240-41.
32. Quoted in Gary S. Messinger, British Propaganda and the State in the First World War (Manchester and New York: Manchester University Press/St. Martin's Press, 1992), 189-90.
33. Quoted in M. L. Sanders and Philip M. Taylor, British Propaganda during the First World War, 1914-1918 (London: Macmillan, 1982), 211.
34. Prewar press relations are discussed in Harold J. Hanham, Elections and Party Management: Politics in the Time of Disraeli and Gladstone (1959; Brighton: Harvester Press, 1978);
35. and Basil Kingsley Martin, The Triumph of Lord Palmerston (London: Allen and Unwin, 1924).
36. The increasing role of government in manipulating public opinion is discussed in Messinger, British Propagada;
37. and Sanders and Taylor, British Propaganda during the First World War. For a cata logue of definitions and varied usages of the term "propaganda"
38. see Nicholas J. Cull, David Culbert, and David Welch, Propaganda and Mass Persuasion: A Historical Encyclopedia, 1500 to the Present (Santa Barbara: ABC-Clio, 2003), 317-23.
39. Marc Ferro, The Great War, 1914-1918 (London: Routledge, 2001), 111-12.
40. Quoted in Harold Lasswell, Propaganda Technique in World War I (1927; Cambridge: MIT Press, 1971), 32.
41. German propaganda is analyzed in Lasswell, Propaganda Technique, esp. 22-24 and 32-36.
42. Quoted in Ferguson, Pity of War, 212-13.
43. Bethmann Hollweg quoted in Bernadotte C. Schmitt and Harold C. Vedeler, The World in the Crucible, 1914-1919 (New York: Harper and Row, 1984), 315.
44. See George G. Bruntz, "Allied Propaganda and the Collapse of German Morale in 1918", in A Psychological Warfare Casebook, ed. William E. Daugherty (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1958), 96-105;
45. and Bruntz, Allied Propaganda and the Collapse of the German Empire in 1918 (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1938).
46. The lack of universal appeal in German propaganda is discussed in Hans Thimme, Weltkrieg ohne Waffen (Stuttgart: J. G. Cotta'sche Buchhandlung, 1932). For information on other European analysts of the effects of propaganda
47. see Everette D. Dennis and Ellen Wartella, Communication Research: The Remembered History (Mahwah, N. J.: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 1996).
48. On propaganda in France, Belgium, Italy, and other countries, see Peter Chalmers Mitchell, "Propaganda", in Encyclopaedia Britannica, 12th ed., vol. 32 (London: Britannica Publishers, 1922), 176-85.
49. A recent detailed study is Mark Cornwall, The Undermining of Austria-Hungary: The Battle for Hearts and Minds (New York: St. Martin's Press, 2000).
50. On the participation of intellectuals, see Albert Marrin, The Last Crusade: The Church of England in the First World War (Durham: Duke University Press, 1974);
51. Roland Stromberg, Redemption by War: The Intellectuals and 1914 (Lawrence: Regents Press of Kansas, 1982);
52. Stuart Wallace, War and the Image of Germany: British Academics, 1914-1918 (Edinburgh: John Donald, 1988);
53. D. G. Wright, "The Great War, Government Propaganda and English 'Men of Letters', 1914-1916", Literature and History, no. 7(Spring 1978):70-100;
54. and Mark Wollaeger, Modernism, Media, and Propaganda: British Narrative from 1900 to 1945 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2007).
55. Defence of the Realm Acts quoted in Ferguson, Pity of War, 219.
56. The infamous Bryce Report is analyzed in Messinger, British Propaganda, 70-84;
57. and in Trevor Wilson, The Myriad Faces of War: Britain and the Great War, 1914-1918 (Cambridge: Polity Press, 1986), 182-91.
58. On Britain, see Messinger, British Propaganda;
59. Sanders and Taylor, British Propaganda during the First World War;
60. Cate Haste, Keep the Home Fires Burning: Propaganda in the First World War (London: Allen Lane, 1977);
61. and Irene Cooper Willis, England's Holy War: A Study of English Liberal Idealism during the Great War (New York: Alfred Knopf, 1928).
62. Ads quoted in J. M. Winter, The Experience of World War I (New York: Oxford University Press, 1989), 188-89.
63. For a general discussion of the role of advertising in Britain during the war, see Messinger, British Propaganda, 213-24.
64. Sir Gilbert Parker's activity in America is summarized., 53-69.
65. Barbara Tuchman, The Zimmermann Telegram (New York: Ballantine Books, 1966).
66. On the run-up to the Great War in the United States, see Edwin Emery, The Press and America: An Interpretative History of the Mass Media, 3rd ed. (Englewood Cliffs, N. J.: Prentice-Hall, 1972), 507-11;
67. H. C. Peterson, Propaganda for War (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1939);
68. Ralph D. Casey, "The Press, Propaganda, and Pressure Groups", Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 219(January 1942):68.
69. Debs quoted in Emery, Press and America, 517. On American propaganda in the war
70. see George Creel, How We Advertised America (New York: Harper & Row, 1920);
71. Harold Lavine and James Wechsler, War Propaganda and the United States (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1940);
72. Alfred E. Cornebise, War as Advertised: The Four Minute Men and America's Crusade, 1917-1918 (Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society, 1984);
73. James R. Mock and Cedric Larson, Word s That Won the War: The Story of the Committee on Public Information, 1917-1919 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1939);
74. Emery, Press and America, 511-19;
75. David M. Kennedy, Over Here: The First World War and American Society (1980; New York: Oxford University Press, 2004), 45-92;
76. and Geoffrey Stone, Perilous Times: Free Speech in War time; From the Sedition Act of 1798 to the War on Terrorism (New York: W. W. Norton, 2004).
77. Creel quoted in Philip M. Taylor, Munitions of the Mind: A History of Propaganda from the Ancient World to the Present Day, 3rd ed. (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2003), 183.
78. Pershing quotation, tobacco slogans, and information on Gillette from Michael Schudson, Advertising: The Uneasy Persuasion (New York: Basic Books, 1984), 186-87.
79. For the use of gramophones as well as other aspects of the propaganda war in central Europe, see Hugh Seton-Watson and Christopher Seton-Watson, The Making of a New Europe: R. W. Seton-Watson and the Last Years of Austria-Hungary (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1981).
80. Charles H. Brown, The Correspondents' War: Journalism in the Spanish-American War (New York: Scribner's, 1967);
81. Frank Freidel, The Splendid Little War (Boston: Little, Brown, 1958);
82. Cull, Culbert, and Welch, Propaganda and Mass Persuasion, 378-79.
83. Craig Campbell, Reel America and World War I (Jefferson, N. C.: McFarland, 1985);
84. Michael I. Isenberg, Waron Film (Rutherford, N. J.: Fairleigh Dickinson University Press, 1980);
85. David H. Mould, American Newsfilm, 1914-1919 (New York: Garland, 1983);
86. Nicholas Reeves, Official British Film Propaganda during the First World War (London: Croom Helm, 1986).
87. For a fascinating contemporary account, see Lucy Masterman, C. F. G. Masterman: A Biography (London: Nicholson and Watson, 1939).
88. Richard M. Barsam, Nonfiction Film: A Critical History, rev. ed. (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1992), 36-37.
89. 37-41. On German film, see Miriam Hansen, "Early Silent Cinema: Whose Public Sphere?" New German Critique, no. 29
90. "The Origins of Mass Culture: The Case of Imperial Germany (1871-1918) " (Spring-Summer 1983): 147-84.
91. See Eric Barnouw, Documentary: A History of the Non-fiction Film (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993);
92. Michael Paris, ed., The First World War and Popular Cinema: 1914 to the Present (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1994);
93. and Andrew Kelly, Cinema and the Great War (New York: Routledge, 1997).
94. Jane Carmichael, First World War Photographers (London: Routledge, 1989);
95. Stuart Sillars, Art and Survival in First World War Britain (New York: St. Martin's, 1978);
96. Meirion Harries and Susie Harries, The War Artists: British Official War Art of the Twentieth Century (London: Michael Joseph/Imperial War Museum and Tate Gallery, 1983);
97. Kenneth E. Silver, Esprit de Corps: The Art of the Parisian Avant-Garde and the First World War, 1914-1925 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1989);
98. Maria Tippett, Art at the Service of War: Canada, Art, and the Great War (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1984).
99. For illustrations and analysis of advertising and postcards, see Winter, Experience of World War I, 188-89.
100. The long-term importance of the rhetorical tradition is one of the themes of J. Michael Sproule, Propaganda and Democracy: American Experience of Media and Mass Persuasion (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997).
101. Australian War Museum, ed., What Did You Do in the War, Daddy? A Visual History of Propaganda Posters, intro. Peter Stanley (Melbourne: Oxford University Press, 1983);
102. Libby Chenault, Battlelines: World War I Posters from the Bowman Gray Collection (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1988);
103. Schmitt and Vedeler, World in the Crucible, 214-19.
104. Phillip Knightley, The First Casualty: From the Crimea to Vietnam; The War Correspondent as Hero, Propagandist, and Myth Maker (New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1975), 87-88.
105. Two fascinating contemporary accounts of attempts to balance military and press priorities are Sir Douglas Brownrigg, Indiscretions of the Naval Censor (New York: Doran, 1920);
106. and Sir Edward Tyas Cook, The Press in War-Time (London: Macmillan, 1920).
107. See also Colin Lovelace, "British Press Censorship during the First World War", in Newspaper History from the Seventeenth Century to the Present Day, ed. George Boyce, James Curran, and Pauline Wingate (London: Constable, 1978), 307-19.
108. See Heywood Broun, The AEF: With General Pershing and the American Forces (New York: Appleton, 1918)
109. and Collected Edition of Heywood Broun (New York: Harcourt Brace, 1941), for examples of this distinguished American reporter's efforts to cope with censorship.
110. For the regrets of a respected British correspondent, see Philip Gibbs, Adventures in Journalism (London: Heinemann, 1923).
111. C. E. Montague, quoted in Messinger, British Propaganda, 247-48.
112. Information on reporters attending the Paris conference is from Robert W. Desmond, Windows on the World: The Information Process in a Changing Society, 1900-1920 (Iowa City: University of Iowa Press, 1980), 405-27.
113. Two of the many books on the conference are William K. Klingaman, 1919: The Year Our World Began (1987; New York: Harper and Row, 1989)
114. and Margaret MacMillan, Paris 1919: Six Months That Changed the World (New York: Random House, 2001).
115. The interaction of the journalistic and literary communities is described in Ronald Weber, News of Paris: American Journalism in the City of Light between the Wars (Chicago: Ivan R. Dee, 2006).
116. John Maynard Keynes, The Economic Consequences of the Peace (1920), in Collected Writings, vol. 10 (London: Macmillan, 1972), 3-19;
117. Harold Nicolson, Peacemaking, 1919 (New York: Grosset and Dunlap, 1965), 60-62.
118. Colorful accounts of the Hague conferences are in Barbara Tuchman, The Proud Tower: A Portrait of the World before the War, 1890-1914 (1966; New York: Bantam Books, 1967), esp. 292-312 and 324-38.
119. On peace initiatives by Morel and others, see F. L. Carsten, War against War: British and German Radical Movements in the First World War (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1982).
120. A sense of earlier activities can be gained from Paul Laity, The British Peace Movement, 1870-1914, Oxford Historical Monographs (New York: Oxford University Press, 2001).
121. Desmond, Windows on the World, 413-14.
122. Details of the League's efforts to assist journalists are given in Paul F. Douglas, Karl Boehmer, and Emil Dovifat, "Supplement: The Press as a Factor in International Relations", Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Sciences 162
123. "National and World Planning" (July 1932): 241-72.
124. Nicholas Pronay and Philip M. Taylor", 'An Improper Use of Broadcasting⋯': The British Government and Clandestine Radio Operations against Germany during the Munich Crisis and After", Journal of Contemporary History 19(1984):357-84.
125. Akira Iriye, Cultural Internationalism and World Order (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1997), 62-67, 75.
126. For an argument that the League could have been more vigorous in its use of mass communication, even with limited resources, see Dell G. Hitchner, "The Failure of the League: Lessons in Public Relations", Public Opinion Quarterly 8, no. 1(Spring 1944):61-71.
127. Escapist media coverage in Britain is described in Robert Graves and Alan Hodge, The Long Week-End: A Social History of Great Britain, 1918-1939 (1940; New York: Norton Library, 1963).
128. For the American environment, see Frederick Lewis Allen's two social histories, Only Yesterday (1931; New York: Perennial Library, 1964)
129. and Since Yesterday (1940; New York: Perennial Library, 1986).
130. Thomas J. Knock, To End All Wars: Woodrow Wilson and the Quest for a New World Order (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1992).
131. Palmer quoted in James Aronson, The Press and the Cold War (Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill, 1970), 29.
132. Nancy Snow, Propaganda, Inc. (New York: Seven Stories Press, 2002), 37.
133. Mark Crispin Miller, introduction to Edward Bernays, Propaganda (1928; Brooklyn: Ig Publishing, 2005), 9-33.
134. Bernays published his life story in Biography of an Idea: Memoirs of Public Relations Counsel Edward L. Bernays (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1965).
135. For additional context covering several media, see D. L. Le Mahieu, A Culture for Democracy: Mass Communication and the Cultivated Mind in Britain between the Wars (Oxford: Clarendon Press of Oxford University Press, 1988). For a comparative analysis of radio in the United States, Britain, and other countries
136. see Alice Goldfarb Marquis, "Written on the Wind: The Impact of Radio in the 1930s", Journal of Contemporary History 19, no. 3(July 1984):385-415;
137. and Nicholas J. Cull, David Culbert, and David Welch, Propaganda and Mass Persuasion: A Historical Encyclopedia, 1500 to the Present (Santa Barbara: ABC-Clio, 2003), 331-34.
138. An essential work is Asa Briggs, The History of Broadcasting in the United Kingdom, vol. 1, The Birth of Broadcasting (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1961).
139. Also useful are Asa Briggs, The BBC: The First Fifty Years (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1995);
140. and Asa Briggs and Peter Burke, A Social History of the Media (Cambridge: Polity Press, 2002).
141. Arthur Ponsonby, Falsehood in War-Time (New York: Allen and Unwin, 1928).
142. Lippmann quoted in Ronald Steel, Walter Lippmann and the American Century (Boston: Atlantic Monthly Press, 1980), 182.
143. On the historical context of Lippmann's analysis, and the response of critics, see Steel, Walter Lippmann, 171-85 and 211-16.
144. Sidney B. Fay, The Origins of the World War, 2 vols. (New York: Macmillan, 1928-1930), 1:47.
145. On the role of Lasswell and other analysts of propaganda before the Second World War, see J. Michael Sproule, Propaganda and Democracy: American Experience of Media and Mass Persuasion (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997).
146. Jonathan Alter, The Defining Moment: FDR's Hundred Days and the Triumph of Hope (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2006).
147. Printer's Ink, June 18, 1931
148. quoted in Stephen Fox, The Mirror Makers: A History of American Advertising and Its Creators (1984; New York: Vintage, 1985), 117.
149. On Roosevelt's ability to interpret public opinion, see Steven Casey, Cautious Crusade: Franklin D. Roosevelt, American Public Opinion, and the War against Nazi Germany (New York: Oxford University Press, 2001), 3-45.
150. Milton Israel, Communications and Power: Propaganda and the Press in the Indian National Struggle, 1920-1947 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994).
151. Raphael Levy, "The Daily Press in France", Modern Language Journal 13, no. 4(January 1929):294-303.
152. Donald S. Birn, "Open Diplomacy at the Washington Conference of 1921-2: The British and French Experience", Comparative Studies in Society and History 12, no. 3(July 1970):297-319.
153. Conyers Read, "More Light on the London Naval Treaty of 1930", Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society 93, no. 4(September 1949):290-308.
154. Robert J. Young, Marketing Marianne: French Propaganda in America, 1900-1940 (New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 2004);
155. William R. Keylor, "How They Advertised France: The French Propaganda Campaign in the United States during the Breakup of the Franco-American Entente, 1918-1923", Diplomatic History 17, no. 3(Summer 1993):351-74.
156. Arthur Willert, "Publicity and Propaganda in International Affairs", International Affairs (Royal Institute of International Affairs, 1931-1939) 17, no. 6(November-December 1938):809-26;
157. Nicholas Pronay and Philip M. Taylor, "An Improper Use of Broadcasting", 357-84.
158. Oron James Hale, "Nationalism in Press, Films, and Radio", Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, vol. 175
159. "The Shadow of War" (September 1934): 110-16;
160. Special Committee Investigating the Munitions Industry, U. S. Senate, Pursuant to S. Res. 206, Congressional Record 75, no. 1, April 12, 1934;
161. Report of the Special Committee on the Investigation of the Munitions Industry, U. S. Congress, Senate, 34th Cong., 2nd sess., February 24, 1936; this was the final report of the so-called Nye Committee, led by Senator Gerald Nye of North Dakota.
162. See Gary S. Messinger, British Propaganda and the State in the First World War (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1992), 249-56.
163. See, for example, Peter Kenez, The Birth of the Propaganda State: Soviet Methods of Mass Mobilization, 1917-1929 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985). Napoleonic France is sometimes called the "first propaganda state", because Napoleon sought to strengthen his rule by extensive, coordinated use of news reportage, censorship, espionage, mass pageantry, and visual propaganda such as paintings and images on coins. But communications technology was more industrialized by the early twentieth century, and theories on the use of media in politics were more detailed and self-conscious.
164. On Reed and Philips Price, see Phillip Knightley, The First Casualty: From the Crimea to Vietnam; The War Correspondent as Hero, Propagandist, and Myth Maker (New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1975), 147-48.
165. Lippmann and Merz quoted in James Aronson, The Press and the Cold War (Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill, 1970), 25-28.
166. Robert W. Desmond, Tides of War: World News Reporting, 1931-1945 (Iowa City: University of Iowa Press, 1984), 53-57;
167. W. Vincent Arnold, The Illusion of Victory: Fascist Propaganda and the Second World War (New York: Peter Lang, 1998).
168. Edward R. Tannenbaum, The Fascist Experience: Italian Society and Culture, 1922-1945 (New York: Basic Books, 1972), 211-48.
169. Desmond, Tides of War, 21-28.
170. The poster is reprinted in Tannenbaum, Fascist Experience, in the illustrations after page 210.
171. Quotations from Hitler and summary of Mein Kampf from Cedric Larson, "The German Press Chamber", Public Opinion Quarterly 1, no. 4(October 1937):53-70. A useful English-language edition of Mein Kampf, as originally translated by Ralph Manheim, and with a later introduction by Abraham Foxman, was published by Houghton Mifflin in 1999.
172. For informative, detailed analyses of the Nazi takeover of Germany, including research on the Nazis' use of mass communication, see Richard J. Evans, The Coming of the Third Reich (New York: Penguin Books, 2003)
173. and The Third Reich in Power: 1933-1939 (New York: Penguin Books, 2006).
174. Oron J. Hale, The Captive Press in the Third Reich (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1964);
175. Anthony Smith, The Newspaper: An International History (London: Thames and Hudson, 1979), 177-78.
176. A moving account of two English intellectuals (Julian Bell and John Cornford) who participated in the war is Peter Stansky and William Abrahams, Journey to the Frontier: Two Roads to the Spanish Civil War (Boston: Atlantic Monthly Press/Little Brown, 1966).
177. Trevor Hoyle, War Report: The War Correspondent's View of Battle from the Crimea to the Falklands (London: Grafton Books, 1987), 15
178. cited in Philip M. Taylor, Global Communications, International Affairs, and the Media since 1945 (London: Routledge, 1997), 121.
179. Information on Spanish media in the civil war is from Desmond, Tides of War, 36-45;
180. and Anthony Beevor, The Battle for Spain: The Spanish Civil War, 1936-1939, rev. ed. (New York: Penguin Books, 2006), 239-50.
181. On Mao's approach to propaganda, see Frederick T. C. Yu, Mass Persuasion in Communist China (New York: Frederick A. Praeger, 1964).
182. For a detailed analysis of early-twentieth-century propaganda in China, see Marianne Bastide-Bruigueire, "Patterns of Propaganda Organization in the National-Revolutionary Movement in China in the 1920s", in The Chinese Revolution in the 1920s: Between Triumph and Disaster, ed. Mechtild Leutner, Roland Felber, M. L. Titarenko, and A. M. Grigoriev (London: Routledge/Curzon, 2002), 3-29.
183. An expert summary by Rana Mitter of propaganda in China from ancient to modern times is available in Nicholas J. Cull, David Culbert, and David Welch, Propaganda and Mass Persuasion: A Historical Encyclopedia, 1500 to the Present (Santa Barbara: ABC-Clio, 2003), 73-77.
184. Smith, The Newspaper, 170;
185. Desmond, Tides of War, 4-6, 10-11.
186. On the development of the press in China, see Henrietta Harrison, "Newspapers and Nationalism in Rural China, 1890-1929", Past and Present, no. 166(2006):181-204;
187. Barbara Mittler, A Newspaper for China? Power, Identity, and Change in Shanghai's News Media, 1872-1912 (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2004);
188. and Lin Yutang, A History of the Press and Public Opinion in China (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1936).
189. See Peter Rand, China Hands: The Adventures and Ordeals of the American Journalists Who Joined Forces with the Great Chinese Revolution (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1995).
190. Also very informative is Baruch Hirson and Arthur J. Knodel, Reporting the Chinese Revolution: The Letters of Rayna Prohme, ed. with an introduction by Gregor Benton (London: Pluto Press, 2007).
191. See Andrew Sinclair, Jack: A Biography of Jack London (New York: Harper and Row, 1977), 104-7.
192. Images of the Nanking massacre were revived by U. S. propagandists in the Second World War, for example, by Frank Capra in his documentary film series Why We Fight. But then after the war, information about the horrors of the 1937 invasion of the city was again downplayed in the West, both by the U. S. government and by cooperative leaders of the media, out of fear of offending powerful Political groups in Japan and losing Japan as an ally in the cold war. Thanks to disclosures by the historian Iris Chang in the 1990s, the truth about Nanking has become more widely known and is stimulating international debate. See Iris Chang, The Rape of Nanking: The Forgotten Holocaust of World War II (New York: Basic Books, 1997), esp. 143-58.
193. Whether the events in Nanking, brutal as they were, were extensive enough to be described as a "holocaust" is discussed in Takashi Yoshida, The Making of the "Rape of Nanking": History and Memory in Japan, China, and the United States (New York: Oxford University Press, 2006).
194. The Chinese communists' exploitation of memories of Nanking to sustain hatred against the Japa nese is discussed in Ian Buruma, "Why They Hate Japan", New York Review of Books, September 21, 2006, 78-82
195. a review of Yoshida's book. The problem of defining genocide is discussed in Allan A. Ryan Jr., "Genocide: What Do We Want It To Be?" New England Journal of Public Policy 19, no. 2(Winter 2005):111-10.
196. On Japa nese media in the period covered by this chapter, see Desmond, Tides of War, 4-18 and 190-98;
197. Smith, The Newspaper, 170-72;
198. James Huffman, Creating a Public: People and Press in Meiji Japan (Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1997);
199. and Barak Kushner, The Thought War: Japa nese Imperial Propaganda (Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 2006).
200. An extensive collection of primary source material is Peter O'Connor, ed., Japa nese Propaganda: Selected Readings, 10 vols. (Tokyo: Edition Synapse, 2003-4).
201. Dawson quotations from Richard Cockett, Twilight of Truth: Chamberlain, Appeasement, and the Manipulation of the Press (London: St. Martin's Press, 1989), 27 and 54.
202. Additional information is in Desmond, Tides of War, 64-65, 67-69, 70-71;
203. Anthony Adamthwaite, "The British Government and the Media, 1937-1938", Journal of Contemporary History 18, no. 2(April 1983):281-97;
204. Frank McDonough, "The Times, Norman Ebbut and the Nazis, 1927-1937", Journal of Contemporary History 27, no. 3(July 1992):407-24. During the Munich crisis, in an attempt to mobilize German public opinion against Hitler's attempts to annex the Sudetenland, Chamberlain directed British espionage agents to broadcast the British point of view into Germany from the powerful radio transmitter that was available in Luxembourg. On this episode
205. see Nicholas Pronay and Philip M. Taylor", 'An Improper Use of Broadcasting⋯': The British Government and Clandestine Radio Propaganda Operations against Germany during the Munich Crisis and After", Journal of Contemporary History 19, no. 3(July 1984):357-84.
206. One study of propaganda directed at children in the First World War is Margaret R. Higgonet, The Lion and the Unicorn (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2007).
207. Propaganda against children in the Second World War is discussed in Nicholas Stargardt, Witnesses of War: Children's Lives under the Nazis (New York: Vintage/Random House, 2005), esp. 28, 44, 51, 121, 142-43, 251;
208. and in Judith K. Proud, Children and Propaganda: Il était une fois⋯; Fiction and Fairy Talein Vichy France (Oxford: Intellect Books, 1995).
209. The effect of war propaganda on children is still not well understood. A valuable study of the effect of images of violence on children is Betsy McAlister Groves, Children Who See Too Much: Lessons from the Child Witness to Violence Project (Boston: Beacon Press, 2002).
210. Also useful is Marsha Kinder, ed., Kids' Media Culture (Durham: Duke University Press, 1999).
211. Of the hundreds of books on Second World War propaganda in Germany, two especially informative works are David Welch, The Third Reich: Politics and Propaganda, 2nd ed. (London: Routledge, 2002);
212. and Ian Kershaw, The Hitler Myth: Image and Reality in the Third Reich (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1987).
213. The vast extent of German propaganda organization is demonstrated in Richard J. Evans, The Third Reich at War (New York: Penguin Press, 2009), esp. 563-92.
214. Italian propaganda is analyzed in W. Vincent Arnold, The Illusion of Victory: Fascist Propaganda and the Second World War (New York: Peter Lang, 1998).
215. For interesting descriptions of Albert Speer's use of mass rallies and newsreels to assure the German people that arms production was vigorous, see Adam Tooze, The Wages of Destruction: The Making and Breaking of the Nazi Economy (New York: Penguin Books, 2006), 554-56.
216. Quoted in Welch, Third Reich, 101.
217. Stargardt, Witnesses of War, 142.
218. Nigel Farndale, Haw-Haw: The Tragedy of William and Margaret Joyce (London: Macmillan, 2005);
219. M. Williams Fuller, Axis Sally (Santa Barbara: Paradise West Publishing, 2003).
220. For opinion manipulation viewed in bio-behavioral terms, see Charles Cruickshank, The Fourth Arm: Psychological Warfare, 1938-1945 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1981);
221. William E. Daugherty and Morris Janowitz, A Psychological War fare Case book (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1958);
222. and Charles Roetter, Psychological Warfare (London: B. T. Batsford, 1974).
223. William Sheridan Allen, The Nazi Seizure of Power: The Experience of a Single German Town, 1922-1945 (New York: Franklin Watts, 1984), esp. 250-55, 301-2.
224. Information on news coverage in the USSR from 1939 to 1945 is from Robert W. Desmond, Tides of War: World News Reporting, 1931-1945 (Iowa City: University of Iowa Press, 1984), 46-47, 161-80.
225. Denise J. Youngblood, Rus sian War Films: On the Cinema Front (Kansas City: University Press of Kansas, 2007).
226. On domestic propaganda in Soviet Rus sia, see Catherine Merridale, Ivan's War: Life and Death in the Red Army, 1939-1945 (New York: Henry Holt, 2006);
227. and David Brandenberger, National Bolshevism: Stalinist Mass Culture and the Formation of the Modern Rus sian National Identity (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2002).
228. On possible effects of propaganda on German army morale, see Edward Shils and Morris Janowitz, "Cohesion and Disintegration in the Wehrmacht in World War II", Public Opinion Quarterly 12(1948):280-315.
229. Merridale, Ivan's War, 22, compares the German experience to that of the Soviet army.
230. Quotations from Japa nese propaganda materials in Akira Iriye, Cultural Internationalism and World Order (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1997), 119-20, within his overall analysis at 119-35.
231. Masaya Duus, Tokyo Rose: Orphan of the Pacific, trans. Peter Duus (New York: Harper and Row for Kodansha International, 1983).
232. The fascinating history of cinema in Japan is traced in Donald Richie, Japanese Cinema: An Introduction (Hong Kong: Oxford University Press (China), 1990);
233. and Joseph L. Anderson and Donald Richie, The Japa nese Film: Art and Industry (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1982), which includes a foreword by Akira Kurosawa.
234. The illustrated materials are reproduced in Barak Kushner, The Thought War: Japa nese Imperial Propaganda (Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 2006), 124-27.
235. Japa nese deficiencies in the propaganda war against China are discussed, 117-55;for a more general discussion, see Philip M. Taylor, Munitions of the Mind: A History of Propaganda from the Ancient World to the Present Day, 3rd ed. (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2003), 238-41.
236. An extensive collection of Japa nese propaganda materials is Peter O'Connor, ed., Japa nese Propaganda: Selected Readings, 10 vols. (Tokyo: Edition Synapse, 2003-4).
237. The racist elements in the U. S.-Japanese propaganda battle are analyzed in John W. Dower, War without Mercy: Race and Power in the Pacific War (New York: Pantheon Books, 1986).
238. Desmond, Tides of War, 181-90.
239. Churchill quoted in Alfred Havighurst, Britain in Transition: The Twentieth Century, 4th ed. (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1985), 298.
240. Churchill quoted in Asa Briggs, A History of Broadcasting in the United Kingdom, vol. 3, The War of Words (London: Oxford University Press, 1970), 4-5.
241. Quoted in Ian McLaine, Ministry of Morale: Home Front Morale and the Ministry of Information in World War II (London: George Allen and Unwin, 1979), 21.
242. Poster quotations and analysis from McLaine, Ministry of Morale, 21, 30, 54, 76, 183.
243. Priestley's radio broadcasts were transcribed in J. B. Priestley, Postscripts (London: W. Heinemann, 1941).
244. For background see Sian Nicholas, The Echo of War: Home Front Propaganda and the Wartime BBC, 1939-1945 (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1996).
245. Quoted in Briggs, War of Words, 250.
246. Cartoon and caption reprinted in Briggs, War of Words, 254.
247. Angus Calder, The People's War: Britain, 1939-45 (London: Jonathan Cape, 1969), 65-66, 360-62.
248. Quoted in Taylor, Munitions of the Mind, 221.
249. For overall discussion of British propaganda, see Taylor, Munitions of the Mind, 208-28;
250. and for the general historical context see Havighurst, Britain in Transition, 288-366.
251. Nicholas J. Cull, David Culbert, and David Welch, Propaganda and Mass Persuasion: A Historical Encyclopedia, 1500 to the Present (Santa Barbara: ABC-Clio, 2003), 27, 60-61, 175.
252. Nicholas Cull, Selling War: The British Propaganda Campaign against American "Neutrality" in World War II (New York: Oxford University Press, 1995).
253. Quoted in Philip Seib, Broadcasts from the Blitz: How Edward R. Murrow Helped Lead America into War (Washington, D. C.: Potomac Books, 2006), 33.
254. Quotation from A. J. Liebling, "Notes from the Kidnap House", New Yorker, April 22, 1944
255. reprinted in Reporting World War II, pt. 2
256. American Journalism, 1944-1946 (New York: Library of America, 1995), 89.
257. Information on the Resistance from Liebling, "Notes", 80-89
258. and Olivier Wieviorka, "Between Propaganda and Telling the Truth: The Underground French Press during the Occupation (1940-1944)", in France at War in the Twentieth Century: Propaganda, Myth and Meta phor, ed. Valerie
259. Edwin Emery, The Press and America: An Interpretative History of the Mass Media, 3rd ed. (Englewood Cliffs, N. J.: Prentice Hall, 1972), 522-25.
260. John W. Dower, Embracing Defeat: Japan in the Wake of World War II (New York: W. W. Norton, 1999), 219-20.
261. Emery, The Press and America, 525-527;
262. John Morton Blum, V Was for Victory: Politics and American Culture during World War II (New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1976), 21-39.
263. On the famous photograph of Iwo Jima and its effects on the men it portrayed, see James Bradley and Ron Powers, Flags of Our Fathers (New York: Bantam, 2000).
264. Richard Holmes, World War II in Photographs (London: Andrews Mc-Meel Publishing, 2002);
265. David Boyle, World War II: A Photographic History (New York: Metro Books, 2000);
266. and Richard B. Stolley, ed., LIFE: World War 2;
267. History's Greatest Confiicts in Pictures (New York: Bulfinch Press, 2001), tare three of the hundreds of collections of Second World War photographs.
268. The Lucky Strike ad is reproduced in C. L. Sulzberger, The American Heritage Picture History of World War II (New York: McGraw Hill/American Heritage, 1966), 473.
269. S. J. Perelman, "Take Two Parts Sand, One Part Girl, and Stir", New Yorker, July 8, 1944
270. reprinted in Reporting World War II, pt. 2, 164-69.
271. Michael C. C. Adams, The Best War Ever: America and World War II (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1994), 17-18.
272. Harford Powel, "What the War Has Done to Advertising", Public Opinion Quarterly 6, no. 2(Summer 1942):195-203;
273. Robert Griffith, "The Selling of America: The Advertising Council and American Politics, 1942-1960", Business History Review 57, no. 3(Autumn 1983):388-412.
274. See Colin Shindler, Hollywood Goes to War: Films and American Society, 1939-1952 (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1979);
275. Clayton R. Koppes and Gregory D. Black, Hollywood Goes to War: How Politics, Profits, and Propaganda Shaped World War II Movies (New York: Free Press, 1987);
276. Thomas P. Doherty, Projections of War: Hollywood, American Culture, and World War II (New York: Columbia University Press, 1993);
277. and Larry Wayne Ward, The Motion Picture Goes to War (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1985).
278. Taylor, Munitions of the Mind, 227.
279. Quoted in Taylor, Munitions of the Mind, 230.
280. For background on the government's relationship to the film industry, see Clayton R. Koppes and Gregory Black, "What to Show the World: The Office of War Information and Hollywood, 1942-1945", Journal of American History 64, no. 1(June 1977):87-105.
281. Quoted in Doherty, Projections of War, 107.
282. Quoted in Taylor, Munitions of the Mind, 231.
283. James Agee, "So Proudly We Fail", in Reporting World War II, pt. I, American Journalism, 1938-1944 (New York: Library of America, 1995), 658-61.
284. Nicholas Reeves, The Power of Film Propaganda: Myth or Reality? (New York: Cassell, 1999);
285. Shindler, Hollywood Goes to War, 23, 28, 31, 56, 67-70.
286. Daniel Todman, "'Sans peur et sans reproche': The Retirement, Death and Mourning of Sir Douglas Haig, 1918-1928, Journal of Military History 67, no. 4(October 2003):1083-1106.
287. The photo of Bacall and Truman is reproduced in Sulzberger, American Heritage Picture History, 474.
288. Phillip Knightley, The First Casualty: From the Crimea to Vietnam; The War Correspondent as Hero, Propagandist, and Myth Maker (New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1975), 279-82, 298.
289. Stalin quotation from Merridale, Ivan's War, 96.
290. Kevin Starr, "Hollywood Canteen", in Embattled Dreams: California in War and Peace, 1940-1950 (New York: Oxford University Press, 2002), 177.
291. Bradley and Powers, Flags of Our Fathers;
292. George H. Roeder Jr., The Censored War: American Visual Experience during World War Two (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1993).
293. The complaints of average soldiers about portrayals of their role are discussed in Paul Fussell, War time: Understanding and Behavior in the Second World War (New York: Oxford University Press, 1989).
294. Mauldin's cartoon is reprinted in Sulzberger, American Heritage Picture History, 433.
295. Knightley, First Casualty, 326-27.
296. Theodore H. White's experience is discussed briefly., 277-78; and in greater detail in Peter Rand, China Hands: The Adventures and Ordeals of the American Journalists Who Joined Forces with the Great Chinese Revolution (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1995), 191-258.
297. For self-censorship in print journalism generally, see the three-volume Library of America anthology Reporting World War II: American Journalism, 1938-1946.
298. E. B. White, "The Newspaper Reader Finds It Very Difficult to Get at the Truth", in Reporting World War II, pt. 1, 300-302.
299. Quotation and summary of Kennedy episode from Emery, The Press and America, 531.
300. Knightley, First Casualty, 326.
301. Information on the U. S. military's strategy for dissemination and control of information related to the bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki is in Richard Rhodes, The Making of the Atomic Bomb (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1986), 736-37.
302. The reportage of Burchett and Laurence is discussed in Amy Goodman and David Goodman, "Hiroshima Cover-Up: How the War Department's Timesman Won a Pulitzer", August 10, 2004, www.commondreams.org;
303. and in Knightley, First Casualty, 299-302.
304. Portrayal of the bombings by the Japa nese press and government is analyzed in Dower, Embracing Defeat, 414-19.
305. Hersey's reportage is reprinted in John Hersey, Hiroshima (New York: Knopf, 1946).
306. Allied censorship of reportage in Nagasaki is documented in George Weller, First into Nagasaki: The Censored Eyewitness Dispatches on Post-Atomic Japan and Its Prisoners of War, ed. Anthony Weller (New York: Crown Publishers, 2006). For an excellent analysis of the debate surrounding the decision to use the atomic bomb
307. see Ronald Takaki, Hiroshima: Why America Dropped the Atomic Bomb (New York: Little, Brown, 1995).
308. Deborah E. Lipstadt, Beyond Belief: The American Press and the Coming of the Holocaust, 1933-1945 (New York: Free Press, 1986), esp. 1-10 and 240-78;
309. Laurel Leff, Buried by the Times: The Holocaust and America's Most Important Newspaper (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005).
310. Quoted in Knightley, First Casualty, 329.
311. Robert W. Desmond, Tides of War: World News Reporting, 1931-1945 (Iowa City: University of Iowa Press, 1984), 454-61.
312. Arch A. Mercey, "The U. N. Information Program: Some Recommendations of the Advisory Committee", Public Opinion Quarterly 12, no. 3(Autumn 1948):481-87;
313. Benjamin Cohen, "The U. N.'s Department of Public Information", Public Opinion Quarterly 10, no. 2(Summer 1946):145-55.
314. Constitution of the United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organization (1945), Preamble. The full constitution of UNESCO is reprinted in Walter H. C. Laves and Charles A. Thomson, UNESCO: Purpose, Progress, Prospects (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1957), 415-25.
315. The organization's initial goals, as described by its first Director General, are in Julian Huxley, UNESCO: Its Purpose and Its Philosophy (Washington, D. C.: Public Affairs Press, 1947).
316. An example of the sense of hope inspired by the creation of UNESCO is Charles A. Siepmann, "Propaganda and Information in International Affairs", Yale Law Journal 55, no. 5(August 1946):1258-80.
317. For a critique, see "UNESCO's Program of Mass Communication: I", Public Opinion Quarterly 10, no. 4(Winter 1946-47):518-39.
318. General surveys include Clare Wells, The UN, UNESCO and the Politics of Knowledge (London: Macmillan, 1987);
319. and James Patrick Sewell, UNESCO and World Politics: Engaging in International Relations (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1975).
320. Reporting on the UN is discussed in Ronald Rubin, "The UN Correspondent", Western Political Quarterly 17, no. 4(December 1964):615-31.
321. Akira Iriye, Cultural Internationalism and World Order (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1997), 146-49, 157, 161, 172.
322. Philip M. Taylor, Munitions of the Mind: A History of Propaganda from the Ancient World to the Present Day, 3rd ed. (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2003), 248.
323. For the larger context of denazification, see Giles MacDonogh, After the Reich: The Brutal History of the Allied Occupation (New York: Perseus Books, 2007).
324. Anthony Smith, The Newspaper: An International History (London: Thames and Hudson, 1979), 172-73.
325. James Aronson, The Press and the Cold War (Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill, 1970), 32-38.
326. Truman quoted in Nicholas Cull, The Cold War and the United States Information Agency: American Propaganda and Public Diplomacy, 1945-1989 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2008), 55.
327. The aggressive approach to cold war propaganda during the Truman era is described in detail in Richard L. Brecker, "Truth as a Weapon of the Free World", Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, vol. 278, The Search for National Security (November 1951): 1-11.
328. McCarthy quoted in Thomas Doherty, Cold War, Cool Medium: Television, McCarthyism, and American Culture (New York: Columbia University Press, 2003), 128.
329. Quotations in this paragraph from Doherty, Cold War, Cool Medium, 130-31.
330. Aronson, The Press and the Cold War, 21.
331. Truman quoted in Doherty, Cold War, Cool Medium, 171.
332. Extensive detail on Murrow's anti-McCarthy broadcasts is given in Doherty, Cold War, Cool Medium, 161-77.
333. Aronson, The Press and the Cold War, 127-52.
334. Paul M. A. Linebarger, "The Struggle for the Mind of Asia", Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, vol. 278, 32-37;
335. Francis F. Fuller, "Mao Tse-tung: Military Thinker", Military Affairs 22, no. 3(Autumn 1958):139-45;
336. Frederick T. C. Yu, Mass Persuasion in Communist China (New York: Frederick A. Prager, 1964).
337. A detailed analysis is Stephen Pease, Psychological Warfare in Korea, 1950-1953 (Harrisburg, Penna.: Stackpole Books, 1992).
338. A recent reinterpretation of the Korean War and the reporting that took place at the time is Bruce Cumings, Korea's Place in the Sun: A Modern History (New York: Norton, 1997).
339. Reporting on Korea is discussed in Phillip Knightley, The First Casualty: From the Crimea to Vietnam; The War Correspondent as Hero, Propagandist, and Myth Maker (New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1975), 336-55.
340. Richard H. Shultz and Roy Godson, Dezinformatsia: The Strategy of Soviet Disinformation (New York: Berkley Books, 1986), 118-19.
341. Aronson, The Press and the Cold War, 103-26.
342. For an example of criticism of the idea behind UNESCO, that wars originate in the minds of men and can be prevented there, see Frederick S. Dunn, War and the Minds of Men (New York: Harper & Brothers, 1950).
343. An exploration of the same subject, voicing skepticism about broad attempts to influence large populations without regard to subcategories of their values, is Hans Speier, "International Political Communication: Elite vs. Mass", World Politics 4, no. 3(April 1952):305-17.
344. A description of cold war fears of brainwashing and the resemblance to Western psychology is Albert D. Biderman, "The Image of 'Brainwashing'", Public Opinion Quarterly 26, no. 4(Winter 1962):547-63.
345. For Eisenhower's use of the media, see Kenneth Osgood, Total Cold War: Eisenhower's Secret Propaganda Battle at Home and Abroad (Kansas City: University Press of Kansas, 2006).
346. A more general study spanning several presidencies is Leo Bogart, Premises for Propaganda: The United States Information Agency's Operating Assumptions in the Cold War (New York: Free Press, 1976).
347. On the eccentric leadership of Charles Wick, President Reagan's USIA director, see Alvin A. Snyder, War - riors of Disinformation: American Propaganda, Soviet Lies, and the Winning of the Cold War; An Insider's Account (New York: Arcade Publishing, 1995).
348. See Victoria De Grazia, Irresistible Empire: America's Advance through Twentieth-Century Europe (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2005);
349. and Andrew Yarrow, "Selling a New Vision of America to the World: Changing Messages in Early Cold War Propaganda", Journal of Cold War Studies 11, no. 4(Fall 2009):1-45.
350. Operations of the CIA, with particular reference to propaganda, are described in detail in John Prados, Safe for Democracy: The Secret Wars of the CIA (Chicago: Ivan R. Dee, 2006).
351. Information regarding Hank Ketchum is from Marsha Kinder, ed., Kids' Media Culture (Durham: Duke University Press, 1999), 33-34.
352. Shultz and Godson, Deszinformatsia, 148-52.
353. Four excellent analyses of cold war cinema, all by Tony Shaw, are British Cinema and the Cold War (London: I. B. Tauris, 2001);
354. Hollywood's Cold War (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 2007);
355. "Martyrs, Miracles, and Martians: Religion and Cold War Cinematic Propaganda in the 1950s", Journal of Cold War Studies 4, no. 2(Spring 2002):3-22;
356. and, for broader context, "The Politics of Cold War Culture", Journal of Cold War Studies 3, no. 3(Fall 2001):59-76.
357. Isaiah Berlin, "Shostakovich at Oxford", New York Review of Books, July 16, 2009, 22.
358. Quotations from Edmund Wilson, "Doctor Life and His Guardian Angel", in The Bit between My Teeth: A Literary Chronicle of 1950-1965 (New York: Noonday Press/Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 1967), 420-46.
359. An informative summary is David Caute, The Dancer Defects: The Struggle for Cultural Supremacy during the Cold War (New York: Oxford University Press, 2003).
360. Aronson, The Press and the Cold War, 153-69.
361. For the most authoritative account of Murrow and the Bay of Pigs disaster, see Cull, Cold War and the United States Information Agency, 190-91.
362. Aronson, The Press and the Cold War, 170-79.
363. Cull, Cold War and the United States Information Agency, 229-32.
364. See Margaret MacMillan, Nixon and Mao: The Week That Changed the World (New York: Random House, 2007).
365. See Deepti Hajela, "Media Had Wide Access in Vietnam War", Associated Press, June 27, 2006, reporting on an international reunion of war correspondents who were in Vietnam during the period from 1950 to 1975;
366. Daniel C. Hallin, The Uncensored War: The Media and Vietnam (New York: Oxford University Press, 1986).
367. On JUSPAO, see Cull, Cold War and the United States Information Agency, 245-54, 267-78.
368. Michael J. Arlen, Living Room War (New York: Viking, 1966).
369. On print journalism in the Vietnam War, see John Swain, Rivers of Time (New York: St. Martin's, 1989);
370. Sandra Wittman, Writing about Vietnam: A Bibliography of the Literature of the Vietnam Conflict (Boston: G. K. Hall, 1989);
371. and the excellent Library of America anthology compiled by Milton J. Bates and others, Reporting Vietnam: American Journalism, 1959-1975 (New York: Library of America, 1998). For analysis of portrayals of the war
372. see William Hammond, Reporting Vietnam: Media and Military at War (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1999). The Second World War could actually be called the world's first "living room war" because of the intimate use of radio by Roosevelt, Churchill, and commentators like Edward R. Murrow and J. B. Priestley; but television was a more influential presence because it combined sound and images.
373. For an eloquent, informative account of contesting media portrayals in the civil rights movement, see Gene Roberts and Hank Klibanoff, The Race Beat: The Press, the Civil Rights Struggle, and the Awakening of a Nation (New York: Alfred Knopf, 2006).
374. Todd Gitlin, The Whole World Is Watching: Mass Media in the Making and Unmaking of the New Left (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1980);
375. Mark Kurlansky, 1968: The Year that Rocked the World (New York: Ballantine Books, 2004).
376. Aronson, The Press and the Cold War, 21.
377. For a detailed analysis of the "Vietnam effect", see Philip M. Taylor, Global Communications, International Affairs and the Media since 1945 (London: Routledge, 1997), 108-15.
378. Senator J. William Fulbright, The Pentagon Propaganda Machine (New York: Liveright Publishing Corporation, 1970).
379. Analyses of films about Vietnam include Linda Dittmar and Gene Michaud, eds., From Hanoi to Hollywood: The Vietnam War in American Film (New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 1990);
380. Gilbert Adair, Vietnam on Film: From "The Green Berets" to "Apocalypse Now" (New York: Proteus Publishing Company, 1981);
381. Christian G. Appy, Working Class War (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1993);
382. Lawrence H. Suid, Guts and Glory: The Making of the American Military Image in Film (Louisville: University of Kentucky Press, 2002).
383. See also Jonathan Schell, The Real War: The Classic Reporting on the Vietnam War (New York: Pantheon Books, 1968).
384. Marshall McLuhan and Quentin Fiore, War and Peace and the Global Village (New York: Bantam Books, 1968), 12, 98, 132.
385. Chomsky's writings are numerous and extensive. In the absence of any central text, three useful sources of additional information are James Peck, ed., The Chomsky Reader (New York: Pantheon, 1987);
386. Noam Chomsky, Manufacturing Consent: The Political Economy of the Mass Media (New York: Pantheon, 1988);
387. and Anthony Arnove, ed., The Essential Chomsky (New York: New Press, 2008).
388. Cull, Cold War and the United States Information Agency, 351-58.
389. Robert Harris, Gotcha! The Media, the Government, and the Falklands Crisis (London: Faber and Faber, 1983).
390. Reagan and Time magazine quotations from Lou Cannon, President Reagan: The Role of a Lifetime (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1991), 655.
391. The centrality of image management in Reagan's approach to leadership, as well as the traits that made him a gifted politician, are explored in detail and with great intelligence in Cannon, President Reagan, esp. 458-92 and 137-39.
392. Melvyn P. Leffler, For the Soul of Mankind: The United States, the Soviet Union, and the Cold War (New York: Hill and Wang, 2007), 461.
393. On the Berlin airlift, see Andrei Cherny, The Candy Bombers: The Untold Story of the Berlin Airlift and America's Finest Hour (New York: Berkley Caliber, 2008).
394. On the Berlin Wall and the larger context of the Iron Curtain, see Ann Tusa, The Last Division: A History of Berlin, 1945-1989 (Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley, 1997);
395. and Frederick Taylor, The Berlin Wall: A World Divided, 1961-1989 (New York: HarperCollins, 2006).
396. Tusa, Last Division, 63.
397. Margaret Thatcher, The Downing Street Years (London: Harper Collins, 1993), 459-63.
398. Imagery related to the atom bomb is discussed in Allan M. Winkler, Life under A Cloud: American Anxiety about the Atom (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993);
399. and Spencer R. Weart, Nuclear Fear: A History (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1988).
400. Tusa, Last Division, 62.
401. On the dispersal of communications technologies to the developing world, see Taylor, Global Communications, International Affairs and the Media, esp. 27-57.
402. On the technological development of mass communication, see Daya Kishan Thussu, International Communication: Continuity and Change (London: Arnold/Hodder Headline Group, 2000). On China's increased sophistication in the use of mass communication
403. see Joshua Kurlantzick, Charm Offensive: How China's Soft Power Is Transforming the World (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2007).
404. See Philip M. Taylor, War and the Media: Propaganda and Persuasion in the Gulf War (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1992).
405. On the "CNN effect", see Philip M. Taylor, Global Communications, International Affairs and the Media since 1945 (London: Routledge, 1997), esp. 83-98.
406. For a general survey of the influence of the media on decision making, emphasizing print, see Ernest R. May, "The News Media and Diplomacy", in The Diplomats, 1939-1979, ed. Gordon A. Craig and Francis Loewenheim (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1994), 665-700.
407. Warren P. Strobel, "The Media: Influencing Foreign Policy in the Information Age", U. S. Foreign Policy Agenda 5, no. 1(March 2000):37-39.
408. Michael Ignatieff, Virtual War: Kosovo and Beyond (New York: Picador, 2001).
409. Taylor, Global Communications, 188-92, 200, and 226-28.
410. On the rise and decline of the USIA, see Nicholas Cull, The Cold War and the United States Information Agency: American Propaganda and Public Diplomacy, 1945-1989 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2008).
411. R. L. Di Nardo and Daniel J. Hughes, "Some Cautionary Thoughts on Information Warfare", 3Airpower Journal (Winter 1995), www.airpower. maxwell.af.mil/airchronicles/apj/apj95/win95.htm;
412. Col. John B. Alexander, Future War: Nonlethal Weapons in Twenty-first-Century Warfare (New York: Thomas Dunne Books/St. Martin's Griffin, 2000).
413. The same themes were explored in Alvin and Heidi Toffler, War and Anti-War: Survival at the Dawn of the 21st Century (London: Little Brown, 1993).
414. For the most developed treatment, see Joseph S. Nye Jr., Soft Power: The Means to Success in World Politics (New York: Public Affairs Press, 2004). On the growing interest in "soft power" at the Pentagon
415. see Jim Mannon, "Led by the Military, War-Weary U. S. Awakens to 'Soft Power'", Agence France Presse, December 13, 2007.
416. On the gradual dispersion of Western-dominated technologies of mass communication to the developing world, see Daya Kishan Thussu, International Communication: Continuity and Change (New York: Oxford University Press, 2000);
417. and Jane Chapman, Comparative Media History: An Introduction, 1789 to the Present (Cambridge: Polity Press, 2005).
418. Rice and Rumsfeld quotations from John. B. Judis and Spencer Ackerman, "The Selling of the Iraq War: The First Casualty", New Republic, June 30, 2003, 14-25.
419. Powell quoted in Judis and Ackerman, "Selling of the Iraq War"
420. Informative accounts of the selling of the Iraq war are Michael Isikoff and David Corn, Hubris: The Inside Story of Spin, Scandal, and the Selling of the Iraq War (New York: Crown, 2006);
421. and Laura Mille, "War Is Sell", PR Watch 9, no. 4, Center for Media and Democracy, www.prwatch.org/prwissues/2002Q4/war.html.
422. Quoted in Jeff Gerth, "Military's Information War Is Vast and Often Secretive", New York Times, September 11, 2005.
423. See Jack G. Shaheen, Reel Bad Arabs: How Hollywood Vilifies a People (New York: Olive Branch Press, 2001).
424. See Frank Rich, "Don't Follow the Money", New York Times, June 12, 2005, a comparison of journalistic behavior in the time of Watergate and the early years of President George W. Bush;
425. and Eric Boehlert, Lapdogs: How the Press Rolled Over for Bush (New York: Free Press, 2006).
426. On the belief that America won the Second World War by itself and the tendency of such a belief to cloud thinking about 9/11, see Nigel Hamilton, "We Were Allies Once: Lessons of D Day, 1944", New England Journal of Public Policy 19, no. 2(Winter 2005):57-70.
427. Nostalgic views of the war are dissected in Michael C. C. Adams, The Best War Ever: America and World War II (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1994).
428. John Lippman, "The Politics of Oscar", Wall Street Journal, July 23, 2004.
429. Hendrik Hertzberg, "Floor War", New Yorker, December 5, 2005, 35-36;
430. Frank Rich, "Dishonest, Reprehensible, Corrupt⋯", New York Times, November 27, 2005.
431. Marcel Honore, "TV Station Backed by Chávez Goes on Air", Associated Press, October 31, 2005;
432. Vanessa Arrington, "Countering U. S. Move, Cuba Mounts Attack via Billboard", Associated Press, December 18, 2004.
433. Robert Barr, "Report: Bush Talked of Bombing Al-Jazeera", Associated Press, December 22, 2005. Whether Bush actually made such statements was not confirmed, but evidence was available that the White House strongly pressured Qatar to discontinue allowing Al-Jazeera to operate out of that country.
434. See Steven R. Weisman, "Under Pressure, Qatar May Sell Jazeera Station", New York Times, January 30, 2005.
435. Fareed Zakaria, "An Imperial Presidency: Bush's Travel Schedule Seems to Involve as Little Contact as Possible with the Country He Is In", Newsweek, December 19, 2005, msnbc.com.
436. Frank Rich, "It Takes a Potemkin Village", New York Times, December 11, 2005.
437. For a detailed analysis of U. S. recruitment strategies, see Timothy L. O'Brien, "Madison Avenue Wants You: How to Pitch the Military When a War Drags On?" New York Times, September 25, 2005.
438. Susan B. Glasser and Michael Grunwald, "DHS Undermined from Very Start", Washington Post, December 22, 2005.
439. Timothy L. O'Brien, "Spinning Frenzy: PR's Bad Press; A TV Host's Paid Pitch Is Roiling an Industry", New York Times, February 13, 2005.
440. Eleanor Clift, "Big Lies: Who Told the Worst Political Untruths of 2005?" December 22, 2005, msnbc.msn. com/id/10578257;
441. Arlene Getz, "Where's the Outrage? Bush's Defense of his Phone-Spying Program Has Disturbing Echoes of Arguments Once Used by South Africa's Apartheid Regime", December 21, 2005, msnbc.msn. com/id/10562528.
442. Matea Gold, "Ex-Chair of Public Television Quits", Los Angeles Times, November 4, 2005.
443. Dana Priest, "CIA Holds Terror Suspects in Secret Prisons", Washington Post, November 2, 2005.
444. Also see the related editorial and an article by Richard Bernstein, "Skepticism Seems to Erode Europeans' Faith in Rice", New York Times, December 7, 2005.
445. Gerth, "Military's Information War Is Vast";
446. James Bamford, "The Man Who Sold the War", Rolling Stone, December 1, 2005, 53-62.
447. Stephen J. Hedges, "Media Use Backfires on U. S.", Chicago Tribune, December 11, 2005.
448. Quoted in Gerth, "Military's Information War Is Vast"
449. Gerth, "Military's Information War is Vast"
450. Matalin quoted in Gerth, "Military's Information War Is Vast"
451. Gerth, "Military's Information War Is Vast"
452. Eileen M. O'Connor and David Hoffman, "Made in Iraq: The Fallacy of Psy-Ops", International Herald Tribune, December 16, 2005.
453. Hedges, "Media Use Backfires on U. S.";
454. Mark Mazzetti and Borzou Daragahi, "U. S. Military Covertly Pays to Run Stories in Iraqi Press", Los Angeles Times, November 30, 2005;
455. Jeff Gerth and Scott Shane, "U. S. Is Said to Pay to Plant Articles in Iraq Papers", New York Times, December 1, 2005.
456. For a defense of the practice of placing articles, written by a member of the U. S. military who was involved, see John R. Guardiano, "Reporting for Duty: The U. S. Military Tells Iraqis the Truth, and Some Call It a 'Scandal'", Wall Street Journal, December 19, 2005.
457. Rumsfeld quoted in "Reporter Planted GI's Question for Rumsfeld", CNN, December 9, 2004.
458. Benedict Carey, "The Struggle to Gauge a War's Psychological Costs", New York Times, November 26, 2005.
459. Recent research on the role of psychology in propaganda, interrogation, and torture is summarized in Drake Bennett, "The War in the Mind", Boston Globe, November 27, 2005.
460. The medical consequences of images of war are discussed in Barry S. Levy and Victor W. Sidel, eds., War and Public Health (Washington, D. C.: American Public Health Association, 2000), esp. 168-85 and 323-35. For the Virtual Reality Medical Center in San Diego
461. see Carlos Bergfield, "War Vets Get a Dose of Virtual Reality", Business Week, July 26, 2006.
462. Also very informative is Claire Hilton, "Media Triggers of Post-traumatic Stress Disorders 50 Years after the Second World War", International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, August 12, 1997, 862-67, and the comment in the issue of January 13, 1998, 64-65.
463. Douglas Jehl, "Spy Agencies Told to Bolster 'The Growth of Democracy'", New York Times, October 27, 2005.
464. An example of one of the shadowy terrorist groups that focused on information warfare rather than physical aspects of war and terrorism was Hizb ut-Tahrir (the Party of Liberation), which used the Internet to disseminate radical concepts and literature. See Zeyno Baran, "Fighting the War of Ideas", Foreign Affairs (November-December 2005), 68-78. On use of the Internet by other al-Qaeda supporters, and attempts by the Saudi government to use the Internet and television programs to counter terrorist propaganda
465. see Hassan M. Fattah, "Good Jihad, Bad Jihad: Struggle for Arab Minds", New York Times, October 27, 2005;
466. and Heba Kandil, "Arab TV Dramas Kindle Debate on Roots of Militancy", Reuters, November 2, 2005.
467. For related discussions, see Steven R. Hurst, "Iraq Insurgents Hit Back on the Net: Set Bounties on Top Leaders", Associated Press, September 13, 2005;
468. Heather Robinson, "Insurgents Waging Media War", Philadelphia Inquirer, November 10, 2005;
469. Scott Johnson, "How the U. S. Is Losing the PR War in Iraq", Newsweek, January 15, 2007;
470. "The World through Their Eyes", The Economist, February 26, 2005, 23-25;
471. "The Arab Media War", January 2, 2005
472. New York Times Magazine, 26-54;
473. and Hugh Miles, Al Jazeera: The Inside Story of the Arab News Channel That Is Challenging the West (New York: Grove Press, 2005).
474. There were many echoes of the Abu Ghraib scandal. For example, in November 2005, a month before the Iraqi elections of December 15, there were media disclosures of a torture bunker in Baghdad being operated by the majority Shiites, who were cooperating with the United States in organizing the elections. See "Torture, Phosphorus Disclosures Hurt U. S.-Iraqi Image", Reuters, November 17, 2005. On Rumsfeld's secret offers of resignation
475. see "Defense Secretary Laments Abu Ghraib in Farewell", Associated Press, December 8, 2006.
476. For an informative discussion of the history and ethics of "leaking" by a veteran American reporter, see Max Frankel, "The Washington Back Channel", New York Times Magazine, March 25, 2007, 40-80.
477. By 2004, the Guantanamo prison was the subject of a hit play in London, and another play was in the works there accusing Secretary Rumsfeld of a cavalier attitude toward the suffering caused by the Iraq war. See John Daniszewski, "Stories of Guantanamo Detainees Brought to British Stage", Los Angeles Times, July 23, 2004.
478. Ana Marie Cox, "The YouTube War", Time, July 19, 2006. Use of the Internet tool Facebook as a means of fomenting revolution in Colombia and other Latin American countries was being studied by B. J. Fogg, director of the Persuasive Technology Lab at Stanford University.
479. Brian Andrew, "Researcher Says Peace Possible through Facebook", Stanford Daily, February 7, 2008.
480. Bill Press, "We're Losing the Spin War", Chicago Tribune Media Services, January 18, 2002, www.cnn. com;
481. Nancy Snow, Information War: American Propaganda, Free Speech, and Opinion Control since 9/11(New York: Seven Stories Press, 2003), 84-93.
482. Bud get figures are in O'Connor and Hoffman, "Made in Iraq"
483. Gerth, "Military's Information War Is Vast"
484. "State Department to Audit Mideast TV Service", November 4, 2005
485. Associated Press; Guy Dinmore, "Troubled TV Network Draws Fire", Financial Times, November 7, 2005.
486. William J. Holstein, "Armchair M. B. A.: Erasing the Image of the Ugly American", New York Times, October 23, 2005;
487. Bernd Debusmann, "Anti-Americanism Prompts Push for 'Citizen Diplomacy'", Reuters, July 26, 2006.
488. Activities of Business for Diplomatic Action are described in Brian Knowlton, "Letter from Washington: Combating the Image of the Ugly American", International Herald Tribune
489. August 17, 2006. The role of long-term cultural diplomacy in protecting America's overseas markets is noted in Alan Riding, "Rerun Our Cold War Cultural Diplomacy", October 27, 2005, New York Times.
490. Also see Bronwen Maddox, "It Won't Suddenly Be Peace and Love When Bush Goes", Times Online, September 28, 2006
491. David Barstow, "Courting Ex-Officers Tied to Military Contractors", New York Times, April 20, 2008;
492. Michael D. Shear, "McClellan: Bush Misled U. S. on Iraq", Washington Post, May 28, 2008;
493. Elisabeth Bumiller, "In Ex-Spokesman's Book, Harsh Words for Bush", New York Times, May 28, 2008.
494. For a summary of the two candidates' proposals for use of mass communication in foreign policy, see Amy Zalman, "Improving America's Reputation-McCain Would Lecture, Obama Would Listen", Huffington Post, December 5, 2008.
495. Michael Hirsh, "Washington: A Dysfunctional Democracy", Newsweek, January 25, 2007.
496. For a dismissal of the importance of anti-American sentiment, see John Gibson, Hating America: The New World Sport (New York: Regan Books/Harper Collins Publishers, 2004).
497. Recommendations for conducting U. S. foreign policy without extensively consulting other countries are offered in David Frum and Richard Perle, An End to Evil: How to Win the War on Terror (New York: Random House, 2003);
498. and Steven Rosefielde and D. QuinnMills, Masters of Illusion: American Leadership in the Media Age (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007).
499. Howard La Franchi, "Diplomacy Thriving, but without U. S.", Christian Science Monitor, June 3, 2008.
500. "Anti - Americanism: The View from Abroad", The Economist, February 19, 2005, 24-26.
501. David Brooks, "The Age of Skepticism", New York Times, December 1, 2005;
502. Howard Gardner, "The Loss of Trust", Boston Globe, June 18, 2005.
503. See also Bruce Morton, "A Strange Debate: Is America Really Arguing about Torture?" CNN News, www.cnn. com, November 15, 2005;
504. and Fareed Zakaria, "Questions for the Interrogators", Newsweek, September 25, 2006, quoting Colin Powell's observation that the "moral posture" of the United States in the world was declining because of its lack of respect for the Geneva Conventions.
505. For example, see "Reservists Add Media Relations to Regimen", Boston Globe, December 27, 2005. In 2006 the Pentagon also expanded its public relations staff to include more Internet capacity and more coordinated efforts to reply to news stories quickly;
506. see "Pentagon Ramping Up Public Relations Offensive", Associated Press, October 30, 2006.
507. Severe shortages of Arab-language capabilities at the Pentagon and the CIA are discussed in "Know Thine Enemy", The Economist, May 7, 2005.
508. Programs funded by the Saudi Arabian government to increase English language competency among Saudi citizens are described in Joel Brinkley, "Scholarships Send Saudis to the U. S. as Students", New York Times, December 18, 2005. According to the article, the number of Saudis visiting the United States fell from 46, 636 in 2001 to about 12, 000 in 2005. For Pentagon and U. S. intelligence agency attempts to compensate for the shortage of language competency by developing machinery to translate spoken Arabic into written English
509. see Sheri Qualters, "BBN Technologies Gears Up for Largest Project to Date", Boston Business Journal, August 19-25, 2005.
510. Also see Richard Pells, "Lost in Translation", Chronicle of Higher Education, October 14, 2005.
511. Pells, "Lost in Translation."
512. On the potential for partnerships between the government and private-sector cultural organizations, see Riding, "Rerun Our Cold War Diplomacy." Riding emphasizes: "entrenched anti-Americanism will take years of persuasion-and, in some cases, policy changes by Washington-to be reversed."
513. On the continuing importance of academic exchange programs, see H. D. S. Greenway, "An Education for Peace and Understanding", Boston Globe, June 6, 2008.
514. Keith Spicer, "Propaganda for Peace", New York Times, December 10, 1994
515. discusses ways that journalists might partner with the United Nations to promote peace. A call for greater awareness of ethical responsibility on the part of both the press and the government is Michael Socolow, "At War: Government and the Media", Boston Globe, December 13, 2005.
516. A description of changing attitudes toward journalistic objectivity is "The New Age of 'News'", Chicago Tribune, February 26, 2005.
517. See also Justin Lewis, Rod Brookes, Nick Mosdell, and Terry Threadgold, Shoot First and Ask Questions Later: Media Coverage of the 2003 Iraq War (New York: Peter Lang Publishing USA, 2005).
518. A thoughtful analysis of press coverage of the Iraq war is Ian Fisher, "Reporting, and Surviving, Iraq's Dangers", New York Times, July 18, 2004. An excellent PBS symposium on journalistic ethics, titled War Stories, was televised in 2008 as part of a series on ethics in American life sponsored by the Fred W. Friendly Seminars at Columbia University Graduate School of Journalism. Participants were from ABC and CNN, the U. S. Senate, the Pentagon, the Washington, D. C., legal community
519. An example of excellence in dialogue between academia and the press is Stephen Klaidman and Tom L. Beauchamp, The Virtuous Journalist (New York: Oxford University Press, 1987).
520. The difficulties that arise in dialogue between academia and the press are discussed in Rick Pearlstein, "If Journalists Listened to Media Scholars", University of Chicago Magazine, August 2004, 34-37.
521. Nancy Snow, Propaganda, Inc., 2nd ed. (New York: Seven Stories Press, 2002), 37-38.
522. Bill Kovarik, "Journalism and Peace", www.radford.edu/wkovarik/ peace.html. The article includes many valuable references.
523. See also Monroe Price and Mark Thompson, eds., Forging Peace: Intervention, Human Rights, and the Management of Media Space (Bloomington: University of Indiana Press, 2002);
524. and Gadi Wolfsfeld, Media and the Path to Peace (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004).
525. Elise Labott, "Google Earth Maps Out Darfur Atrocities", CNN.com, April 11, 2007.
526. Clive Thompson, "Saving the World, One Video Game at a Time", New York Times, July 23, 2006;
527. "Video Game Designers Try to Help Save the World", Reuters, June 28, 2006;
528. Allan Madrid, "Gaming the Poor", Newsweek, July 12, 2006;
529. Hiawatha Bray, "Game On: Political Activism with a Flick of the Joystick", Boston Globe, May 6, 2006;
530. "Students Fight for Mideast Peace in Video Game", Associated Press, April 25, 2006;
531. Ian MacKinnon, "Real-World Conflict Is a Moral Challenge for Gamers", The Times, October 24, 2006.
532. Joanna Chung", 'Social Bond' Will Benefit Emerging Free Press", Financial Times, May 3, 2006, www.ft.com.
533. Neil Katz and John W. Lawyer, "Communication and Conflict-Management Skills", in A Peace Reader: Essential Readings on War, Justice, Non-violence and World Order, ed. Joseph J. Fahey and Richard Armstrong (New York: Paulist Press, 1992), 258-66.
534. James Surowiecki, The Wisdom of Crowds (New York: Anchor Books/Random House, 2005).
535. For examples of pioneering research, see Edward Shils and Morris
536. Catherine Merridale, Ivan's War: Life and Death in the Red Army, 1939-1945 (New York: Henry Holt, 2006);
537. Nicholas Reeves, Official British Film Propaganda during the First World War (London: Croom Helm, 1986)
538. and The Power of Film Propaganda: Myth or Reality? (London: Cassell, 1999).
539. Pessimistic analyses of crowd behavior are given in Patrick Brantlinger, Bread and Circuses: Theories of Mass Culture as Social Decay (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1983);
540. and Serge Moscovici, The Age of the Crowd: A Historical Treatise on Mass Psychology, trans. J. C. White house (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985).
541. The importance of seeing receivers of messages as members of groups, not as isolated beings, was emphasized in a famous 1940 study, Paul F. Lazarsfeld, Bernard Berelson, and Hazel Gaudet, The People's Choice: How the Voter Makes Up His Mind in a Presidential Campaign (New York: Duell, Sloan and Pearce, 1944);
542. and the elaboration of this "limited effects" model is discussed in Elihu Katz and Paul F. Lazarsfeld, Personal Influence (Glencoe, Ill.: Free Press, 1955)
543. If access to primary, face-to-face groups is a bulwark against media manipulation, then one danger signal of loss of freedom is politicization of nonpolitical groups. Takeover of local, primary groups is one of the major themes of Richard J. Evans, The Coming of the Third Reich (New York: Penguin Books, 2003);
544. and Richard J. Evans, The Third Reich in Power: 1933-1939 (New York: Penguin Books, 2006).
545. For a summary of social research on the influence of media, see Jennings Bryant and Susan Thompson, Fundamentals of Media Effects (New York: McGraw Hill, 2002).
546. Examples of analyses of strategies for eradicating hate speech include John B. Whitton and Arthur Larson, Propaganda: Towards Disarmament in the War of Words (Dobbs Ferry, N. Y.: Oceana Publications, 1963), published for the World Rule of Law Center, Duke University;
547. and David Goldberg, "Transnational Communication and Defamatory Speech: A Case for Establishing Norms for the Twenty - first Century", New York Law School Review 50(2005-6):145-67.
548. On organized efforts to eradicate hate speech and hate-inducing images from the Internet, see Christopher Wolf, "Online, the Shadow of Auschwitz", International Herald Tribune, October 25, 2006.
549. Salah Naswrawi, "Leaders Vow to Fight Extremist Ideology", Associated Press, December 8, 2005.
550. Elise Labott, "Saudi Arabia Promises to Revise Textbooks", CNN on-line, July 20, 2006.
551. Dina Temple-Raston, "Journalism and Genocide", Columbia Journalism Review 41, no. 3(September-October 2002):18-20.
552. More recent efforts to use the media to promote reconciliation in Rwanda are described in Franziska Von Scheven, "On Rwanda Radio Soap Opera, a Path to Healing", International Herald Tribune, January 8, 2008.
553. On problems of definition, see Allan A. Ryan Jr., "Genocide: What Do We Want It to Be?" New England Journal of Public Policy 19, no. 2(Winter 2005):111-30.
554. Caroline Elkins, Imperial Reckoning: The Untold Story of Britain's Gulag in Kenya (New York: Henry Holt, 2005);
555. George Weller, First into Nagasaki: The Censored Eyewitness Dispatches on Post-Atomic Japan and Its Prisoners of War, ed. Anthony Weller (New York: Crown Publishers, 2006), 47-128 and 175-240;
556. A. C. Grayling, Among the Dead Cities: The History and Moral Legacy of the WWII Bombing of Civilians in Germany and Japan (New York: Walker and Company, 2006).
557. Jan T. Gross, Fear: Anti-Semitism in Poland after Auschwitz, an Essay in Historical Interpretation (New York: Random House, 2006).
558. Samantha Power, "A Problem from Hell": America and the Age of Genocide (New York: Basic Books, 2002).
559. Helene Cooper, "Darfur Collides with Olympics, and China Yields", New York Times, April 13, 2007.
560. "Uncle Sam Wants Hollywood", CNN, November 9, 2001, www.cnn. com;
561. "Hollywood Considers Role in War Effort", CNN, November 12, 2001, www.cnn. com. On a Hollywood attempt at cinematic interpretation of 9/11
562. see "Oliver Stone Shoots 9/11 Movie in N. Y.", Associated Press, November 3, 2005.
563. An interesting example of attempts by in de pen dent filmmakers to address 9/11 and later events is Harbour Fraser Hodder, "Cinema Veritas", Harvard Magazine (November-December 2005), 35-43 and 102-3
564. which discusses films made by Harvard University students, faculty members, and graduates. A look at one in de pen dent film, in this case a left-wing film intended to counter the conservative influence of Fox News, is Robert S. Boynton, "How to Make a Guerrilla Documentary", New York Times Magazine, July 11, 2004, 20-23.
565. Gwladys Fouché, "Journalists Eligible for Nobel Peace Prize", MediaGuardian, October 6, 2006, www.guardian.co.uk/media.