On lingering and being last: Race and sovereignty in the new world

On Lingering and Being Last: Race and Sovereignty in the New World

Volumn , Issue , 2008, Pages 1-260

  Elmer, Jonathan ^a  

^a NONE

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References (231)

1. William Rasch, Sovereignty and Its Discontents: On the Primacy of Conflict and the Structure of the Political (London: Birkbeck Law, 2004);
2. Aihwa Ong, Neoliberalism as Exception: Mutations in Citizenship and Sovereignty (Durham, NC:Duke University Press, 2006).
3. Stephen D. Krasner, Sovereignty: Organized Hypocrisy (Princeton, NJ:Princeton University Press, 1999).
4. James J. Sheehan, "The Problem of Sovereignty in European History," American Historical Review (February 2006): 1-15, quotes from 1-2.
5. Michel Foucault, "Governmentality" (1977), in Power, Vol. 3 of Essential Works of Foucault, 1954-1984, ed. James D. Faubion (New York: New Press, 2000), 220.
6. The recently translated courses offered by Foucault at the Collège de France show in great detail these ideas in development. See Michel Foucault, "Society Must Be Defended": Lectures at the Collège de France, 1975-76, ed. Mauro Bertani and Alessandro Fontana, trans. David Macey (Picador: New York, 2003);
7. Security, Territory, Population: Lectures at the Collège de France, 1977-78, ed. Michel Senellart, trans. Graham Burchell (New York: Palgrave MacMillan, 2007).
8. Benedict Anderson, Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origin and Spread of Nationalism, rev. ed. (London: Verso, 2006 [1983]), xiii.
9. Michael Hardt and Antonio Negri, Empire (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2000), 70.
10. Edward Keene, Beyond the Anarchical Society: Grotius, Colonialism, and Order in World Politics (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002);
11. Antony Anghie, Imperialism, Sovereignty, and the Making of International Law (Cambridge:Cambridge University Press, 2005).
12. Toni Morrison, Playing in the Dark: Whiteness and the Literary Imagination (New York: Vintage, 1992).
13. Eric Lott, Love and Theft: Blackface Minstrelsy and the American Working Class (New York: Oxford University Press, 1995).
14. Jacques Derrida, Rogues: Two Essays on Reason, trans. Pascale-Anne Brault and Michael Naas (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2005), 156.
15. Richard Tuck, The Rights ofWar and Peace: Political Thought and the International Order from Grotius to Kant (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999), 11.
16. Edwin DeWitt Dickinson, "The Analogy Between Natural Persons and International Persons in the Law of Nations," Yale Law Journal 26 (1916-17):564-91, quote from 590.
17. Michael Warner, "What's Colonial about Colonial America?" in Possible Pasts: Becoming Colonial in Early America, ed. Robert Blair St. George (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2000), 63.
18. Thomas Hobbes, Leviathan, ed. Edwin Curley (Indianapolis: Hackett, 1994), 77.
19. Carl Schmitt, The Nomos of the Earth in the International Law of the Jus Publicum Europeaum, trans. G. L. Ulmen (New York: Telos, 2003), 96.
20. Carl Schmitt, The Concept of the Political, trans. George Schwab (Chicago:University of Chicago Press, 1996).
21. David Armitage, The Ideological Origins of the British Empire (Cambridge:Cambridge University Press, 2000), 4.
22. Eliga H. Gould, The Persistence of Empire: British Political Culture in the Age of the American Revolution (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2000);
23. Brendan McConville, The King's Three Faces: The Rise and Fall of Royal America, 1688-1776 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2006), esp. Chap. 8;
24. Dror Wahrman, The Making of the Modern Self: Identity and Culture in Eighteenth-century England (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2004), Chap. 6.
25. Paul Downes, Democracy, Revolution, and Monarchism in Early American Literature (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002), ix. I mention here two other superb studies that have guided me as I tried to attend to historical and political pressures on the one hand, and the nuances of literary expression on the other:
26. Elizabeth Maddock Dillon, The Gender of Freedom: Fictions of Liberalism and the Literary Public Sphere (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2004);
27. Julie Ellison, Cato's Tears and the Making of Anglo-American Emotion (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1999).
28. See Warner, "What's Colonial about Colonial Society?";
29. Ed White, The Backcountry and the City: Colonization and Conflict in Early America (Minneapolis:University of Minnesota Press, 2005);
30. Ed White, "Early American Nations as Imagined Communities," American Quarterly 56, no. 1 (March 2004): 49-81;
31. Peter S. Onuf, Jefferson's Empire: The Language of American Nationhood (Charlottesville:University of Virginia Press, 2000).
32. See also David Kazanjian, The Colonizing Trick: National Culture and Imperial Citizenship (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2003);
33. Andy Doolen, Fugitive Empire: Locating Early American Imperialism (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2005);
34. Sean X. Goudie, Creole America: The West Indies and the Formation of Literature and Culture in the New Republic (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2006).
35. David Waldstreicher, Runaway America: Benjamin Franklin, Slavery, and the American Revolution (New York: Hill and Wang, 2004).
36. John Wood Sweet, Bodies Politic: Negotiating Race in the American North, 1730-1830 (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2003), 19.
37. David Waldstreicher, "Racial Histories, Histories of Race: All or None of the Above?" Reviews in American History 32, no. 3 (September 2004): 347-51, quote from 348.
38. John Locke, Second Treatise of Government [1690], ed. C. B. Macpherson (Indianapolis: Hackett, 1980), 9.
39. Jacques Rancière, "Who Is the Subject of the Rights of Man?" The South Atlantic Quarterly 103, nos. 2-3 (Spring-Summer 2004): 297-310, quote from 301-2.
40. I have elaborated what I take to be the flaws in Agamben's (and others') anti-humanitarianism in "Torture and Hyperbole," Law, Culture, and the Humanities 3, no. 1 (2007): 18-34.
41. Susan Westbury, "Theatre and Power in Bacon's Rebellion: Virginia, 1676-77," The Seventeenth Century 19, no. 1 (April 2004): 69-86.
42. Oxford English Dictionary, Oxford Compact Edition, 1971, s.v. "postillion."
43. Aphra Behn, The Fair Jilt, in Oroonoko and Other Writings, ed. Paul Salzman (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1994), 74. Further references to this story, and to Oroonoko, will be to the Salzman edition.
44. Janet Todd, The Secret Life of Aphra Behn (London: André Deutsch, 1996), 411.
45. Gilles Deleuze and Félix Guattari, A Thousand Plateaus: Capitalism and Schizophrenia, trans. Brian Massumi (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1987), 508.
46. For accounts of Virginia's royalism under Governor Berkeley, see Westbury 71-73, 77. A rich sketch of the social makeup of seventeenth-century Virginia is provided by David Hackett Fischer, Albion's Seed: Four British Folkways in America (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1989), 207-32.
47. See Michel Foucault, Discipline and Punish: The Birth of the Prison, trans. Alan Sheridan (New York: Vintage, 1977), Chap. 2.
48. Cited in Jennifer Hale Pulsipher, "The Widow Ranter and Royalist Culture in Virginia," Early American Literature 39, no. 1 (2004): 41-66, quote from 59.
49. Westbury 73. Kathleen Brown presents the richest account of the ways in which the rebellion flared up in a climate of increased worries about women's public unruliness. See Kathleen M. Brown, Good Wives, NastyWenches, and Anxious Patriarchs: Gender, Race, and Power in Colonial Virginia (Chapel Hill, NC:Omohundro Institute of Early American History and Culture, 1996), Chap. 5.
50. "A True Narrative of the Late Rebellion in Virginia, By the Royal Commissioners, 1677," in Narratives of the Insurrections, 1675-1690, ed. Charles M. Andrews (New York: Barnes and Noble, 1915), 135. Further references to the "True Narrative" will be to this edition.
51. G. A. Starr, "Aphra Behn and the Genealogy of the Man of Feeling," Modern Philology 87, no. 4 (May 1990): 362-72, quote from 367.
52. This point is made in more detail by Jacqueline Pearson in "The Short Fiction (excluding Oroonoko)," in The Cambridge Companion to Aphra Behn, ed. Derek Hughes and Janet Todd (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004), 196.
53. The medieval two-bodies theory holds that the king had two bodies, one mortal and the other not. See Ernst H. Kantorowicz, The King's Two Bodies: A Study in Medieval Political Theology (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1957).
54. Julie Ellison, Cato's Tears and the Making of Anglo-American Emotion (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1999), 30.
55. See Ernest Bernbaum, "Mrs. Behn's Oroonoko," in Anniversary Papers by Colleagues and Pupils of George Lyman Kittredge (Boston: Ginn, 1913);
56. Bernbaum, "Mrs. Behn's Biography a Fiction," PMLA 28, no. 3 (1913): 432-53.
57. For modern scholarship on the question, which makes use of documentary findings that show Bernbaum to have been wrong, see Katherine M. Rogers, "Fact and Fiction in Aphra Behn's Oroonoko," Studies in the Novel 20 (1988):1-15;
58. Mary Ann O'Donnell, "Aphra Behn: The Documentary Record," The Cambridge Companion, 1-11. While Jennifer Hale Pulsipher persuasively argues that The Widow Ranter provides a "clear demonstration of the continuity of English royalist culture on both sides of the Atlantic," she does not bother to ask whether it might also demonstrate any discontinuities (Pulsipher 41).
59. Elliot Visconsi, "A Degenerate Race: English Barbarism in Behn's Oroonoko and The Widow Ranter," ELH 69 (2002): 673-701, quote from 697.
60. Janet Todd and Derek Hughes, "Tragedy and Tragicomedy," in The Cambridge Companion, 94.
61. "True Narrative," 112-13.
62. "Strange News from Virginia," reprinted as Appendix 7 in The Widow Ranter, or, The History of Bacon in Virginia, ed. Aaron R. Walden (New York:Garland, 1993), 165, 170, 169. I have used Walden's edition of Behn's play but give all citations by act, scene, and line numbers.
63. Walter Benjamin, The Origin of German Tragic Drama, trans. John Osborne (London: New Left, 1977), 142. In the beginning of the play, Friendly refers to Bacon's "Sullen Melancholly" (I.i.35). Because "Strange Newes" offers no such characterization, this detail has been seen as offering further evidence that Behn had access to the official commissioners' "True Narrative" (Ward 96).
64. See Catherine Gallagher, Nobody's Story: The Vanishing Acts of Women Writers in the Marketplace, 1670-1820 (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1994), 34, and Chap. 1 generally.
65. For thoughtful recent attempts to assess the critical appeal of Behn, and especially Oroonoko, see Laura Rosenthal, "Oroonoko: Reception, Ideology, and Narrative Strategy," in Cambridge Companion, 151-65;
66. Joanna Lipking's collection of criticism in her Norton Critical Edition, Aphra Behn, Oroonoko, ed. Joanna Lipking (New York: Norton, 1997);
67. Srinivas Aravamudan, Tropicopolitans:Colonialism and Agency, 1688-1804 (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1999), who remarks that "recent critical attention has bordered on the obsessional" (29).
68. The first phrase is William Spengeman's, and the second is from Janet Todd and Derek Hughes. See William Spengeman, "The Earliest American Novel: Aphra Behn's Oroonoko," Nineteenth-century Fiction 38, no. 4 (1984):384-414; and Todd and Hughes 93.
69. Margaret Ferguson, "Juggling the Categories of Race, Class, and Gender:Aphra Behn's Oroonoko," in Aphra Behn: Contemporary Critical Essays, ed. Janet Todd (New York: St. Martin's, 1999), 209-33, quote from 218.
70. Laura Brown, "The Romance of Empire: Oroonoko and the Trade in Slaves," in The New Eighteenth Century: Theory, Politics, English Literature, ed. Felicity Nussbaum and Laura Brown (New York: Methuen, 1987), 57.
71. Wylie Sypher, Guinea's Captive Kings: British Anti-Slavery Literature of the XVIIIth Century (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1942), 110.
72. Two canonical surveys of such influence are Sypher; and Edward D. Seeber's "Oroonoko in France in the XVIIIth Century," PMLA 51, no. 4 (December 1936): 953-59.
73. Barry Weller, "The Royal Slave and the Prestige of Origins," Kenyon Review 14, no. 3 (Summer 1992): 65-79, quote from 68.
74. Olaudah Equiano, The Interesting Narrative and Other Writings, ed. Vincent Carretta (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1995), 32-33. Further references will be to this edition.
75. John Marrant, A Narrative of the Lord's Wonderful Dealings with John Marrant, a Black (1785), in Unchained Voices: An Anthology of Black Authors in the English-speaking World of the 18th Century, ed. Vincent Carretta (Lexington:University Press of Kentucky, 1996), 120. Further references to Marrant's text are to Carretta's edition.
76. Phillis Wheatley, "On Being Brought From Africa," in Unchained Voices, 62.
77. Dale B. Martin, Slavery as Salvation: The Metaphor of Slavery in Pauline Christianity (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1990).
78. Jean-François Lyotard, "The Grip (Mainmise)," in Political Writings, trans. Bill Readings and Kevin Paul (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1993), 148.
79. Jacques Derrida, Monolingualism of the Other; Or, the Prosthesis of Origin, trans. Patrick Mensah (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1998), 59-60.
80. A. E. Afigbo, Ropes of Sand (Studies in Igbo History and Culture) (Oxford:Oxford University Press, 1981), 145.
81. See Equiano's Travels; The Interesting Narrative of the Life of Olaudah Equiano, or Gustavus Vassa, the African, ed. Paul Edwards (New York: Praeger, 1967). As early as 1969, Equiano was being anthologized.
82. See Great Slave Narratives, ed. Arna Bontemps (Boston: Beacon, 1969).
83. Charles T. Davis and Henry Louis Gates Jr., eds., The Slave's Narrative (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1985);
84. Henry Louis Gates Jr., The Signifying Monkey: A Theory of African-American Literary Criticism (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1988). As early as 1990, Equiano began to be included in the huge teaching anthologies of American literature.
85. See, for example, The Heath Anthology of American Literature, ed. Paul Lauter et. al. (Lexington: D. C. Heath, 1990).
86. Abiola Irele, "African Letters: The Making of a Tradition," Yale Journal of Criticism 5, no. 1 (1991): 69-100, quote from 70.
87. Carretta, "Olaudah Equiano or Gustavus Vassa?", 96.
88. Carretta, Equiano, the African, 119. Carretta titles his chapter on Equiano's manumission "Freedom of a Sort."
89. Jean-François Lyotard, "Time Today," in The Inhuman: Reflections on Time (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1991), 68.
90. Adam Potkay, "Olaudah Equiano and the Art of Spiritual Autobiography," Eighteenth-century Studies 27, no. 4 (Summer 1994): 677-92.
91. Derrida, Monolingualism, 27.
92. I have pursued some of the resonances of Equiano's text for trauma theory in more detail in Jonathan Elmer, "Olaudah Equiano and the Poetics of the Archive," in Berichten, Erzählen, Beherrschen: Wahrnehmung und Repräsentation in der frühen Kolonialgeschichte Europas (Klostermann: Frankfurt am Main, 2003), 240-61.
93. Maurice Halbwachs, On Collective Memory, ed. and trans. Lewis A. Coser (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992), 51.
94. Herman Melville, Billy Budd, Sailor (An Inside Narrative) (New York: Library of America, 1984), 1423-24. Further references to Billy Budd (BB) and Benito Cereno (BC) will be to this edition and will be included in the text.
95. See Morrison, Playing in the Dark.
96. H. Bruce Franklin, The Wake of the Gods: Melville's Mythology (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1963), 195.
97. Carolyn L. Karcher, Shadow over the Promised Land: Slavery and Violence in Melville's America (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1980), 302-3.
98. See Eric J. Sundquist, "Suspense and Tautology in Benito Cereno," Glyph 8 (1981): 103-26. Sundquist's formalist argument in this essay is largely incorporated into his better-known, historically more textured treatment of the story in To Wake the Nations: Race in the Making of American Literature (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1993), 135-82.
99. Herman Melville, Moby-Dick; or, The Whale (New York: Penguin, 1992), 88. Further references to Moby-Dick (MD) will be to this edition and will be included in the text.
100. Hobbes, Leviathan, 109.
101. Wai-Chee Dimock, Empire for Liberty: Melville and the Poetics of Individualism (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1989), 117.
102. C. L. R. James, Mariners, Renegades, and Castaways: The Story of Herman Melville and the World We Live In (Hanover, NH: Dartmouth College/University Press of New England, 2001 [1953]), 54, 13.
103. Cesare Casarino, Modernity at Sea: Melville, Marx, Conrad in Crisis (Minneapolis:University of Minnesota Press, 2002), 109.
104. Merrell R. Davis and William H. Gilman, eds., The Letters of Herman Melville (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1960), 124-25.
105. Dickinson, "The Analogy Between Natural Persons and International Persons in the Law of Nations," 564.
106. Royall Tyler, The Algerine Captive; Or, the Life and Adventures of Doctor Updike Underhill, ed. Caleb Crain (New York: Modern Library, 2002), 119.
107. Paul Downes, "Melville's Benito Cereno and the Politics of Humanitarian Intervention," South Atlantic Quarterly 103, nos. 2-3 (Spring-Summer 2004):465-88, quote from 472.
108. Mark Salber Philips, Society and Sentiment: Genres of Historical Writing in Britain, 1740-1820 (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2000), 90.
109. Carl Schmitt, Ex Captivitate Salus: Erfahrungen der Zeit, 1945-47 (Cologne:Greven, 1950), 75. The German reads: "Ich bin der letzte, bewusste Vertreter des jus publicum Europeaum . . . und erfahre sein Ende so, wie Benito Cereno die Fahrt des Piratenschiffs erfuhr."
110. Thomas O. Beebee, "Carl Schmitt's Myth of Benito Cereno," seminar 42, no. 2 (May 2006): 114-33. Beebee quotes Schmitt's letter-"Ich denke an Benito Cereno als Situations-Symbol"-on p. 117.
111. For another perspective on Schmitt's thinking about land and sea, see Christopher L. Connery, "Ideologies of Land and Sea: Alfred Thayer Mahan, Carl Schmitt, and the Shaping of Global Myth Elements," boundary 228, no. 2 (2001): 173-201.
112. My emphasis. Beebee gives the German: "Das Meer als Element ist nur durch Melville fassbar zu machen. Ein sehr aktuelles Thema" (117).
113. Jon Beasly-Murray, "The Common Enemy: Tyrants and Pirates," South Atlantic Quarterly 104, no. 2 (Spring 2005): 218-25, quote from 220.
114. See Jay Fliegelman's brilliant reading of the play of agency and passivity in the Declaration, Declaring Independence: Jefferson, Natural Language, and the Culture of Performance (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1993).
115. Thomas Jefferson, Writings (New York: Library of America, 1984), 22.
116. Herman Melville, White-Jacket; or, The World in a Man-of-War (New York: Signet, 1979), 16.
117. Paul Gilroy, The Black Atlantic: Modernity and Double Consciousness (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1993).
118. Ian Baucom, Specters of the Atlantic: Slavery, Finance Capital, and the Philosophy of History (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2005).
119. See Linebaugh and Rediker, The Many-headed Hydra; Rediker, Between the Devil and the Deep Blue Sea: Merchant Seamen, Pirates, and the Anglo-American Maritime World, 1700-1750 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989);
120. Rediker, Villains of All Nations: Atlantic Pirates in the Golden Age (Boston:Beacon, 2005).
121. See Eve Kosofsky Sedgwick, Epistemology of the Closet (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1990), Chap. 2.
122. See Reginald Horsman, "The Paradox of Dartmoor Prison," American Heritage 26 (February 1975): 12-17, 85;
123. W. Jeffrey Bolster, Black Jacks:African American Seamen in the Age of Sail (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1998), Chap. 4.
124. Nathaniel Hawthorne, ed., "Papers of an Old Dartmoor Prisoner," U.S. and Democratic Review (March 1846), 210-11. The series ran from January to September 1846, with the following pages: January: 31-39 (where it is incorrectly titled "Papers of an Old Dartmouth Prisoner"); February: 97-111; March: 200-212; May: 360-68; June: 467-65; August: 141-48; September:209-17).
125. See Dimock, Empire For Liberty, Chap. 4.
126. Thomas Jefferson, Notes on the State of Virginia [1954], ed. William Peden (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1982), 63. All subsequent references are to this edition.
127. Lewis K. Gannett lists "Chief Logan the eloquent" along with Squanto, Pocahontas, Crazy Horse, and "The Last of the Mohicans" in his brief preface to Thoedora Kroeber, Ishi in Two Worlds: A Biography of the Last Wild Indian in North America (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1961).
128. For other informative accounts of Logan's speech, and especially its afterlife, see Edwin W. Seeber, "Critical Views of Logan's Speech," Journal of American Folklore 60 (April 1947): 130-46;
129. Edward G. Gray, "The Making of Logan, the Mingo Orator," in The Language Encounter in the Americas, 1492-1800, ed. Edward G. Gray and Norman Fiering (New York: Berghahn, 2000);
130. Anthony F. C. Wallace, Jefferson and the Indians: The Tragic Fate of the First Americans (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1999), 1-20;
131. David Murray, Forked Tongues: Speech, Writing, and Representation in North American Indian Texts (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1991).
132. The best and most detailed recent treatment of Logan can be found in Gordon M. Sayre, The Indian Chief as Tragic Hero: Native Resistance and the Literatures of America, from Moctezuma to Tecumseh (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2005), Chap. 5.
133. Jacques Derrida, "Archive Fever," trans. Eric Prenowitz, diacritics 25, no. 2 (1995): 9-63, quote from 10.
134. Charles A. Miller, Jefferson and Nature: An Interpretation (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1988), 41.
135. For a history of the transition from "incorporation" to "removal" in early national America, see Bernard W. Sheehan, Seeds of Extinction: Jeffersonian Philanthropy and the American Indian (New York: Norton, 1974), especially Chap. 5.
136. See Lacan's comments on this genealogy in Jacques Lacan, The Four Fundamental Concepts of Psychoanalysis, trans. Alan Sheridan (New York: Norton, 1978), 29-41.
137. Ed White, The Backcountry and the City: Colonization and Conflict in Early America (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2005), 113.
138. Homi K. Bhabha, The Location of Culture (London: Routledge, 1994), 245.
139. Democratic Review 14 (1844), cited in Lucy Maddox, Removals: Nineteenth- century American Literature and the Politics of Indian Affairs (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1991), 30-31.
140. Lewis Henry Morgan, League of the Iroquois [1851] (Secaucus, NJ: Carol, 1996), 143.
141. See also Roy Harvey Pearce, Savagism and Civilization: A Study of the Indian and the American Mind [1953] (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1988), Chap. 4.
142. Dumas Malone, Jefferson the Virginian (Boston: Little, Brown, 1948), 392.
143. For a particularly rich study of links between Scotland and America in the colonial and early national periods, see Susan Manning, Fragments of Union:Making Connections in Scottish and American Writing (Houndmills: Palgrave, 2002), especially Chap. 4, which explores the connections between Ossian and Jefferson's Logan.
144. Katie Trumpener, Bardic Nationalism: The Romantic Novel and the British Empire (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1997).
145. Richard White, The Middle Ground: Indians, Empires, and Republics in the Great Lakes Region, 1650-1815 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1991), 358.
146. For an overview of hybridization from an ethnohistorical perspective, see Colin G. Calloway, New Worlds for All: Indians, Europeans, and the Remaking of Early America (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1997).
147. Paul Downes, Democracy, Revolution, and Monarchism in Early American Literature (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002), 48.
148. For more on "Tammany," see also Philip J. Deloria, Playing Indian (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1998), Chap. 1.
149. Frances Ferguson, Solitude and the Sublime: Romanticism and the Aesthetics of Individuation (New York: Routledge, 1992), 32.
150. Alain Badiou, Being and Event, trans. Oliver Feltham (New York: Continuum, 2005), 93, 95.
151. Locke, Second Treatise of Government, 29.
152. Anne Anlin Cheng, The Melancholy of Race: Psychoanalysis, Assimilation, and Hidden Grief (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000), 12, 11, 10.
153. Morton Paley, "The Last Man: Apocalypse Without Millenium," in The Other Mary Shelley: Beyond Frankenstein, ed. Audrey A. Fisch, Anne K. Mellor, and Esther H. Schor (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993), 107-8.
154. See Fiona Stafford's monograph The Last of the Race: The Growth of a Myth from Milton to Darwin (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1994) for a good sense of the range and reach of this topos in English literary history.
155. Barbara Johnson, "The Last Man," in The Other Mary Shelley (258).
156. Numerous critics have explored the symbolic place of the Indian in American culture in terms of haunting, uncanny returns, and other gothic motifs. See Susan Scheckel, The Insistence of the Indian: Race and Nationalism in Nineteenthcentury American Culture (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1998);
157. Teresa A. Goddu, Gothic America: Narrative, History, and Nation (New York: Columbia University Press, 1997);
158. Leslie A. Fiedler, The Return of the Vanishing American (New York: Stein and Day, 1968);
159. Renée L. Bergland, The National Uncanny: Indian Ghosts and American Subjects (Hanover, NH: University Press of New England, 2000);
160. Werner Sollors, Beyond Ethnicity: Consent and Descent in American Culture (New York: Oxford University Press, 1986).
161. Cited in Jill Lepore, The Name of War: King Philip's War and the Origins of American Identity (New York: Vintage, 1999), 221.
162. Ian Baucom, Specters of the Atlantic: Finance Capital, Slavery, and the Philosophy of History (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2005).
163. Cited in Mary Shelley, The Last Man, ed. Anne McWhir (Peterborough, ON: Broadview, 1996), xiv. Further references to the novel will be included in the main body of the text.
164. For a strong analysis of Shelley's political skepticism, see Lee Sterrenburg, "The Last Man: Anatomy of Failed Revolutions," Nineteenth-century Fiction 33 (1978): 324-47.
165. Gilles Deleuze and Félix Guattari, Anti-Oedipus, Capitalism, and Schizophrenia, trans. Robert Hurley, Mark Seem, and Helen R. Lane (Minneapolis:University of Minnesota Press, 1983), 265.
166. See David Kazanjian, The Colonizing Trick: National Culture and Imperial Citizenship in Early America (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2003), Chap. 3;
167. Andy Doolen, Fugitive Empire: Locating Early American Imperialism (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2005), chaps. 2 and 3;
168. Sean X. Goudie, Creole America: The West Indies and the Formation of Literature and Culture in the New Republic (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2006), Chap. 5;
169. Jared Gardner, "Alien Nation: Edgar Huntly's Savage Awakening," American Literature 66, no. 3 (September 1994): 429-61;
170. Luke Gibbons, "Ireland, America, and Gothic Memory: Transatlantic Terror in the Early Republic," boundary 231, no. 1 (2004): 25-47;
171. Bryan Waterman, "The Bavarian Illuminati, the Early American Novel, and Histories of the Public Sphere," William and Mary Quarterly 62, no. 1 (January 2005): 9-30;
172. Philip Gould, Barbaric Traffic: Commerce and Antislavery in the 18th Century Atlantic World (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2003), Chap. 5.
173. Sigmund Freud, Totem and Taboo: Some Points of Agreement Between the Mental Lives of Savages and Neurotics, trans. James Strachey (New York: Norton, 1950), 143.
174. F. R. Ankersmit, Political Representation (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2002), 60-90;
175. Philippe Lacoue-Labarthe and Jean-Luc Nancy, "La Panique Politique," trans. Céline Surprenant, in Lacoue-Labarthe and Nancy, Retreating the Political, ed. Simon Sparks (London: Routledge, 1997), 11.
176. Sigmund Freud, Moses and Monotheism [1939], trans. Katherine Jones (New York: Vintage, 1967), 63.
177. Quoted in Pamela Clemit, The Godwinian Novel: The Rational Fictions of Godwin, Brockden Brown, Mary Shelley (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1993), 107.
178. William Godwin, An Enquiry Concerning Political Justice, Vol. 3 of The Political and Philosophical Writings of William Godwin, ed. Mark Philp (London:William Pickering, 1993), 142.
179. Charles Brockden Brown, Edgar Huntly; Or, Memoirs of a Sleep-Walker, ed. Norman S. Grabo (New York: Penguin, 1988), 3.
180. Maurice Hindle describes these events in the introduction to the Penguin edition. See William Godwin, Things as They Are; or the Adventures of Caleb Williams, ed. Maurice Hindle (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1987), xi, xxxviii.
181. Further references to the novel, however, will be to William Godwin, Caleb Williams; or, Things as They Are, ed. George Sherburn (New York: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston, 1960).
182. An informed and discerning treatment of legal issues in the novel is Nicholas Williams, "'The Subject of Detection': Legal Rhetoric and Subjectivity in Caleb Williams," Eighteenth-century Fiction 9, no. 1 (July 1997): 475-92.
183. Foucault, "Society Must Be Defended," 240-41.
184. Sydney J. Krause, "Penn's Elm and Edgar Huntly: Dark 'Instruction to the Heart,'" American Literature 66, no. 3 (September 1994): 463-84.
185. Gardner, "Alien Nation."
186. Eric Slauter, "Being Alone in the Age of the Social Contract," William and Mary Quarterly 62, no. 1 (January 2005): 31-66, quote from 64-65.
187. See Agamben, Homo Sacer, esp. 91-103;
188. Downes, Democracy, Revolution, and Monarchism, Chap. 1.
189. Walter J. Ong, Ramus, Method, and the Decay of Dialogue: From the Art of Discourse to the Art of Reason (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1958).
190. Jacques Derrida, "Freud and the Scene of Writing," in Writing and Difference, trans. Alan Bass (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1978), 214.
191. John Neal, American Writers: A Series of Papers Contributed to Blackwood's Magazine (1824-25), ed. Fred Lewis Pattee (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1937), 57, 61.
192. Dana D. Nelson, National Manhood: Capitalist Citizenship and the Imagined Fraternity of White Men (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1998), 90.
193. John Neal, Our Country: An Address Delivered Before the Alumni of Waterville College, July 29, 1830 (Portland: S. Colman, 1830), 34.
194. John Neal, Logan, The Mingo Chief: A Family History (London: J. Cunningham, 1840), 45.
195. The phrase gives the title to the second chapter of Mario Praz, The Romantic Agony, 2nd ed., trans. Angus Davidson (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1970).
196. Sigmund Freud, The Ego and the Id [1923], trans. Joan Riviere (New York: Norton, 1960), 24.
197. Richard Van Alstyne, The American Empire: Its Historical Pattern and Evolution (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1960), 4.
198. For a rich description of this world, as well as further details regarding Shickellamy, see James H. Merrell, Into the American Woods: Negotiators on the Pennsylvania Frontier (New York: Norton, 1999).
199. John Neal, "Mr John Dunn Hunter; The Hero of Hunter's Captivity Among the Indians, &c.," London Magazine 5 (1826): 317-43, quote from 341.
200. In his story "Otter-Bag" (1829), Neal writes, "Perhaps the best specimen of Indian oratory that we have now, is the speech of Logan the Mingo chief; and yet Mr Jefferson, to whom we are indebted for it, knows very well, that instead of being a true speech, or the translation of a true speech, it is altogether untrue." See John Neal, "Otter-Bag, The Oneida Chief," in The Genius of John Neal: Selections from his Writings, ed. Benjamin Lease and Hans-Joachim Lang (Frankfurt: Peter Lang, 1978), 13.
201. Jacques Derrida, Of Grammatology, trans. Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1974), 101.
202. John Vaillant, The Golden Spruce: A True Story of Myth, Madness, and Greed (New York: Norton, 2005), 135. Further references to Hadwin's story will be to Vaillant's wonderful book, and included in the main body of the text. I borrow the paradoxical "west of everything" from Jane P. Tompkins,West of Everything:The Inner Life of Westerns (New York: Oxford University Press, 1992).
203. Roland Barthes, The Grain of the Voice: Interviews 1962-1980, trans. Linda Coverdale (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1985), 127.
204. The American Pioneer 1, no. 1 (January 1842), 5. Further references will be included in the text.
205. Cormac McCarthy, Blood Meridian (New York: Vintage, 1985), 140.
206. Sigmund Freud, The Interpretation of Dreams, trans. James Strachey (New York: Avon, 1965), 564.
207. Elizabeth Gilbert, The Last American Man (New York: Viking, 2002), 1.
208. Philip J. Deloria, Playing Indian (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1998).
209. See Mark Twain, "Fenimore Cooper's Literary Offenses," in Great Short Works of Mark Twain, ed. Justin Kaplan (New York: Harper and Row, 1967), 169-90. The story about the grizzlies can be found in Vaillant.
210. James Fenimore Cooper, The Last of the Mohicans (New York: Penguin, 1986), 349.
211. D. H. Lawrence, Studies in Classic American Literature [1923] (New York:Penguin, 1977), 61.
212. James Hall, "The Indian Hater," in Stories of the Early American West, ed. Peter Bischoff (Essen: Die Blaue Eule, 1989), 72.
213. Catherine Maria Sedgwick, Hope Leslie; or, Early Times in Massachusetts [1827], ed. Mary Kelley (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1987), 84.
214. On Mononotto's mention in Winthrop and Hubbard, see notes 4 and 5 in Sedgwick, Hope Leslie, 356-57. The Pequots were not extinct in Melville's time, of course, nor are they today. See William Apess, A Son of the Forest, and Other Writings, ed. Barry O'Connell (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1992).
215. See Major Problems in American Indian History: Documents and Essays, ed. Albert L. Hurtado and Peter Iverson (Lexington, MA: D. C. Heath, 1994), 340.
216. Despite the fact that Abiram White deserves his hanging, I cannot agree, for the reasons suggested above, with Sandra M. Gustafson's view that the scene of White's hanging represents "Cooper's desire to discipline U.S. territorial expansion." See Sandra M. Gustafson, "Histories of Democracy and Empire," American Quarterly 59, no. 1 (March 2007): 107-33, quote from 125.
217. See Krause, "Penn's Elm and Edgar Huntly."
218. See Francis Paul Prucha, American Indian Treaties: The History of a Political Anomaly (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1994), 3.
219. Francis Jennings, William N. Fenton, Mary Druke, and David R. Miller, eds., The History and Culture of Iroquois Diplomacy: An Interdisciplinary Guide to the Treaties of the Six Nations and Their League (Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 1985), 16.
220. James H. Merrell, Into the AmericanWoods: Negotiators on the Pennsylvania Frontier (New York: Norton, 1999), 180.
221. Robert Pogue Harrison, Forests: The Shadow of Civilization (Chicago:University of Chicago Press, 1992), 69.
222. Gayle Brandow Samuels, Enduring Roots: Encounters with Trees, History, and the American Landscape (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1999), 8.
223. Locke, Second Treatise of Government, 19.
224. Jean-Jacques Rousseau, "Discourse on the Origin and the Foundations of Inequality among Men," in The Discourses and Other Early Political Writings, ed. and trans. Victor Gourevitch (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997), 147.
225. G.W. F. Hegel, The Phenomenology of Spirit, trans. A. V. Miller (Oxford:Oxford University Press, 1977), 60-61.
226. Derrida, "Freud and the Scene of Writing," 214.
227. The New Science of Giambattista Vico, ed. and trans. Thomas Goddard Bergin and Max Harold Frisch (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1970), 36.
228. Harrison comments on this passage at Forests 35. Also see Isaiah Berlin, Three Critics of the Enlightenment: Vico, Hamann, Herder, ed. Henry Hardy (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2000), 5-167. Berlin cites the same passage on p. 68.
229. Giorgio Agamben, The Coming Community, trans. Michael Hardt (Minneapolis:University of Minnesota Press, 1993), 10.
230. Deleuze and Guattari, A Thousand Plateaus, 15.
231. Fiedler, The Return of the Vanishing American, 7.