Private control over access to the law: The perplexing federal regulatory use of private standards

Michigan Law Review

Volumn 112, Issue 5, 2014, Pages 737-808

  Mendelson, Nina A ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN LAW SCHOOL   (United States)

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EID: 84894425195     PISSN: 00262234     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Article

References (530)

1. Letter from James Madison to W.T. Barry (Aug. 4, 1822), in 9 The Writings of James Madison 103, 103 (Gaillard Hunt ed., 1910).
2. Antonin Scalia, Essay, The Rule of Law as a Law of Rules, 56 U. Chi. L. Rev. 1175, 1179 (1989).
3. see also Peter L. Strauss, Private Standards Organizations and Public Law, 22 Wm. & Mary Bill Rts. J. 497, 497 (2013) (quoting World Legal Info. Inst., http://www.worldlii. org/worldlii/declaration/montreal_en.html (last visited Dec. 12, 2013).
4. Antonin Scalia, Essay, The Rule of Law as a Law of Rules, 56 U. Chi. L. Rev. 1175, 1179 (1989).
5. See Cassius Dio, Roman History 357 (Earnest Cary trans., Harvard Univ. Press, 1914-1927), available at http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/ 59*.html.
6. William Blackstone, Commentaries *46.
7. Erwin Griswold, Government in Ignorance of the Law-A Plea for Better Publication of Executive Legislation, 48 Harv. L. Rev. 198, 294 (1934).
8. Erwin Griswold, Government in Ignorance of the Law-A Plea for Better Publication of Executive Legislation, 48 Harv. L. Rev. 198, 294 (1934).
9. See Mila Sohoni, Notice and the New Deal, 62 Duke L.J. 1169, 1179 (2013).
10. Erwin Griswold, Government in Ignorance of the Law-A Plea for Better Publication of Executive Legislation, 48 Harv. L. Rev. 198, 294 (1934).
11. Note, The Federal Register and the Code of Federal Regulations-A Reappraisal, 80 Harv. L. Rev. 439, 440-41 (1966); see also Griswold, supra note 5, at 205.
12. Erwin Griswold, Government in Ignorance of the Law-A Plea for Better Publication of Executive Legislation, 48 Harv. L. Rev. 198, 294 (1934).
13. E.g., Thomas, Library of Cong., http://thomas.loc.gov (last visited Sept. 29, 2013) (access to legislative materials).
14. Opinions, Supreme Court of the U.S., http://www. supremecourt.gov/opinions/opinions.aspx (last visited Sept. 29, 2013) (Supreme Court opinions before 1882 and after 1991)
15. Federal Digital System, U.S. Gov't Printing Office, http:// www.gpo.gov/fdsys (last visited Sept. 29, 2013) (providing access, back to the mid-1990s, to the CFR, Federal Register, public and private laws, U.S. Code, and some federal court opinions). Private services, such as West Publishing, also provide access for a price, although their assertion of copyright depends on supplying added content, such as West's headnotes system.
16. Callaghan v. Myers, 128 U.S. 617, 647 (1888). Federal court opinions are also freely available online.
17. E.g., PACER, http://www.pacer.gov (last visited Sept. 29, 2013) (free access to federal judicial opinions; per-page charges for access to other court materials).
18. Opinions, Supreme Court of the U.S., http://www. supremecourt.gov/opinions/opinions.aspx (last visited Sept. 29, 2013) (Supreme Court opinions before 1882 and after 1991)
19. Opinions, Supreme Court of the U.S., http://www. supremecourt.gov/opinions/opinions.aspx (last visited Sept. 29, 2013) (Supreme Court opinions before 1882 and after 1991)
20. see also Electronic Public Access Fee Schedule, PACER (Apr. 1, 2013), http://www.pacer.gov/documents/epa_feesched.pdf. PACER's imposition of fees for electronic access has been criticized.
21. E.g., 7 C.F.R. § 802.0 (2013).
22. 40 C.F.R. § 52.742(d) (2012) (incorporating provisions of Illinois Administrative Code).
23. Amendments to ZIP Code Provisions to Explain the ZIP + 4 Code, 46 Fed. Reg. 33,249, 33,252 (June 29, 1981).
24. Emily S. Bremer, Incorporation by Reference in an Open-Government Age, 36 Harv. J.L. & Pub. Pol'y 131, 150 (2013) (stating that the database included 9,475 incorporations by reference of standards in 2012 and listing the top ten suppliers of private IBR standards).
25. Emily S. Bremer, Incorporation by Reference in an Open-Government Age, 36 Harv. J.L. & Pub. Pol'y 131, 150 (2013) (stating that the database included 9,475 incorporations by reference of standards in 2012 and listing the top ten suppliers of private IBR standards).
26. 10 C.F.R. pt. 851, App. A, sec. 4(b)(2)(x) (2013).
27. 10 C.F.R. pt. 851, App. A, sec. 4(b)(2)(x) (2013).
28. 10 C.F.R. pt. 851, App. A, sec. 4(b)(2)(x) (2013).
29. As of May 2013, the reader is automatically referred to Code of Federal Regulations, Nat'l Archives, http://www.archives.gov/federal-register/cfr/index.html (last visited Sept. 29, 2013).
30. At that website, if one clicks on "incorporation by reference" in the left-hand margin, one is referred to another page containing instructions for making an appointment at the OFR's Washington, D.C., location. Incorporation by Reference, Nat'l Archives, http:// www.archives.gov/federal-register/cfr/ibr-locations.html (last visited Sept. 29, 2013).
31. Manual for Determining the Remaining Strength of Corroded Pipelines, Techstreet Store, http://www.techstreet.com/products/1842873 (last visited Sept. 29, 2013).
32. See Standards, Am. Soc'y of Mech. Eng'rs, http://www.asme.org/shop/standards?cm_re=Home-_-GlobalHeader-_-Standards#searchBy=Manual%20for%20Determining%20the%20Remaining% 20Strength%20of%20Corroded%20Pipelines (last visited Sept. 29, 2013).
33. 10 C.F.R. § 34.20(a)(1) (2013) (incorporating American National Standards Institute ("ANSI") performance standards for industrial radiography equipment).
34. E.g., 7 C.F.R. § 1728.98(a)(2) (2013) (incorporating Rural Electrification Administration and Rural Utilities Service requirements for "Pole Top Pins").
35. 40 C.F.R. § 52.741(a)(3) (2012) (incorporating ASTM vapor pressure measurement methods to define "heavy liquid").
36. See Tyler R.T. Wolf, Note, Existing in a Legal Limbo: The Precarious Legal Position of Standards-Development Organizations, 65 Wash. & Lee L. Rev. 807, 808-09 & n.11 (2008) (describing the challenges of fighting fires prior to the development of uniform standards based on a plan of the NFPA).
37. E.g., Robert W. Hamilton, The Role of Nongovernmental Standards in the Development of Mandatory Federal Standards Affecting Safety or Health, 56 Tex. L. Rev. 1329, 1373 (1978) (suggesting that some SDO standards were chosen to maximize the competitive advantage of one segment of industry over another).
38. see also Comment of the Modification & Replacement Parts Ass'n 14 (OFR Docket June 1, 2012), available at http://www.regulations.gov/ contentStreamer?objectId=09000064810266b8&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf ("Standard-setting organizations or companies may attempt to lock out their competitors via incorporated standards that restrict processes or allowable materials or practices.").
39. The OFR's request for comments appears at Incorporation by Reference, 77 Fed. Reg. 11,414 (announcement of petition for rulemaking and request for comments, Feb. 27, 2012), available at https://www.federal register.gov/articles/2012/02/27/2012-4399/incorporation-by-reference (reprinting petition)
40. Docket Folder Summary, regulations. gov, http://www.regulations.gov/#!docketDetail;D= NARA-12-0002 (last visited Nov. 12, 2013).
41. E.g., 10 C.F.R. § 851.23(a)(9) (2013) (requiring contractors to comply with the following "safety and health" standards, incorporating by reference the 2005 American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists ("ACGIH")'s "Threshold Limit Values for Chemical Substances and Physical Agents and Biological Exposure Indices"). Note that these limits now appear to be unavailable on the ACGIH website.
42. See ACGIH, http://www.acgih.org (last visited Sept. 29, 2013).
43. E.g., 29 C.F.R. § 570.63(a) (2012) (finding operation of paper products machines to be "particularly hazardous for the employment of minors").
44. 29 C.F.R. § 570.63(c)(1) (2012) (nonetheless permitting sixteen-and seventeen-year-olds to load scrap paper balers that comply with specified "industry safety standard, " ANSI Standard Z245.5-2008 or earlier).
45. ANSI Z245.5-2008, Techstreet Store, http://www.techstreet.com/products/ 1577288 (last visited Jan. 9, 2013).
46. See eStandards Store, ANSI, http://webstore.ansi.org/RecordDetail.aspx?sku=ANSI+Z245.5-2013 (last visited Jan. 9, 2013).
47. For another example, federal rules require a natural gas pipeline operator to implement a public awareness program according to the requirements of an API standard. 49 C.F.R. § 192.616 (2012) (incorporating API Recommended Practice 1162). That standard currently costs $124. API RP 1162, Techstreet Store, http://www.techstreet.com/ products/1757546 (last visited Sept. 29, 2013).
48. See Public Awareness Programs: API RP 1162, U.S. Dep't of Transp., https://primis.phmsa.dot.gov/comm/PublicAwareness/ PARPI1162.htm (last visited Nov. 12, 2013).
49. For example, Occupational Safety and Health Administration ("OSHA") standards for the storage and handling of anhydrous ammonia permit fertilizer storage systems to be installed in compliance with either ANSI or Fertilizer Institute standards. See 29 C.F.R. § 1910.111(b)(1)(i) (2012).
50. See 42 U.S.C. § 3604(f)(4) (2006).
51. As of August 2013, ANSI Standard 117.1, referenced in the law, cost $40. eStandards Store: ANSI A117.1-1986, Am. Nat'l Standards Inst., http://webstore.ansi.org/RecordDetail. aspx?sku=ANSI+A117.1-1986 (last visited Sept. 29, 2013).
52. HHS rules limit Medicare Part D coverage for a drug that is prescribed for a "medically accepted indication, " 42 C.F.R. § 423.100 (2012), defining that term with reference to three drug compendia mentioned in the statute.
53. See, e.g., Layzer v. Leavitt, 770 F. Supp. 2d 579 (S.D.N.Y. 2011).
54. Nievod v. Sebellius [sic], No. C11-4134 SBA, 2013 WL 503089 (N.D. Cal. Feb. 8, 2013).
55. Comment of David Miller, Director, Am. Petroleum Inst. 4 (OFR Docket June 1, 2012) [hereinafter Comment of Am. Petroleum Inst.], available at http://www.regulations.gov/ contentStreamer?objectId=0900006481025c0c&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf (arguing that the OFR should have no role in requiring free public access to IBR rules).
56. 5 U.S.C. § 552(a)(1)(D) (2012).
57. 5 U.S.C. § 552(a)(1)(D) (2012).
58. Emily S. Bremer, Incorporation by Reference in an Open-Government Age, 36 Harv. J.L. & Pub. Pol'y 131, 150 (2013) (stating that the database included 9,475 incorporations by reference of standards in 2012 and listing the top ten suppliers of private IBR standards).
59. See, e.g., 49 C.F.R. § 192.7(c) (2010) (listing SDOs).
60. As of August 2013, ASTM International (formerly the ASTM) has opened a readonly reading room, purportedly for standards that have been incorporated into federal law. Reading Room, ASTM Int'l, http://www.astm.org/READINGLIBRARY/index.html (last visited Sept. 29, 2013) ("This is a free service where you can view and read ASTM safety standards incorporated in United States regulations.").
61. Cf. ASTM License Agreement, ASTM Int'l, available at http://www.astm.org/COPYRIGHT/Single_ PDF_copyrightlicense_agreement.doc (last visited Sept. 29, 2013) (version as of Jan. 30, 2013, on file with author).
62. E.g., Snell Mem'l Found., 1995 Standard for Protective Headgear (rev. 1998), available at http://www.smf.org/standards/pdf/b95rev.pdf (incorporated in 16 C.F.R § 1203.53(a) (2013).
63. Emily S. Bremer, Incorporation by Reference in an Open-Government Age, 36 Harv. J.L. & Pub. Pol'y 131, 150 (2013) (stating that the database included 9,475 incorporations by reference of standards in 2012 and listing the top ten suppliers of private IBR standards).
64. Cf. 5 U.S.C. § 552(a)(4)(A)(ii) (2012) (stating that under the FOIA, agencies may charge requesters transaction costs such as photocopying).
65. E.g., Comment of Am. Nat'l Standards Inst. 2 (OFR Docket May 31, 2012), available at http://www.regulations.gov/contentStreamer?objectId=0900006481023751&disposition=attachment& contentType=pdf.
66. Comment of Eric P. Loewen, President, Am. Nuclear Soc'y 2 (OFR Docket Mar. 28, 2012), available at http://www.regulations.gov/contentStreamer?object Id=0900006480fe4421&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf ("[O]ur staff, the editors, printing, and meeting room charges at hotels are not free during the development of standards, and so therefore it is not sustainable to provide industry standards for 'free.' ").
67. Comment of Jim Shannon, President, Nat'l Fire Protection Ass'n 1-2 (OFR Docket June 1, 2012), available at http://www.regulations.gov/contentStreamer?objectId=0900006481025752&disposition= attachment&contentType=pdf (arguing that the development of "quality standards" requires resources to coordinate volunteers, to provide technical staff assistance, research, and editing, and to prepare standards for publication).
68. E.g., AHFS Drug Information 2013, ASHP Store, http://store.ashp.org/Default.aspx? TabID=216&ProductId=40143356 (last visited Sept. 29, 2013) (selling the American Hospital Formulary Service Drug Information 2013 at $349, or at $295 for "members").
69. USP-NF, U.S. Pharmacopeial Convention, http://store.usp.org/OA_HTML/usp2_ibeCCtpSctDspRte.jsp? section=10071&minisite=10020 (last visited Sept. 29, 2013) (pricing U.S. Pharmacopeia National Formulary standard at $850 each).
70. Comment of Jacob Speidel, Staff Att'y, Senior Citizens Law Project, Vermont Legal Aid, Inc. 2 (OFR Docket June 21, 2012) [hereinafter Comment of Vermont Legal Aid], available at http://www.regulations.gov/contentStreamer? objectId=09000064810258aa&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf (reporting Drugdex price of $6,000). Another source states that Drugdex is not available for purchase by members of the general public and that the publisher would not provide details of pricing.
71. CMA Report: Medicare Coverage for Off-Label Drug Use, Ctr. for Medicare Advocacy, Inc., http://www. medicareadvocacy.org/InfoByTopic/PartDandPrescDrugs/10_09.16.OffLabelDrugCoverage. htm (last visited Sept. 29, 2013).
72. 5 U.S.C. § 552(a)(1) (requiring Federal Register publication of substantive rules of general applicability, procedural rules, interpretive rules of general applicability, and other important agency documents but providing an exception for material "reasonably available to the class of persons affected thereby" and incorporated "with the approval of the Director of the Federal Register").
73. One report suggests that the OFR primarily considers whether particular regulated entities might find the cost of purchasing a standard to be "prohibitive. " Emily Schleicher Bremer, Incorporation by Reference in Federal Regulations, Admin. Conf. of the U.S. 11 (Oct. 19, 2011), available at http://www.acus.gov/sites/default/files/Revised-Draft-IBR-Report-10-19-11.pdf ("Federal publication requirements tacitly acknowledge this by limiting incorporation by reference to materials that are 'reasonably available' to regulated parties.").
74. Admin. Conf. of the U.S., Recommendation 2011-5: Incorporation by Reference 2 (2011), available at http://www.acus.gov/sites/default/files/Recommendation-2011-5-Incorporation-by-Reference_0.pdf (noting also that increasing transparency "may conflict with copyright law" and "the significant value" of the private standards). I presently serve as a public member of the Administrative Conference.
75. Admin. Conf. of the U.S., Recommendation 2011-5: Incorporation by Reference 2 (2011), available at http://www.acus.gov/sites/default/files/Recommendation-2011-5-Incorporation-by-Reference_0.pdf (noting also that increasing transparency "may conflict with copyright law" and "the significant value" of the private standards). I presently serve as a public member of the Administrative Conference.
76. Incorporation by Reference, 77 Fed. Reg. 11,414 (announcement of petition and request for comments, Feb. 27, 2012), available at https://www.federalregister.gov/articles/ 2012/02/27/2012-4399/incorporation-by-reference (reprinting petition).
77. Comment of Michael Herz, Sec. Chair, Section of Admin. Law & Regulatory Practice, Am. Bar Ass'n (OFR Docket June 1, 2012) [hereinafter Comment of ABA Admin. Law Section], available at http://www.regulations.gov/contentStreamer?objectId=0900006481025ea5& disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf.
78. Comment of Michael Herz, Sec. Chair, Section of Admin. Law & Regulatory Practice, Am. Bar Ass'n (OFR Docket June 1, 2012) [hereinafter Comment of ABA Admin. Law Section], available at http://www.regulations.gov/contentStreamer?objectId=0900006481025ea5& disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf.
79. See Federal Participation in the Development and Use of Voluntary Consensus Standards and in Conformity Assessment Activities, 77 Fed. Reg. 19,357 (Mar. 30, 2012).
80. Incorporation by Reference, 78 Fed. Reg. 60,784, 60,797 (proposed Oct. 2, 2013).
81. Incorporation by Reference, 78 Fed. Reg. 60,784, 60,797 (proposed Oct. 2, 2013).
82. Incorporation by Reference, 78 Fed. Reg. 60,784, 60,797 (proposed Oct. 2, 2013).
83. Incorporation by Reference, 78 Fed. Reg. 60,784, 60,797 (proposed Oct. 2, 2013).
84. See, e.g., Lawrence A. Cunningham, Private Standards in Public Law: Copyright, Lawmaking and the Case of Accounting, 104 Mich. L. Rev. 291, 334 (2005).
85. E.g., Robert W. Hamilton, The Role of Nongovernmental Standards in the Development of Mandatory Federal Standards Affecting Safety or Health, 56 Tex. L. Rev. 1329, 1373 (1978) (suggesting that some SDO standards were chosen to maximize the competitive advantage of one segment of industry over another).
86. see also Peter L. Strauss, Private Standards Organizations and Public Law, 22 Wm. & Mary Bill Rts. J. 497, 497 (2013) (quoting World Legal Info. Inst., http://www.worldlii. org/worldlii/declaration/montreal_en.html (last visited Dec. 12, 2013).
87. See, e.g., Comment of Rae McQuade, President, N. Am. Energy Standards Bd. 4 (OFR Docket May 31, 2012) [hereinafter Comment of N. Am. Energy Standards Bd.], available at http://www.regulations.gov/content Streamer?objectId=0900006481024904&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf ("[SDOs]... perform a valuable societal function that otherwise would have to be done by regulatory bodies....").
88. See, e.g., Banks v. Manchester, 128 U.S. 244, 253 (1888) ("[N]o copyright could... be secured in the products of the labor done by judicial officers in the discharge of their judicial duties. ").
89. Veeck v. S. Bldg. Code Cong. Int'l., Inc., 293 F.3d 791, 800 (5th Cir. 2002) (en banc) ("[W]e read Banks, Wheaton, and related cases consistently to enunciate the principle that 'the law,' whether it has its source in judicial opinions or statutes, ordinances or regulations, is not subject to federal copyright law. ").
90. CCC Info. Servs. v. MacLean Hunter Mkt. Reports, Inc., 44 F.3d 61 (2d Cir. 1994) (holding that private organizations retained copyright in standards referenced by state insurance law).
91. Emily S. Bremer, Incorporation by Reference in an Open-Government Age, 36 Harv. J.L. & Pub. Pol'y 131, 150 (2013) (stating that the database included 9,475 incorporations by reference of standards in 2012 and listing the top ten suppliers of private IBR standards).
92. Robert Kry, Case Note, The Copyright Law, 111 Yale L.J. 761, 763-66 (2001).
93. see also Peter L. Strauss, Private Standards Organizations and Public Law, 22 Wm. & Mary Bill Rts. J. 497, 497 (2013) (quoting World Legal Info. Inst., http://www.worldlii. org/worldlii/declaration/montreal_en.html (last visited Dec. 12, 2013).
94. The U.S. solicitor general has taken the position that the Fifth Circuit's decision in Veeck was correct. Brief for the United States as Amicus Curiae, S. Bldg. Code Cong. Int'l, Inc. v. Veeck (2003) (No. 02-355), at 13, available at http://www.justice.gov/osg/briefs/ 2002/2pet/6invit/2002-0355.pet.ami.inv.pdf (arguing that the Fifth Circuit correctly reasoned that binding law cannot be subject to copyright limitations). In addition, an SDO's extensive overcharging for an IBR standard might supply a purported copyright infringer with a defense of copyright misuse.
95. See, e.g., Practice Mgmt. Info. Corp. v. Am. Med. Ass'n, 121 F.3d 516, 520-21 (9th Cir. 1997) (recognizing copyright misuse defense).
96. Lasercomb Am., Inc., v. Reynolds, 911 F.2d 971, 977, 979 (4th Cir. 1990) (same).
97. Emily S. Bremer, Incorporation by Reference in an Open-Government Age, 36 Harv. J.L. & Pub. Pol'y 131, 150 (2013) (stating that the database included 9,475 incorporations by reference of standards in 2012 and listing the top ten suppliers of private IBR standards).
98. see also Peter L. Strauss, Private Standards Organizations and Public Law, 22 Wm. & Mary Bill Rts. J. 497, 497 (2013) (quoting World Legal Info. Inst., http://www.worldlii. org/worldlii/declaration/montreal_en.html (last visited Dec. 12, 2013).
99. E.g., Robert W. Hamilton, The Role of Nongovernmental Standards in the Development of Mandatory Federal Standards Affecting Safety or Health, 56 Tex. L. Rev. 1329, 1373 (1978) (suggesting that some SDO standards were chosen to maximize the competitive advantage of one segment of industry over another).
100. Emily S. Bremer, Incorporation by Reference in an Open-Government Age, 36 Harv. J.L. & Pub. Pol'y 131, 150 (2013) (stating that the database included 9,475 incorporations by reference of standards in 2012 and listing the top ten suppliers of private IBR standards).
101. Emily S. Bremer, Incorporation by Reference in an Open-Government Age, 36 Harv. J.L. & Pub. Pol'y 131, 150 (2013) (stating that the database included 9,475 incorporations by reference of standards in 2012 and listing the top ten suppliers of private IBR standards).
102. Emily S. Bremer, Incorporation by Reference in an Open-Government Age, 36 Harv. J.L. & Pub. Pol'y 131, 150 (2013) (stating that the database included 9,475 incorporations by reference of standards in 2012 and listing the top ten suppliers of private IBR standards).
103. E.g., Kathleen Clark, The Architecture of Accountability: A Case Study of the Warrantless Surveillance Program, 2010 BYU L. Rev. 357, 389-404 (national security secrecy claims interfered with accountability mechanisms).
104. See generally Jeremy Bentham, An Essay on Political Tactics, in 2 The Works of Jeremy Bentham 299, 310 (John Bowring ed., Edinburgh, William Tait 1843), available at http://oll.libertyfund.org/title/1921/113915 (publicity and the threat of exposure "constrain the members of the assembly to perform their duty").
105. See 5 U.S.C. § 552(a) (2012) (Freedom of Information Act); 5 U.S.C. § 553 (2012) (Administrative Procedure Act rulemaking requirements).
106. 5 U.S.C. § 552(a)(1) (2012). This language was originally added to section 552(a) in the Freedom of Information Act, Pub. L. No. 89-487, 80 Stat. 250 (1966).
107. This language was originally added to section 552(a) in the Freedom of Information Act, Pub. L. No. 89-487, 80 Stat. 250 (1966)
108. U.S. Code by Pub. L. No. 90-23, 81 Stat. 54 (1967).
109. U.S. Code by Pub. L. No. 90-23, 81 Stat. 54 (1967).
110. 1 C.F.R. § 51.7(a)(3) (2013).
111. 1 C.F.R. § 51.7(a)(3) (2013).
112. see also Peter L. Strauss, Private Standards Organizations and Public Law, 22 Wm. & Mary Bill Rts. J. 497, 497 (2013) (quoting World Legal Info. Inst., http://www.worldlii. org/worldlii/declaration/montreal_en.html (last visited Dec. 12, 2013).
113. 29 U.S.C. § 655(a) (2006).
114. Office of Mgmt. & Budget, Circular No. A-119 Revised: Federal Participation in the Development and Use of Voluntary Consensus Standards and in Conformity Assessment Activities para. 1 (1998) [hereinafter Circular No. A-119], available at http://www.whitehouse.gov/omb/circulars_a119.
115. Office of Mgmt. & Budget, Circular No. A-119 Revised: Federal Participation in the Development and Use of Voluntary Consensus Standards and in Conformity Assessment Activities para. 1 (1998) [hereinafter Circular No. A-119], available at http://www.whitehouse.gov/omb/circulars_a119.
116. Office of Mgmt. & Budget, Circular No. A-119 Revised: Federal Participation in the Development and Use of Voluntary Consensus Standards and in Conformity Assessment Activities para. 1 (1998) [hereinafter Circular No. A-119], available at http://www.whitehouse.gov/omb/circulars_a119.
117. National Technology Transfer and Advancement Act of 1995 § 12(d), 15 U.S.C. § 272 note (2012). The Act broadly defines "[t]echnical standards" to mean "performance based or design-specific technical specifications. "
118. See, e.g., H.R. Rep. No. 104-390, at 31 (1995) ("[The] Vice President of the American National Standards Institute (ANSI)[] stated that the Circular A-119 needs Congressional backing to be effective. ").
119. Emily S. Bremer, Incorporation by Reference in an Open-Government Age, 36 Harv. J.L. & Pub. Pol'y 131, 150 (2013) (stating that the database included 9,475 incorporations by reference of standards in 2012 and listing the top ten suppliers of private IBR standards).
120. see also Peter L. Strauss, Private Standards Organizations and Public Law, 22 Wm. & Mary Bill Rts. J. 497, 497 (2013) (quoting World Legal Info. Inst., http://www.worldlii. org/worldlii/declaration/montreal_en.html (last visited Dec. 12, 2013).
121. see also Peter L. Strauss, Private Standards Organizations and Public Law, 22 Wm. & Mary Bill Rts. J. 497, 497 (2013) (quoting World Legal Info. Inst., http://www.worldlii. org/worldlii/declaration/montreal_en.html (last visited Dec. 12, 2013).
122. Office of Mgmt. & Budget, Circular No. A-119 Revised: Federal Participation in the Development and Use of Voluntary Consensus Standards and in Conformity Assessment Activities para. 1 (1998) [hereinafter Circular No. A-119], available at http://www.whitehouse.gov/omb/circulars_a119.
123. see also Peter L. Strauss, Private Standards Organizations and Public Law, 22 Wm. & Mary Bill Rts. J. 497, 497 (2013) (quoting World Legal Info. Inst., http://www.worldlii. org/worldlii/declaration/montreal_en.html (last visited Dec. 12, 2013).
124. 1 C.F.R. § 51.5(a)(1) (2013).
125. 5 U.S.C. § 553(b)-(c) (2012).
126. See Safety Standard for Hand-Held Infant Carriers, 77 Fed. Reg. 73,354 (proposed Dec. 10, 2012) (to be codified at 16 C.F.R. pts. 1112 & 1225).
127. ASTM F2050-12, ASTM Int'l, http://enterprise.astm.org/filtrexx40.cgi?HISTORICAL/ F2050-12.htm (last visited Sept. 29, 2013).
128. see Safety Standard for Hand-Held Infant Carriers, 77 Fed. Reg. at 73,354
129. Comment of John L. Conley, President, Nat'l Tank Truck Carriers 2 (OFR Docket May 30, 2012) [hereinafter Comment of Nat'l Tank Truck Carriers], available at http://www.regulations.gov/contentStreamer?objectId=09000064 8102543c&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf (providing an example of Pipeline and Hazardous Materials Safety Administration ("PHMSA") rulemaking as incorporating a standard that putative commenters would have to purchase, although noting that PHMSA did require the two private groups "to make portions of their copyrighted publications available electronically while the comment period was open").
130. Office of Mgmt. & Budget, Circular No. A-119 Revised: Federal Participation in the Development and Use of Voluntary Consensus Standards and in Conformity Assessment Activities para. 1 (1998) [hereinafter Circular No. A-119], available at http://www.whitehouse.gov/omb/circulars_a119.
131. Office of Mgmt. & Budget, Circular No. A-130 Revised: Management of Federal Information Resources para. 7(c) (2000) [hereinafter Circular No. A-130], available at http://www.whitehouse.gov/omb/circulars_a130_a130trans4.
132. 5 U.S.C. § 552(a)(4)(A)(iv) (2012). The FOIA also includes fee exemption and waiver provisions.
133. 5 U.S.C. § 552(a)(4)(A)(iv) (2012). The FOIA also includes fee exemption and waiver provisions.
134. See Federal Depository Library Program, U.S. Gov't Printing Office, http://www. gpo.gov/libraries/ (last visited Nov. 12, 2013) (listing libraries and stating, "Anyone can visit a Federal depository library and will have access to all collections for free").
135. Comment of James Pettit, Jr., Senior Assoc., Penza Bailey Architects, Inc. 1 (OFR Docket Apr. 4, 2012) [hereinafter Comment of Penza Bailey Architects], available at http:// www.regulations.gov/contentStreamer?objectId=0900006480fe7d25&disposition=attachment& contentType=pdf.
136. Comment of Glen Self 1 (OFR Docket Mar. 20, 2012), available at http://www.regulations.gov/contentStreamer?objectId=0900006480fdbed1&disposition=attachment& contentType=pdf ("During my working career over the past 45 years I have worked in many areas where the product was governed by regulations that contained [IBR material]... The worst effect is when work is done improperly because the worker can't afford to purchase the standard.... [T]he cost of various standards is prohibitively expensive to small business.").
137. Comment of Robert Tess 1 (OFR Docket Mar. 23, 2012), available at http://www. regulations.gov/contentStreamer?objectId=0900006480fddd35&disposition=attachment&contentType= pdf.
138. Comment of Owen Crabtree, Mech. Eng'r, InSynergy Eng'g, Inc. to Office of the Fed. Register, Nat'l Archives & Records Admin. 1 (OFR Docket Mar. 20, 2012), available at http://www.regulations.gov/contentStreamer?objectId=0900006480fdbevca&disposition= attachment&contentType=pdf ("[H]aving this invisible paywall discourages individuals and entrepreneurs from innovating.").
139. Comment of John L. Conley, President, Nat'l Tank Truck Carriers 2 (OFR Docket May 30, 2012) [hereinafter Comment of Nat'l Tank Truck Carriers], available at http://www.regulations.gov/contentStreamer?objectId=09000064 8102543c&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf (providing an example of Pipeline and Hazardous Materials Safety Administration ("PHMSA") rulemaking as incorporating a standard that putative commenters would have to purchase, although noting that PHMSA did require the two private groups "to make portions of their copyrighted publications available electronically while the comment period was open").
140. Comment of Dave Oslecki, Senior Vice President, Policy & Regulatory Affairs, Am. Trucking Ass'ns 1, 2 (OFR Docket June 1, 2012), available at http://www.regulations.gov/contentStreamer? objectId=0900006481025c7e&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf.
141. Comment of Melinda Sherer, Ass't Counsel, NYC Envtl. Prot. 1 (OFR Docket May 25, 2012), available at http://www.regulations.gov/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648101cf 2d&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf.
142. See, e.g., Am. Petroleum Inst., http://www.api.org (last visited Sept. 29, 2013).
143. ASTM Int'l, http://www.astm.org (last visited Sept. 29, 2013).
144. Government-Cited and Safety Documents, Am. Petroleum Inst., http://publications.api.org (last visited Sept. 29, 2013).
145. Cf. ASTM License Agreement, ASTM Int'l, available at http://www.astm.org/COPYRIGHT/Single_ PDF_copyrightlicense_agreement.doc (last visited Sept. 29, 2013) (version as of Jan. 30, 2013, on file with author).
146. Cf. ASTM License Agreement, ASTM Int'l, available at http://www.astm.org/COPYRIGHT/Single_ PDF_copyrightlicense_agreement.doc (last visited Sept. 29, 2013) (version as of Jan. 30, 2013, on file with author).
147. Cf. ASTM License Agreement, ASTM Int'l, available at http://www.astm.org/COPYRIGHT/Single_ PDF_copyrightlicense_agreement.doc (last visited Sept. 29, 2013) (version as of Jan. 30, 2013, on file with author).
148. Cf. ASTM License Agreement, ASTM Int'l, available at http://www.astm.org/COPYRIGHT/Single_ PDF_copyrightlicense_agreement.doc (last visited Sept. 29, 2013) (version as of Jan. 30, 2013, on file with author).
149. 5 U.S.C. § 552(a) (2012).
150. 5 U.S.C. § 552(a) (2012).
151. United States v. N.S. Food Prods. Corp., 568 F.2d 240, 251-52 (2d Cir. 1977) (proposed rule document must include any scientific information on which agency relied).
152. Portland Cement Ass'n v. Ruckelshaus, 486 F.2d 375, 393-94 (D.C. Cir. 1973) (noting that agencies must respond to comments that "step over a threshold requirement of materiality").
153. See, e.g., Am. Med. Ass'n v. United States, 887 F.2d 760, 768 (7th Cir. 1989) ("[T]he relevant inquiry is whether or not potential commentators would have known that an issue in which they were interested was 'on the table'.... ").
154. See National Technology Transfer and Advancement Act of 1995 § 12(d), 15 U.S.C. § 272 note (2012) (Utilization of Consensus Technical Standards by Federal Agencies).
155. Office of Mgmt. & Budget, Circular No. A-119 Revised: Federal Participation in the Development and Use of Voluntary Consensus Standards and in Conformity Assessment Activities para. 1 (1998) [hereinafter Circular No. A-119], available at http://www.whitehouse.gov/omb/circulars_a119.
156. Technical Requirements, 53 Fed. Reg. 37,082, 37,185-86 (Sept. 23, 1988).
157. Admin. Conf. of the U.S., Recommendation 78-4, Federal Agency Interaction with Private Standard-Setting Organizations in Health and Safety 3 (1978), available at http://www.acus.gov/sites/default/files/documents/78-4.pdf ("An agency having authority to issue mandatory health or safety regulations should draw on the knowledge and information available in active technical committees that develop relevant voluntary consensus standards....").
158. E.g., Robert W. Hamilton, The Role of Nongovernmental Standards in the Development of Mandatory Federal Standards Affecting Safety or Health, 56 Tex. L. Rev. 1329, 1373 (1978) (suggesting that some SDO standards were chosen to maximize the competitive advantage of one segment of industry over another).
159. Office of Mgmt. & Budget, Circular No. A-119 Revised: Federal Participation in the Development and Use of Voluntary Consensus Standards and in Conformity Assessment Activities para. 1 (1998) [hereinafter Circular No. A-119], available at http://www.whitehouse.gov/omb/circulars_a119.
160. But cf. Ellis W. Hawley, The New Deal and the Problem of Monopoly 31-32 (1966) (noting that the National Industrial Recovery Act required the president to find that industrial codes were "truly representative" prior to approving them).
161. Emily S. Bremer, Incorporation by Reference in an Open-Government Age, 36 Harv. J.L. & Pub. Pol'y 131, 150 (2013) (stating that the database included 9,475 incorporations by reference of standards in 2012 and listing the top ten suppliers of private IBR standards).
162. See Standards Committee Application, Am. Petroleum Inst., http://www.api.org/ publications-standards-and-statistics/standards-committee-application.aspx (last visited Sept. 29, 2013).
163. See API Member Companies, Am. Petroleum Inst., http://www.api.org/globalitems/ globalheaderpages/membership/api-member-companies.aspx (last visited Sept. 29, 2013).
164. See, e.g., John M. Broder, Hands off, Oil Industry Warns Government, N.Y. Times Green Blog (Jan. 8, 2013, 2:59 PM), http://green.blogs.nytimes.com/2013/01/08/hands-offoil-industry-warns-government/?ref=amer (reporting on statement of head of the API).
165. Emily S. Bremer, Incorporation by Reference in an Open-Government Age, 36 Harv. J.L. & Pub. Pol'y 131, 150 (2013) (stating that the database included 9,475 incorporations by reference of standards in 2012 and listing the top ten suppliers of private IBR standards).
166. See Technical Committees, ASTM Int'l, http://www.astm.org/COMMIT/newcommit. html (last visited Sept. 29, 2013) ("Any interested individual can participate on a Technical Committee [that develops and maintains ASTM standards] through ASTM membership."). The least expensive membership is $75 per year, which entitles members to "participate in the development of high quality, market relevant standards" and to get a discount on ASTM publications.
167. See Benefits for ASTM Participating Members, ASTM Int'l, http://www.astm.org/ MEMBERSHIP/participatingmem.htm (last visited Sept. 29, 2013).
168. Comment of Samantha Gordon 1 (OFR Docket Mar. 30, 2012), available at http:// www.regulations.gov/contentStreamer?objectId=0900006480fe4d7a&disposition=attachment& contentType=pdf. This problem parallels difficulties in international standards organizations.
169. See Tim Büthe and Walter Mattli, The New Global Rulers 224 (2011) ("[C]onsumer representatives are frequently viewed as 'outsiders' in private-sector rule-making bodies. ").
170. see also Peter L. Strauss, Private Standards Organizations and Public Law, 22 Wm. & Mary Bill Rts. J. 497, 497 (2013) (quoting World Legal Info. Inst., http://www.worldlii. org/worldlii/declaration/montreal_en.html (last visited Dec. 12, 2013).
171. See About NAESB, N. Am. Energy Standards Bd., http://www.naesb.org/aboutus. asp (last visited Sept. 29, 2013).
172. see also Peter L. Strauss, Private Standards Organizations and Public Law, 22 Wm. & Mary Bill Rts. J. 497, 497 (2013) (quoting World Legal Info. Inst., http://www.worldlii. org/worldlii/declaration/montreal_en.html (last visited Dec. 12, 2013).
173. see also Peter L. Strauss, Private Standards Organizations and Public Law, 22 Wm. & Mary Bill Rts. J. 497, 497 (2013) (quoting World Legal Info. Inst., http://www.worldlii. org/worldlii/declaration/montreal_en.html (last visited Dec. 12, 2013).
174. Comment of Richard Meyer, Senior Regulatory Counsel, Nat'l Rural Elec. Coop. Ass'n, and Adrienne E. Clair, Stinson Morrison Hecker LLP 3 (OFR Docket Mar. 28, 2012), available at http://www.regulations.gov/contentStreamer?objectId=0900006480fe3ed2&disposition= attachment&contentType=pdf.
175. Comment of Richard Meyer, Senior Regulatory Counsel, Nat'l Rural Elec. Coop. Ass'n, and Adrienne E. Clair, Stinson Morrison Hecker LLP 3 (OFR Docket Mar. 28, 2012), available at http://www.regulations.gov/contentStreamer?objectId=0900006480fe3ed2&disposition= attachment&contentType=pdf.
176. See Off-Label Uses: Overview, AHFS Drug Info., http://www.ahfsdruginformation. com/off_label/overview.aspx (last visited Sept. 29, 2013).
177. Emily S. Bremer, Incorporation by Reference in an Open-Government Age, 36 Harv. J.L. & Pub. Pol'y 131, 150 (2013) (stating that the database included 9,475 incorporations by reference of standards in 2012 and listing the top ten suppliers of private IBR standards).
178. See generally Am. Nat'l Standards Inst., ANSI Essential Requirements: Due Process Requirements for American National Standards (2013), available at http://publicaa. ansi.org/sites/apdl/Documents/Standards%20Activities/American%20National%20Standards/ Procedures,%20Guides,%20and%20Forms/2013_ANSI_Essential_Requirements.pdf.
179. See, e.g., ANSI Standards Action, Feb. 22, 2013, available at http://publicaa.ansi. org/sites/apdl/Documents/Standards%20Action/2013_PDFs/SAV4408.pdf.
180. E.g., Notice of Public Workshop to Discuss Implementing Incorporation by Reference Requirements of Section 24 of the Pipeline Safety, Regulatory Certainty, and Job Creation Act of 2011, U.S. Dep't of Transp. (July 13, 2012, 8:00 AM), http://mediasite.yorkcast.com/webcast/ Viewer/?peid=e8c2cc8919ef41a7821e7f6c85b35f111d.
181. Joseph Wendler, Dir. of Standards and Certification Initiatives, Am. Soc'y of Mech. Eng'rs, Statement of ASME Representative (July 13, 2012), available at https://law.resource.org/pub/us/cfr/regulations.gov.docket.03/ phmsa.workshop/workshop.01.08.html.
182. Joseph Wendler, Dir. of Standards and Certification Initiatives, Am. Soc'y of Mech. Eng'rs, Statement of ASME Representative (July 13, 2012), available at https://law.resource.org/pub/us/cfr/regulations.gov.docket.03/ phmsa.workshop/workshop.01.08.html.
183. As of August 2013, ANSI Standard 117.1, referenced in the law, cost $40. eStandards Store: ANSI A117.1-1986, Am. Nat'l Standards Inst., http://webstore.ansi.org/RecordDetail. aspx?sku=ANSI+A117.1-1986 (last visited Sept. 29, 2013).
184. As of August 2013, ANSI Standard 117.1, referenced in the law, cost $40. eStandards Store: ANSI A117.1-1986, Am. Nat'l Standards Inst., http://webstore.ansi.org/RecordDetail. aspx?sku=ANSI+A117.1-1986 (last visited Sept. 29, 2013).
185. As of August 2013, ANSI Standard 117.1, referenced in the law, cost $40. eStandards Store: ANSI A117.1-1986, Am. Nat'l Standards Inst., http://webstore.ansi.org/RecordDetail. aspx?sku=ANSI+A117.1-1986 (last visited Sept. 29, 2013).
186. See Call for Comment on Proposals Listed, ANSI Standards Action, Feb. 22, 2013, at 1, available at http://publicaa.ansi.org/sites/apdl/Documents/Standards%20Action/2013_ PDFs/SAV4408.pdf (providing suggested changes to multiple standards but omitting full standards).
187. Joseph Wendler, Dir. of Standards and Certification Initiatives, Am. Soc'y of Mech. Eng'rs, Statement of ASME Representative (July 13, 2012), available at https://law.resource.org/pub/us/cfr/regulations.gov.docket.03/ phmsa.workshop/workshop.01.08.html.
188. Telephone Interview with Patricia Schroeder, Am. Nat'l Standards Inst. (Jan. 29, 2013) (notes on file with author).
189. See Call for Comment on Proposals Listed, ANSI Standards Action, Feb. 22, 2013, at 1, available at http://publicaa.ansi.org/sites/apdl/Documents/Standards%20Action/2013_ PDFs/SAV4408.pdf (providing suggested changes to multiple standards but omitting full standards).
190. See Call for Comment on Proposals Listed, ANSI Standards Action, Feb. 22, 2013, at 1, available at http://publicaa.ansi.org/sites/apdl/Documents/Standards%20Action/2013_ PDFs/SAV4408.pdf (providing suggested changes to multiple standards but omitting full standards).
191. See generally ANSI-Accredited Standards Developers Contact Information, ANSI Standards Action, Feb. 22, 2013, at 22, available at http://publicaa.ansi.org/sites/apdl/Documents/ Standards%20Action/2013_PDFs/SAV4408.pdf.
192. About AISI, Am. Iron & Steel Inst., http://www.steel.org/en/About%20AISI.aspx (describing its twenty-six "integrated and electric furnace steelmaker" members and 125 associate or affiliate members who are "suppliers to or customers of the steel industry") (last visited Sept. 29, 2013).
193. See Tyler R.T. Wolf, Note, Existing in a Legal Limbo: The Precarious Legal Position of Standards-Development Organizations, 65 Wash. & Lee L. Rev. 807, 808-09 & n.11 (2008) (describing the challenges of fighting fires prior to the development of uniform standards based on a plan of the NFPA).
194. See, e.g., Comment of Rachel Weintraub, Dir. of Prod. Safety and Senior Counsel, Consumer Fed'n of Am. 1 (OFR Docket June 1, 2012) [hereinafter Comment of Consumer Fed'n of Am.], available at http://www.regulations.gov/contentStreamer?objectId=0900006481 023352&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf ("Without unfettered access to these standards... important constituencies such as individual consumers and public interest and consumer organizations will be unable to participate in these proceedings.").
195. See, e.g., Comment of Rachel Weintraub, Dir. of Prod. Safety and Senior Counsel, Consumer Fed'n of Am. 1 (OFR Docket June 1, 2012) [hereinafter Comment of Consumer Fed'n of Am.], available at http://www.regulations.gov/contentStreamer?objectId=0900006481 023352&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf ("Without unfettered access to these standards... important constituencies such as individual consumers and public interest and consumer organizations will be unable to participate in these proceedings.").
196. Jody Freeman, The Private Role in Public Governance, 75 N.Y.U. L. Rev. 534, 641-42 (2000).
197. E.g., Robert W. Hamilton, The Role of Nongovernmental Standards in the Development of Mandatory Federal Standards Affecting Safety or Health, 56 Tex. L. Rev. 1329, 1373 (1978) (suggesting that some SDO standards were chosen to maximize the competitive advantage of one segment of industry over another).
198. Sidney A. Shapiro, Outsourcing Government Regulation, 53 Duke L.J. 389, 407-08 (2003).
199. About PRCI, Pipeline Research Council Int'l, http://prci.org/index.php/about/ (last visited Sept. 29, 2013).
200. About PRCI, Pipeline Research Council Int'l, http://prci.org/index.php/about/ (last visited Sept. 29, 2013).
201. Sidney A. Shapiro, Outsourcing Government Regulation, 53 Duke L.J. 389, 407-08 (2003).
202. Sidney A. Shapiro, Outsourcing Government Regulation, 53 Duke L.J. 389, 407-08 (2003).
203. See, e.g., Comment of Rachel Weintraub, Dir. of Prod. Safety and Senior Counsel, Consumer Fed'n of Am. 1 (OFR Docket June 1, 2012) [hereinafter Comment of Consumer Fed'n of Am.], available at http://www.regulations.gov/contentStreamer?objectId=0900006481 023352&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf ("Without unfettered access to these standards... important constituencies such as individual consumers and public interest and consumer organizations will be unable to participate in these proceedings.").
204. See 15 U.S.C. § 2056(a) (2012) ("A consumer product safety standard.... shall be reasonably necessary to prevent or reduce unreasonable risk of injury associated with such product. ").
205. See 15 U.S.C. § 2056(a) (2012) ("A consumer product safety standard.... shall be reasonably necessary to prevent or reduce unreasonable risk of injury associated with such product. ").
206. E.g., United States v. N.S. Food Prods. Corp., 568 F.2d 240, 251-52 (2d Cir. 1977).
207. Portland Cement Ass'n v. Ruckelshaus, 486 F.2d 375, 393-94 (D.C. Cir. 1973). As yet, the courts do not appear to have addressed the question whether the APA might require this sort of disclosure when a federal agency proposes to incorporate an SDO standard by reference.
208. Administrative Procedure Act, 5 U.S.C. § 551(1) (2012) (defining "agency" as "each authority of the Government of the United States").
209. This language was originally added to section 552(a) in the Freedom of Information Act, Pub. L. No. 89-487, 80 Stat. 250 (1966)
210. Int'l Brominated Solvents Ass'n v. Am. Conference of Gov't and Indus. Hygienists, Inc., 393 F. Supp. 2d 1362, 1379-80 (M.D. Ga. 2005) (refusing to find that ACGIH was an "agency" for purposes of the APA despite ACGIH's issuance of de facto "exposure levels" adopted by OSHA).
211. Int'l Brominated Solvents Ass'n v. Am. Conference of Gov't and Indus. Hygienists, Inc., 393 F. Supp. 2d 1362, 1379-80 (M.D. Ga. 2005) (refusing to find that ACGIH was an "agency" for purposes of the APA despite ACGIH's issuance of de facto "exposure levels" adopted by OSHA).
212. Third Party Testing for Certain Children's Products.
213. Notice of Requirements for Accreditation of Third Party Conformity Assessment Bodies-Lead Paint, 76 Fed. Reg. 18,645, 18,646 (Mar. 30, 2011) (to be codifed at 16 C.F.R. pt. 1303) (finding that only test methods specified by CPSC rule and by ASTM F2853-10 are considered effective for testing paint and surface coatings; stating that "[s]upporting data... ha[ve] been filed with ASTM and can be obtained by contacting ASTM").
214. Telephone Interview with ASTM Customer Serv. (Feb. 26, 2013) (notes on file with author).
215. See Research Reports by Committee, ASTM Int'l, http://www.astm.org/Standard/ researchreports.html (last visited Sept. 29, 2013).
216. see also Peter L. Strauss, Private Standards Organizations and Public Law, 22 Wm. & Mary Bill Rts. J. 497, 497 (2013) (quoting World Legal Info. Inst., http://www.worldlii. org/worldlii/declaration/montreal_en.html (last visited Dec. 12, 2013).
217. See 29 C.F.R. § 1910.179(b)(2) (2012) ("All new overhead and gantry cranes... shall meet the design specifications of... ANSI B30.2.0-1967, which is incorporated by reference.... ").
218. See Am. Nat'l Standards Inst., http://www.ansi.org (last visited Sept. 29, 2013).
219. See Am. Nat'l Standards Inst., http://www.ansi.org (last visited Sept. 29, 2013).
220. See 5 U.S.C. § 551(5) (2012) (" '[R]ule making' means agency process for formulating, amending, or repealing a rule. "). It could be, of course, that these federal standards are so old that they need to be revised, but having this decision effectively under unilateral private control raises troubling legal issues and shows the potential extent of private control over access to public standards.
221. Emily S. Bremer, Incorporation by Reference in an Open-Government Age, 36 Harv. J.L. & Pub. Pol'y 131, 150 (2013) (stating that the database included 9,475 incorporations by reference of standards in 2012 and listing the top ten suppliers of private IBR standards).
222. Pub. L. No. 112-90, § 24, 125 Stat. 1904, 1919 (2012) (to be codified at 49 U.S.C. § 60102(p) (barring incorporation by reference in either guidance or regulations unless relevant documents are "made available to the public, free of charge, on an Internet Web site").
223. Joseph Wendler, Dir. of Standards and Certification Initiatives, Am. Soc'y of Mech. Eng'rs, Statement of ASME Representative (July 13, 2012), available at https://law.resource.org/pub/us/cfr/regulations.gov.docket.03/ phmsa.workshop/workshop.01.08.html.
224. Joseph Wendler, Dir. of Standards and Certification Initiatives, Am. Soc'y of Mech. Eng'rs, Statement of ASME Representative (July 13, 2012), available at https://law.resource.org/pub/us/cfr/regulations.gov.docket.03/ phmsa.workshop/workshop.01.08.html.
225. Federal Participation in the Development and Use of Voluntary Consensus Standards and in Conformity Assessment Activities, 77 Fed. Reg. 19,357 (Mar. 30, 2012).
226. Comment of Michael Herz, Sec. Chair, Section of Admin. Law & Regulatory Practice, Am. Bar Ass'n (OFR Docket June 1, 2012) [hereinafter Comment of ABA Admin. Law Section], available at http://www.regulations.gov/contentStreamer?objectId=0900006481025ea5& disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf.
227. For example, 5 U.S.C. § 552(a)(1) provides special protection for those "required to resort to" government rules and policies, clearly a narrower class than those "affected. "
228. Moreover, 5 U.S.C. § 702 uses the narrower term "adversely affected" to help define who can seek judicial review of agency action. This is nonetheless understood to cover a wide range of those with concrete interests in agency action, beyond those who are directly regulated. E.g., Thompson v. N. Am. Stainless, LP, 131 S. Ct. 863, 870 (2011) (holding that one who is "adversely affected" may challenge agency action if the interest is arguably "within the zone of interests" of the statute).
229. See United States v. N.S. Food Prods. Corp., 568 F.2d 240, 251-52 (2d Cir. 1977) (requiring agencies to disclose data to effectuate a meaningful right to public comment).
230. 5 U.S.C. § 553(e).
231. 5 U.S.C. § 553(e).
232. 5 U.S.C. § 553(e).
233. 5 U.S.C. § 553(e).
234. 5 U.S.C. § 553(e).
235. Peter Hernon et al., United States Government Information: Policies and Sources 339 (2002).
236. Richard J. McKinney, United States Statutes: Historical Outline and Source Notes (rev. 2008), available at http://www.llsdc.org/assets/sourcebook/us-statutes-outline.pdf.
237. Culver H. Smith, The Press, Politics, and Patronage: The American Government's Use of Newspapers, 1789-1875 39 (1977).
238. John Spencer Walters, Whose Vision Fulfilled? Toward a Rightful Ideological Progenitor for the U.S. Federal Depository Library Program, 26 J. Gov't Info. 347, 349-50 (1999) (noting Madison's shift in viewpoint to arranging for newspapers to publish political information).
239. Culver H. Smith, The Press, Politics, and Patronage: The American Government's Use of Newspapers, 1789-1875 39 (1977).
240. Michael Schudson, The Good Citizen 67 (1998).
241. Culver H. Smith, The Press, Politics, and Patronage: The American Government's Use of Newspapers, 1789-1875 39 (1977).
242. Perhaps needless to say, an individual's purchase of a private bound copy of the multivolume U.S. Code would not be free of charge.
243. H.R. Journal, 3d Cong., 2d Sess. 328-29 (1795) (describing Act of Mar. 3, 1795).
244. H.R. Journal, 3d Cong., 2d Sess. 328-29 (1795) (describing Act of Mar. 3, 1795).
245. Michael Schudson, The Good Citizen 67 (1998).
246. Peter Hernon et al., United States Government Information: Policies and Sources 339 (2002).
247. Act of Jan. 12, 1895, ch. 23, §§ 54, 62, 73, 28 Stat. 601, 608, 610-20.
248. See, e.g., H.R. Rep. No. 74-280, at 2 (1935) ("[R]ules and regulations frequently appear in separate paper pamphlets, some printed on single sheets of paper and easily lost. Any attempt to compile a complete private collection of [them]... would be wellnigh impossible. No law library, public or private, contains them all. Officials of the department issuing them frequently do not know all of their own regulations. ").
249. Erwin Griswold, Government in Ignorance of the Law-A Plea for Better Publication of Executive Legislation, 48 Harv. L. Rev. 198, 294 (1934).
250. See, e.g., H.R. Rep. No. 74-280, at 2-3.
251. United States v. Smith, 293 U.S. 633 (1934) (mem.).
252. Julius F. Stone, Jr. & George S. Pettee, Revision of Private Law, 54 Harv. L. Rev. 221, 242 (1940).
253. Oil Suit Dismissed in Supreme Court, N.Y. Times, Oct. 2, 1934, at 6 (following appeal, government unilaterally withdrew case of oil quota violation because relevant executive order did not contain oil quota requirement)
254. Urban Lavery, The "Federal Register"-Official Publication for Administrative Regulations, Etc., 7 F.R.D. 625, 626 (1947)
255. Dean Wigmore on Panama Refining Co. v. Ryan, 293 U.S. 388 (1935), in which the attorney general "admitted that the trial had proceeded below in ignorance of [the regulation] upon which the prosecution had rested" (internal quotation marks omitted).
256. Federal Digital System, U.S. Gov't Printing Office, http:// www.gpo.gov/fdsys (last visited Sept. 29, 2013) (providing access, back to the mid-1990s, to the CFR, Federal Register, public and private laws, U.S. Code, and some federal court opinions). Private services, such as West Publishing, also provide access for a price, although their assertion of copyright depends on supplying added content, such as West's headnotes system.
257. 44 U.S.C. § 4102(b) (2006).
258. See Bruce R. Kingma, The Costs of Print, Fiche, and Digital Access: The Early Canadiana Online Project, D-Lib Mag. (Feb. 2000), http://www.dlib.org/dlib/february00/ kingma/02kingma.html ("In theory, once the fixed costs of digitization are incurred there is a zero marginal cost of providing an additional copy.").
259. See Nat'l Acad. of Pub. Admin., Rebooting the Government Printing Office 37 (2013), available at http://www.napawash.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/02/GPO-Final. pdf (noting that the Government Printing Office ("GPO") elected not to charge users for access to digital content because "administrative costs of collecting payments were higher than what GPO could charge").
260. See Electronic Freedom of Information Act Amendments of 1996, Pub. L. No. 104-231, § 4(7), 110 Stat. 3048, 3049 (amending 5 U.S.C. § 552(a) to require agencies to make documents available through "electronic means").
261. See Electronic Freedom of Information Act Amendments of 1996, Pub. L. No. 104-231, § 4(7), 110 Stat. 3048, 3049 (amending 5 U.S.C. § 552(a) to require agencies to make documents available through "electronic means").
262. See E-Government Act of 2002, Pub. L. No. 107-347, §§ 206(a)-(d), 207(f), 116 Stat. 2899, 2915-16, 2918-19.
263. See 139 Cong. Rec. 4880 (1993) (statement of Sen. Ford) ("I believe this bill [the Government Printing Office Electronic Information Access Enhancement Act of 1993] goes a long way toward ensuring that taxpayers have affordable and timely access to the Federal information which they have paid to generate. ").
264. E.g., Robert W. Hamilton, The Role of Nongovernmental Standards in the Development of Mandatory Federal Standards Affecting Safety or Health, 56 Tex. L. Rev. 1329, 1373 (1978) (suggesting that some SDO standards were chosen to maximize the competitive advantage of one segment of industry over another).
265. E.g., Robert W. Hamilton, The Role of Nongovernmental Standards in the Development of Mandatory Federal Standards Affecting Safety or Health, 56 Tex. L. Rev. 1329, 1373 (1978) (suggesting that some SDO standards were chosen to maximize the competitive advantage of one segment of industry over another).
266. Emily S. Bremer, Incorporation by Reference in an Open-Government Age, 36 Harv. J.L. & Pub. Pol'y 131, 150 (2013) (stating that the database included 9,475 incorporations by reference of standards in 2012 and listing the top ten suppliers of private IBR standards).
267. But cf. Ellis W. Hawley, The New Deal and the Problem of Monopoly 31-32 (1966) (noting that the National Industrial Recovery Act required the president to find that industrial codes were "truly representative" prior to approving them).
268. E.g., Education, Data. gov, http://www.data.gov/education/community/education (last visited Sept. 29, 2013) (supplying government information to the public on school quality and funding).
269. See, e.g., Christina E. Wells, State Secrets and Executive Accountability, 26 Const. Comment. 625, 640-50 (2010).
270. E.g., Kathleen Clark, The Architecture of Accountability: A Case Study of the Warrantless Surveillance Program, 2010 BYU L. Rev. 357, 389-404 (national security secrecy claims interfered with accountability mechanisms).
271. E.g., Editorial, Drone Strikes Under Scrutiny, N.Y. Times, Feb. 7, 2013, at A26, available at http://www.nytimes.com/2013/02/07/opinion/drone-strikes-under-scrutiny.html.
272. Memorandum on Transparency and Open Government, 2009 Daily Comp. Pres. Doc., no. 10, at 1 (Jan. 21, 2009), available at http://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/DCPD-200900010/pdf/DCPD-200900010.pdf.
273. Federal Digital System, U.S. Gov't Printing Office, http:// www.gpo.gov/fdsys (last visited Sept. 29, 2013) (providing access, back to the mid-1990s, to the CFR, Federal Register, public and private laws, U.S. Code, and some federal court opinions). Private services, such as West Publishing, also provide access for a price, although their assertion of copyright depends on supplying added content, such as West's headnotes system.
274. E.g., Exec. Order No. 12,356, 47 Fed. Reg. 14,874 (Apr. 2, 1982) (describing classification system).
275. See generally Jeremy Bentham, An Essay on Political Tactics, in 2 The Works of Jeremy Bentham 299, 310 (John Bowring ed., Edinburgh, William Tait 1843), available at http://oll.libertyfund.org/title/1921/113915 (publicity and the threat of exposure "constrain the members of the assembly to perform their duty").
276. See, e.g., Lawrence A. Cunningham, Private Standards in Public Law: Copyright, Lawmaking and the Case of Accounting, 104 Mich. L. Rev. 291, 334 (2005).
277. H.R. Rep. No. 74-280, at 2 (1935).
278. See Christopher v. SmithKline Beecham Corp., 132 S. Ct. 2156, 2167-68 (2012) (alteration in original) refusing to defer to agency interpretation in view of "the principle that agencies should provide regulated parties 'fair warning of the conduct [a regulation] prohibits or requires' " (alteration in original).
279. Gates & Fox Co. v. Occupational Safety & Health Review Comm'n, 790 F.2d 154, 156 (D.C. Cir. 1986).
280. Gen. Elec. Co. v. EPA, 53 F.3d 1324, 1328-29 (D.C. Cir. 1995) (reaffirming fair notice requirement in civil administrative context).
281. Gen. Elec. Co. v. EPA, 53 F.3d 1324, 1328-29 (D.C. Cir. 1995) (reaffirming fair notice requirement in civil administrative context).
282. Gen. Elec. Co. v. EPA, 53 F.3d 1324, 1328-29 (D.C. Cir. 1995) (reaffirming fair notice requirement in civil administrative context).
283. NLRB v. Catholic Bishop of Chicago, 440 U.S. 490, 507 (1979).
284. E.g., Nina A. Mendelson, Regulatory Beneficiaries and Informal Agency Policymaking, 92 Cornell L. Rev. 397, 414 (2007).
285. Cf. Comment of A Concerned Citizen (OFR Docket Mar. 20, 2012), available at http://www.regulations.gov/contentStreamer?objectId=0900006480fdbec2&disposition=attachment& contentType=pdf ("Private citizens, even if they aren't subject to a regulation, are still directly and indirectly affected by it.").
286. E.g., Nina A. Mendelson, Regulatory Beneficiaries and Informal Agency Policymaking, 92 Cornell L. Rev. 397, 414 (2007).
287. E.g., Nina A. Mendelson, Regulatory Beneficiaries and Informal Agency Policymaking, 92 Cornell L. Rev. 397, 414 (2007).
288. Comment of Ioana Rusu, Regulatory Counsel, Consumers Union 2 (OFR Docket June 1, 2012) [hereinafter Comment of Consumers Union], available at http://www.regulations. gov/contentStreamer?objectId=0900006481023c16&disposition=attachment&content Type=pdf.
289. This would include an assessment that regulated entities are likely to comply with binding standards; if compliance were not assured, regulatory beneficiary behavior might, of course, change further still.
290. For example, lack of access might prevent consumers from making informed decisions on whether to drink tap water when an agency relies on privately specified methodologies to test water sources. E.g., 40 C.F.R. § 141.21(f)(8) (2012) (drinking water standards incorporating numerous private standards for measurement of fecal coliform bacteria by reference).
291. Cf. Comment of A Concerned Citizen (OFR Docket Mar. 20, 2012), available at http://www.regulations.gov/contentStreamer?objectId=0900006480fdbec2&disposition=attachment& contentType=pdf ("Private citizens, even if they aren't subject to a regulation, are still directly and indirectly affected by it.").
292. Some might argue that mediating organizations such as newspapers or nongovernmental organizations might provide consumers or other individual beneficiaries with information even if the individual beneficiaries cannot afford access. This is possible, of course, but it is not a universal solution. Newspapers are limited in terms of both budgets and space; they are unlikely to report either the content or the range of issues potentially raised by the over 9,000 SDO rules. Nongovernmental organizations need financial support and they underrepresent diffusely held preferences among large groups of individuals. In theory, individuals whose budget constraints preclude them from accessing SDO standards could pool their funds to enable a nongovernmental organization to purchase the standards and report issues to them. But the organizational challenges and free-rider problems surrounding such an effort are substantial. Public. Resource. Org, for example, ran a Kickstarter campaign to raise $100,000 to purchase (and publish directly) SDO rules; although the campaign did attract several hundred participants, the organization only raised about a third of what it sought. See Carl Malamud, Public. Resource. Org, Public Safety Codes of the World: Stand up for Safety!, Kick-Starter, http://www.kickstarter.com/projects/publicresource/public-safety-codes-of-theworld-stand-up-for-safe/posts/641022 (last updated Oct. 25, 2013).
293. See, e.g., Michael M. Grynbaum, N.Y. Times, Court Halts Ban on Large Sodas in New York City, Mar. 12, 2013, at A1 (noting a judge's decision to overturn the New York Board of Health's "soda ban" as "arbitrary and capricious"), available at http://www.nytimes.com/ 2013/03/12/nyregion/judge-invalidates-bloombergs-soda-ban.html.
294. See generally Lisa Schultz Bressman, Beyond Accountability: Arbitrariness and Legitimacy in the Administrative State, 78 N.Y.U. L. Rev. 461 (2004).
295. See generally Rachel E. Barkow, Insulating Agencies: Avoiding Capture Through Institutional Design, 89 Tex. L. Rev. 15 (2010).
296. Office of Mgmt. & Budget, Circular No. A-130 Revised: Management of Federal Information Resources para. 7(c) (2000) [hereinafter Circular No. A-130], available at http://www.whitehouse.gov/omb/circulars_a130_a130trans4.
297. Mark Fenster, The Opacity of Transparency, 91 Iowa L. Rev. 885, 896 (2006) "Liberal philosophers who assume a contractual relationship between government and its citizens presume that openness enables individuals to grant their informed consent to be governed. "
298. John Rawls, A Theory of Justice 16, 454 (1971).
299. David Mitchell Ivester, Note, The Constitutional Right to Know, 4 Hastings Const. L.Q. 109, 116 (1977) ("[T]he right to know is implicit in the structure of a self-governing system. The sovereign people, by virtue of their station as the fundamental source of all governmental power, have an inherent right to know what their government is doing.").
300. Mark Fenster, The Opacity of Transparency, 91 Iowa L. Rev. 885, 896 (2006) "Liberal philosophers who assume a contractual relationship between government and its citizens presume that openness enables individuals to grant their informed consent to be governed. "
301. 239 U.S. 441, 445 (1915).
302. See Minn. State Bd. for Cmty. Colls. v. Knight, 465 U.S. 271, 284 (1984).
303. See, e.g., Stephen G. Breyer et al., Administrative Law and Regulatory Policy 548-49 (7th ed. 2011) (noting that there is a "gathering consensus" against formal rulemaking).
304. In addition, in the legislative setting, imposing procedural requirements raises the unpleasant specter of judicial interference with a coordinate and coequal branch of government. See, e.g., Minn. State Bd., 465 U.S. at 284-85. Due process, however, of course applies to any effort to enforce these standards or extract fines or penalties for noncompliance.
305. Bi-Metallic Inv. Co., 239 U.S. at 445.
306. Bi-Metallic Inv. Co., 239 U.S. at 445.
307. Cf. Globe Newspaper Co. v. Superior Court, 457 U.S. 596, 603 (1982) (explaining that the First Amendment required opening a criminal trial to both the press and general public).
308. Similarly, the prospect that a nongovernmental organization might supply information on some SDO rules to the public is not a substitute for the ability of an interested individual to read the rule that is of interest to her.
309. See generally Nina Mendelson, Foreword, Rulemaking, Democracy, and Torrents of E-Mail, 79 Geo. Wash. L. Rev. 1343, 1352-53 (2011).
310. Cynthia R. Farina, The Consent of the Governed: Against Simple Rules for a Complex World, 72 Chi.-Kent L. Rev. 987, 988 (1997).
311. See Lesley K. McAllister, Third Party Programs to Assess Regulatory Compliance 33-38 (2012), available at http://www.acus.gov/sites/default/files/documents/ Third-Party-Programs-Report_Final.pdf.
312. Chenglin Liu, Is "USDA Organic" a Seal of Deceit?: The Pitfalls of USDA Certified Organics Produced in the United States, China and Beyond, 47 Stan. J. Int'l L. 333 (2011).
313. See generally Mary Sigler, Private Prisons, Public Functions, and the Meaning of Punishment, 38 Fla. St. U. L. Rev. 149 (2010).
314. See generally Government by Contract: Outsourcing and American Democracy (Jody Freeman & Martha Minow eds., 2009).
315. See generally Kathleen Clark, Ethics, Employees and Contractors: Financial Conflicts of Interest in and out of Government, 62 Ala. L. Rev. 961 (2011).
316. Agencies may sometimes rely on private entities to "work around" public-interested constraints that would otherwise apply, including disclosure, procedure, and substantive constraints. See generally Jon D. Michaels, Privatization's Pretensions, 77 U. Chi. L. Rev. 717 (2010).
317. Jody Freeman, The Private Role in Public Governance, 75 N.Y.U. L. Rev. 534, 641-42 (2000).
318. E.g., Kathleen Clark, The Architecture of Accountability: A Case Study of the Warrantless Surveillance Program, 2010 BYU L. Rev. 357, 389-404 (national security secrecy claims interfered with accountability mechanisms).
319. E.g., Kathleen Clark, The Architecture of Accountability: A Case Study of the Warrantless Surveillance Program, 2010 BYU L. Rev. 357, 389-404 (national security secrecy claims interfered with accountability mechanisms).
320. E.g., Kathleen Clark, The Architecture of Accountability: A Case Study of the Warrantless Surveillance Program, 2010 BYU L. Rev. 357, 389-404 (national security secrecy claims interfered with accountability mechanisms).
321. E.g., Kathleen Clark, The Architecture of Accountability: A Case Study of the Warrantless Surveillance Program, 2010 BYU L. Rev. 357, 389-404 (national security secrecy claims interfered with accountability mechanisms).
322. See Jerry Mashaw, Accountability and Institutional Design: Some Thoughts on the Grammar of Governance, in Public Accountability: Dilemmas, Designs, and Experiences 115 (Michael Dowdle ed., 2006).
323. See generally Nina Mendelson, Foreword, Rulemaking, Democracy, and Torrents of E-Mail, 79 Geo. Wash. L. Rev. 1343, 1352-53 (2011).
324. 5 U.S.C. § 553(c) (2012).
325. See generally Nina Mendelson, Foreword, Rulemaking, Democracy, and Torrents of E-Mail, 79 Geo. Wash. L. Rev. 1343, 1352-53 (2011).
326. Jennifer Shkabatur, Transparency With(out) Accountability: Open Government in the United States, 31 Yale L. & Pol'y Rev. 79, 86 (2012) ("[N]otice and comment is typically dominated by a limited number of high-caliber professional interest groups and industry representatives. ").
327. See generally Nina Mendelson, Foreword, Rulemaking, Democracy, and Torrents of E-Mail, 79 Geo. Wash. L. Rev. 1343, 1352-53 (2011).
328. Richard Murphy, Essay, Enhancing the Role of Public Interest Organizations in Rulemaking Via Pre-notice Transparency, 47 Wake Forest L. Rev. 681, 689-91 (2012) (noting the vast disparity between industry and beneficiary communications with the agency).
329. Wendy Wagner et al., Rulemaking in the Shade: An Empirical Study of EPA's Air Toxic Emission Standards, 63 Admin. L. Rev. 99, 102 (2011) [hereinafter Wagner et al., Rulemaking in the Shade].
330. Mark Seidenfeld, Bending the Rules: Flexible Regulation and Constraints on Agency Discretion, 51 Admin. L. Rev. 429, 464 (1999) (noting that regulated entities typically have an "advantage in influencing agency decisions" because they have the "incentive and means to monitor what the agency does on a day-to-day basis" and "information without which a regulatory agency cannot do its job").
331. Wendy E. Wagner, Administrative Law, Filter Failure, and Information Capture, 59 Duke L.J. 1321, 1417 (2010) (suggesting that agencies raise the public visibility of certain rulemaking procedures as a mechanism to increase public participation) [hereinafter Wagner, Administrative Law].
332. E.g., Stephanie Stern, Cognitive Consistency: Theory Maintenance and Administrative Rulemaking, 63 U. Pitt. L. Rev. 589, 600-01 (2002) (noting that a variety of sources, including industry insiders, lawyers, and empirical studies, agree that pre-notice contacts can be more effective in influencing agency policy than post-notice comments).
333. Wendy E. Wagner, Administrative Law, Filter Failure, and Information Capture, 59 Duke L.J. 1321, 1417 (2010) (suggesting that agencies raise the public visibility of certain rulemaking procedures as a mechanism to increase public participation) [hereinafter Wagner, Administrative Law].
334. Public choice theories of agency official behavior posit, for example, that an agency official may be "tempted to curry favor with prospective employers or clients while still employed by the government. " Christopher N. Camponovo, Indecent Proposal: Abraham Sofaer, Libya, and the Appearance of Impropriety, 21 J. Legal Prof. 23, 27 (1997).
335. Marc T. Law & Cheryl X. Long, What Do Revolving-Door Laws Do?, 55 J.L. & Econ. 421, 421 (2012) ("Plans to pursue a subsequent career in the private sector may induce current public employees (for instance, regulators) to treat potential private sector employers favorably. ").
336. Administrative Procedure Act, 5 U.S.C. § 553(c) (2012).
337. Administrative Procedure Act, 5 U.S.C. § 553(c) (2012).
338. Portland Cement Ass'n v. Ruckelshaus, 486 F.2d 375, 393-94 (D.C. Cir. 1973) (noting that agencies must respond to comments that "step over a threshold requirement of materiality").
339. 5 U.S.C. § 553(e).
340. Mark Seidenfeld, A Civic Republican Justification for the Bureaucratic State, 105 Harv. L. Rev. 1511 (1992).
341. Mark Seidenfeld, A Civic Republican Justification for the Bureaucratic State, 105 Harv. L. Rev. 1511 (1992).
342. Comment of John L. Conley, President, Nat'l Tank Truck Carriers 2 (OFR Docket May 30, 2012) [hereinafter Comment of Nat'l Tank Truck Carriers], available at http://www.regulations.gov/contentStreamer?objectId=09000064 8102543c&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf (providing an example of Pipeline and Hazardous Materials Safety Administration ("PHMSA") rulemaking as incorporating a standard that putative commenters would have to purchase, although noting that PHMSA did require the two private groups "to make portions of their copyrighted publications available electronically while the comment period was open").
343. Standard available at ANSI ASC A14.5-2007, Am. Nat'l Standards Inst., http:// webstore.ansi.org/RecordDetail.aspx?sku=ANSI+ASC+A14.5-2007&source=safety_landing#. UUcs8Bzvt8E (last visited Sept.29, 2013).
344. 29 U.S.C. § 651(b) (2006).
345. 29 U.S.C. § 652(8).
346. 29 U.S.C. § 652(8).
347. E.g., Kathleen Clark, The Architecture of Accountability: A Case Study of the Warrantless Surveillance Program, 2010 BYU L. Rev. 357, 389-404 (national security secrecy claims interfered with accountability mechanisms).
348. E.g., Kathleen Clark, The Architecture of Accountability: A Case Study of the Warrantless Surveillance Program, 2010 BYU L. Rev. 357, 389-404 (national security secrecy claims interfered with accountability mechanisms).
349. See, e.g., N. Am. Energy Standards Bd., Member Homepage Access Form (n.d.), available at http://www.naesb.org/pdf/Homepage.pdf ("Members have access to the work products on the protected areas as part of their membership benefits.").
350. As of August 2013, ANSI Standard 117.1, referenced in the law, cost $40. eStandards Store: ANSI A117.1-1986, Am. Nat'l Standards Inst., http://webstore.ansi.org/RecordDetail. aspx?sku=ANSI+A117.1-1986 (last visited Sept. 29, 2013).
351. As of August 2013, ANSI Standard 117.1, referenced in the law, cost $40. eStandards Store: ANSI A117.1-1986, Am. Nat'l Standards Inst., http://webstore.ansi.org/RecordDetail. aspx?sku=ANSI+A117.1-1986 (last visited Sept. 29, 2013).
352. See Federal Advisory Committee Act, 5 U.S.C. app. §§ 1-16.
353. See 5 U.S.C. § 553 (requiring notice-and-comment process and "concise general statement of their basis and purpose").
354. See 5 U.S.C. § 553 (requiring notice-and-comment process and "concise general statement of their basis and purpose").
355. See 5 U.S.C. § 553 (requiring notice-and-comment process and "concise general statement of their basis and purpose").
356. see also Peter L. Strauss, Private Standards Organizations and Public Law, 22 Wm. & Mary Bill Rts. J. 497, 497 (2013) (quoting World Legal Info. Inst., http://www.worldlii. org/worldlii/declaration/montreal_en.html (last visited Dec. 12, 2013).
357. See, e.g., Comment of Rae McQuade, President, N. Am. Energy Standards Bd. 4 (OFR Docket May 31, 2012) [hereinafter Comment of N. Am. Energy Standards Bd.], available at http://www.regulations.gov/content Streamer?objectId=0900006481024904&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf ("[SDOs]... perform a valuable societal function that otherwise would have to be done by regulatory bodies....").
358. See, e.g., Comment of Rae McQuade, President, N. Am. Energy Standards Bd. 4 (OFR Docket May 31, 2012) [hereinafter Comment of N. Am. Energy Standards Bd.], available at http://www.regulations.gov/content Streamer?objectId=0900006481024904&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf ("[SDOs]... perform a valuable societal function that otherwise would have to be done by regulatory bodies....").
359. See, e.g., Comment of Rae McQuade, President, N. Am. Energy Standards Bd. 4 (OFR Docket May 31, 2012) [hereinafter Comment of N. Am. Energy Standards Bd.], available at http://www.regulations.gov/content Streamer?objectId=0900006481024904&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf ("[SDOs]... perform a valuable societal function that otherwise would have to be done by regulatory bodies....").
360. Emily S. Bremer, Incorporation by Reference in an Open-Government Age, 36 Harv. J.L. & Pub. Pol'y 131, 150 (2013) (stating that the database included 9,475 incorporations by reference of standards in 2012 and listing the top ten suppliers of private IBR standards).
361. 5 U.S.C. § 553(e) (2012).
362. Comment of John L. Conley, President, Nat'l Tank Truck Carriers 2 (OFR Docket May 30, 2012) [hereinafter Comment of Nat'l Tank Truck Carriers], available at http://www.regulations.gov/contentStreamer?objectId=09000064 8102543c&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf (providing an example of Pipeline and Hazardous Materials Safety Administration ("PHMSA") rulemaking as incorporating a standard that putative commenters would have to purchase, although noting that PHMSA did require the two private groups "to make portions of their copyrighted publications available electronically while the comment period was open").
363. E.g., Mary F. Donaldson & Nathalie Rioux, Nat'l Inst. of Standards and Tech., NISTIR 7789, Fourteenth Annual Report on Federal Agency Use of Voluntary Consensus Standards and Conformity Assessment 3 (2011), available at https://standards. gov/NTTAA/resources/nttaa_ar_2010.pdf (cataloging forty-eight uses of governmentunique standards in lieu of private sector standards).
364. E.g., Mary F. Donaldson & Nathalie Rioux, Nat'l Inst. of Standards and Tech., NISTIR 7789, Fourteenth Annual Report on Federal Agency Use of Voluntary Consensus Standards and Conformity Assessment 3 (2011), available at https://standards. gov/NTTAA/resources/nttaa_ar_2010.pdf (cataloging forty-eight uses of governmentunique standards in lieu of private sector standards).
365. E.g., Stephen Breyer, Breaking the Vicious Circle 11-19 (1993).
366. Sidney A. Shapiro, Outsourcing Government Regulation, 53 Duke L.J. 389, 407-08 (2003).
367. Jody Freeman, The Private Role in Public Governance, 75 N.Y.U. L. Rev. 534, 641-42 (2000).
368. See Jerry Mashaw, Accountability and Institutional Design: Some Thoughts on the Grammar of Governance, in Public Accountability: Dilemmas, Designs, and Experiences 115 (Michael Dowdle ed., 2006).
369. Office of Mgmt. & Budget, Circular No. A-119 Revised: Federal Participation in the Development and Use of Voluntary Consensus Standards and in Conformity Assessment Activities para. 1 (1998) [hereinafter Circular No. A-119], available at http://www.whitehouse.gov/omb/circulars_a119.
370. National Technology Transfer and Advancement Act of 1995 § 12(d)(3), 15 U.S.C. § 272 note (2012) (Utilization of Consensus Technical Standards by Federal Agencies).
371. See Jerry Mashaw, Accountability and Institutional Design: Some Thoughts on the Grammar of Governance, in Public Accountability: Dilemmas, Designs, and Experiences 115 (Michael Dowdle ed., 2006).
372. Jody Freeman, The Private Role in Public Governance, 75 N.Y.U. L. Rev. 534, 641-42 (2000).
373. Comment of David Miller, Director, Am. Petroleum Inst. 4 (OFR Docket June 1, 2012) [hereinafter Comment of Am. Petroleum Inst.], available at http://www.regulations.gov/ contentStreamer?objectId=0900006481025c0c&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf (arguing that the OFR should have no role in requiring free public access to IBR rules).
374. Nicholas Bagley, Response, Agency Hygiene, 89 Tex. L. Rev. See Also 1, 5 (2010), available at http://www.texaslrev.com/wp-content/uploads/Bagley-89-TLRSA-1.pdf.
375. Elena Kagan, Presidential Administration, 114 Harv. L. Rev. 2245, 2265 (2001).
376. Emily S. Bremer, Incorporation by Reference in an Open-Government Age, 36 Harv. J.L. & Pub. Pol'y 131, 150 (2013) (stating that the database included 9,475 incorporations by reference of standards in 2012 and listing the top ten suppliers of private IBR standards).
377. Sidney A. Shapiro, Outsourcing Government Regulation, 53 Duke L.J. 389, 407-08 (2003).
378. E.g., Requirements Pertaining to Third Party Conformity Assessment Bodies, 77 Fed. Reg. 31,086 (proposed May 24, 2012) (to be codified at 16 C.F.R. pts. 1112, 1118) (noting that ASTM is in possession of studies supporting XRF technology).
379. Office of Mgmt. & Budget, Circular No. A-119 Revised: Federal Participation in the Development and Use of Voluntary Consensus Standards and in Conformity Assessment Activities para. 1 (1998) [hereinafter Circular No. A-119], available at http://www.whitehouse.gov/omb/circulars_a119.
380. E.g., U.S. Gov't Accountability Office, GAO-09-295, Federal Rulemaking: Improvements Needed to Monitoring and Evaluation of Rules Development as Well as to the Transparency of OMB Regulatory Reviews 13 (2009), available at http://www. gao.gov/new.items/d09205.pdf (stating that, in addition to the extensive work required to develop a proposed rule, "[a]gency officials reported that... initial [pre-proposal] work on a rule is of indeterminate length and sometimes constitutes a major portion of the process").
381. Comment of David Miller, Director, Am. Petroleum Inst. 4 (OFR Docket June 1, 2012) [hereinafter Comment of Am. Petroleum Inst.], available at http://www.regulations.gov/ contentStreamer?objectId=0900006481025c0c&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf (arguing that the OFR should have no role in requiring free public access to IBR rules).
382. Sidney A. Shapiro, Outsourcing Government Regulation, 53 Duke L.J. 389, 407-08 (2003).
383. Sidney A. Shapiro, Outsourcing Government Regulation, 53 Duke L.J. 389, 407-08 (2003).
384. Mark Seidenfeld, A Civic Republican Justification for the Bureaucratic State, 105 Harv. L. Rev. 1511 (1992).
385. Emily S. Bremer, Incorporation by Reference in an Open-Government Age, 36 Harv. J.L. & Pub. Pol'y 131, 150 (2013) (stating that the database included 9,475 incorporations by reference of standards in 2012 and listing the top ten suppliers of private IBR standards).
386. Comment of R. Bruce Josten, Exec. Vice President of Gov't Affairs, Chamber of Commerce of the U.S. 2 (OFR Docket Apr. 3, 2012) [hereinafter Comment of Chamber of Commerce], available at http://www.regulations.gov/contentStreamer?objectId= 0900006480feb794&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf (stating that incorporation of SDO standards "provides certainty and saves money for businesses, which are often either involved with the formation of the standard or already in compliance").
387. see also Peter L. Strauss, Private Standards Organizations and Public Law, 22 Wm. & Mary Bill Rts. J. 497, 497 (2013) (quoting World Legal Info. Inst., http://www.worldlii. org/worldlii/declaration/montreal_en.html (last visited Dec. 12, 2013).
388. Nicholas Bagley, Response, Agency Hygiene, 89 Tex. L. Rev. See Also 1, 5 (2010), available at http://www.texaslrev.com/wp-content/uploads/Bagley-89-TLRSA-1.pdf.
389. Richard Murphy, Essay, Enhancing the Role of Public Interest Organizations in Rulemaking Via Pre-notice Transparency, 47 Wake Forest L. Rev. 681, 689-91 (2012) (noting the vast disparity between industry and beneficiary communications with the agency).
390. Mark Seidenfeld, A Civic Republican Justification for the Bureaucratic State, 105 Harv. L. Rev. 1511 (1992).
391. Sidney A. Shapiro, Outsourcing Government Regulation, 53 Duke L.J. 389, 407-08 (2003).
392. Office of Mgmt. & Budget, Circular No. A-119 Revised: Federal Participation in the Development and Use of Voluntary Consensus Standards and in Conformity Assessment Activities para. 1 (1998) [hereinafter Circular No. A-119], available at http://www.whitehouse.gov/omb/circulars_a119.
393. See generally Nina Mendelson, Foreword, Rulemaking, Democracy, and Torrents of E-Mail, 79 Geo. Wash. L. Rev. 1343, 1352-53 (2011).
394. See generally Nina Mendelson, Foreword, Rulemaking, Democracy, and Torrents of E-Mail, 79 Geo. Wash. L. Rev. 1343, 1352-53 (2011).
395. Courts will overturn an agency rule only if it is arbitrary, capricious, or contrary to law, including required procedures. See Chevron U.S.A. Inc. v. Natural Res. Def. Council, Inc., 467 U.S. 837, 844 (1984).
396. United States v. Mead Corp., 533 U.S. 218, 228 (2001). It is unclear whether an interpretation of a statute that an SDO initially developed and that an agency incorporated into a federal rule would be entitled to Chevron deference.
397. The OFR must approve incorporations by reference, but its approval authority does not extend to substantive grounds. See 5 U.S.C. § 552(a)(1).
398. The OFR must approve incorporations by reference, but its approval authority does not extend to substantive grounds. See 5 U.S.C. § 552(a)(1).
399. E.g., Rena Steinzor, The Case for Abolishing Centralized White House Regulatory Review, 1 Mich. J. Envtl. & Admin. L. 209 (2012) (on the White House).
400. E.g., Kathleen Clark, The Architecture of Accountability: A Case Study of the Warrantless Surveillance Program, 2010 BYU L. Rev. 357, 389-404 (national security secrecy claims interfered with accountability mechanisms).
401. Jennifer Shkabatur, Transparency With(out) Accountability: Open Government in the United States, 31 Yale L. & Pol'y Rev. 79, 86 (2012) ("[N]otice and comment is typically dominated by a limited number of high-caliber professional interest groups and industry representatives. ").
402. E.g., Consumer Product Safety Act, 15 U.S.C. §§ 2051-84 (2012).
403. Comment of Ioana Rusu, Regulatory Counsel, Consumers Union 2 (OFR Docket June 1, 2012) [hereinafter Comment of Consumers Union], available at http://www.regulations. gov/contentStreamer?objectId=0900006481023c16&disposition=attachment&content Type=pdf.
404. Comment of Ioana Rusu, Regulatory Counsel, Consumers Union 2 (OFR Docket June 1, 2012) [hereinafter Comment of Consumers Union], available at http://www.regulations. gov/contentStreamer?objectId=0900006481023c16&disposition=attachment&content Type=pdf.
405. See, e.g., Free Enter. Fund v. Pub. Co. Accounting Oversight Bd., 130 S. Ct. 3138, 3147, 3155-56 (2010).
406. See generally Nina Mendelson, Foreword, Rulemaking, Democracy, and Torrents of E-Mail, 79 Geo. Wash. L. Rev. 1343, 1352-53 (2011).
407. See, e.g., Christina E. Wells, State Secrets and Executive Accountability, 26 Const. Comment. 625, 640-50 (2010).
408. Peter M. Shane, Political Accountability in a System of Checks and Balances: The Case of Presidential Review of Rulemaking, 48 Ark. L. Rev. 161, 196 (1994). Scholars have expressed significant doubts regarding whether presidential elections can be meaningful devices for voters to hold agencies accountable for particular agency decisions.
409. E.g., Evan J. Criddle, Fiduciary Administration: Rethinking Popular Representation in Agency Rulemaking, 88 Tex. L. Rev. 441, 459 (2010).
410. See generally Nina Mendelson, Foreword, Rulemaking, Democracy, and Torrents of E-Mail, 79 Geo. Wash. L. Rev. 1343, 1352-53 (2011).
411. Jodi L. Short, The Political Turn in American Administrative Law: Power, Rationality, and Reasons, 61 Duke L.J. 1811, 1821 (2012) ("[M]aking the administrative decisionmaking process more transparent [makes it] more amenable to congressional oversight. "). Congressional oversight has been conceptualized as a representative mechanism of holding agencies accountable to the "popular will, " and alternatively as a means of prompting public deliberation on an issue before an agency.
412. See Mark Seidenfeld, A Big Picture Approach to Presidential Influence on Agency Policy-Making, 80 Iowa L. Rev. 1, 9-10 (1994) ("[C]ongressional monitoring and after-the-fact restraints provide an important check on agency decision-making [despite] some shortcomings. ").
413. Glen Staszewski, The Federal Inaction Commission, 59 Emory L.J. 369, 420 (2009) ("[O]versight... ignores arbitrary decisionmaking by... agencies that escape[] the attention of well-organized interest groups. "); see also Mendelson, supra note 215, at 1355 & n.57 (discussing the unrepresentative submajorities problem).
414. See generally Nina Mendelson, Foreword, Rulemaking, Democracy, and Torrents of E-Mail, 79 Geo. Wash. L. Rev. 1343, 1352-53 (2011).
415. Sidney A. Shapiro, Political Oversight and the Deterioration of Regulatory Policy, 46 Admin. L. Rev. 1, 10 (1994) (noting that monitoring and reporting may reveal an agency's actions but might not necessarily prompt any change).
416. Comment of David Halperin, Of Counsel, and Carl Malamud, President & Founder, Public. Resource. Org. 14 (OFR Docket Apr. 11, 2012) [hereinafter Comment of Public. Resource. Org], available at http://www.regulations.gov/contentStreamer?objectId=090000 6480feda5e&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf.
417. see also Peter L. Strauss, Private Standards Organizations and Public Law, 22 Wm. & Mary Bill Rts. J. 497, 497 (2013) (quoting World Legal Info. Inst., http://www.worldlii. org/worldlii/declaration/montreal_en.html (last visited Dec. 12, 2013).
418. Exec. Order 12,866, 58 Fed. Reg. 51,735 (Sept. 30, 1993).
419. See 5 U.S.C. § 706 (2012).
420. See Jerry Mashaw, Accountability and Institutional Design: Some Thoughts on the Grammar of Governance, in Public Accountability: Dilemmas, Designs, and Experiences 115 (Michael Dowdle ed., 2006).
421. 5 U.S.C. § 706.
422. Jennifer Shkabatur, Transparency With(out) Accountability: Open Government in the United States, 31 Yale L. & Pol'y Rev. 79, 86 (2012) ("[N]otice and comment is typically dominated by a limited number of high-caliber professional interest groups and industry representatives. ").
423. See Jerry Mashaw, Accountability and Institutional Design: Some Thoughts on the Grammar of Governance, in Public Accountability: Dilemmas, Designs, and Experiences 115 (Michael Dowdle ed., 2006).
424. See generally Nina Mendelson, Foreword, Rulemaking, Democracy, and Torrents of E-Mail, 79 Geo. Wash. L. Rev. 1343, 1352-53 (2011).
425. See, e.g., Cornelius M. Kerwin, Rulemaking 188 (2d ed. 1999).
426. Wendy E. Wagner, Administrative Law, Filter Failure, and Information Capture, 59 Duke L.J. 1321, 1417 (2010) (suggesting that agencies raise the public visibility of certain rulemaking procedures as a mechanism to increase public participation) [hereinafter Wagner, Administrative Law].
427. Jason Webb Yackee & Susan Webb Yackee, A Bias Towards Business? Assessing Interest Group Influence on the U.S. Bureaucracy, 68 J. Pol. 128, 133 (2006).
428. Cf. Comment of A Concerned Citizen (OFR Docket Mar. 20, 2012), available at http://www.regulations.gov/contentStreamer?objectId=0900006480fdbec2&disposition=attachment& contentType=pdf ("Private citizens, even if they aren't subject to a regulation, are still directly and indirectly affected by it.").
429. Comment of James Pettit, Jr., Senior Assoc., Penza Bailey Architects, Inc. 1 (OFR Docket Apr. 4, 2012) [hereinafter Comment of Penza Bailey Architects], available at http:// www.regulations.gov/contentStreamer?objectId=0900006480fe7d25&disposition=attachment& contentType=pdf.
430. Comment of Robert Tess 1 (OFR Docket Mar. 23, 2012), available at http://www. regulations.gov/contentStreamer?objectId=0900006480fddd35&disposition=attachment&contentType= pdf.
431. Jon A. Krosnick, Government Policy and Citizen Passion: A Study of Issue Publics in Contemporary America, 12 Pol. Behav. 59, 60 (1990), available at http://www.stanford.edu/ dept/communication/faculty/krosnick/docs/1990/1990%20government%20policy%20and%20 citizen%20passion.pdf.
432. Jon A. Krosnick, Government Policy and Citizen Passion: A Study of Issue Publics in Contemporary America, 12 Pol. Behav. 59, 60 (1990), available at http://www.stanford.edu/ dept/communication/faculty/krosnick/docs/1990/1990%20government%20policy%20and%20 citizen%20passion.pdf.
433. Jon A. Krosnick, Government Policy and Citizen Passion: A Study of Issue Publics in Contemporary America, 12 Pol. Behav. 59, 60 (1990), available at http://www.stanford.edu/ dept/communication/faculty/krosnick/docs/1990/1990%20government%20policy%20and%20 citizen%20passion.pdf.
434. See, e.g., Editorial, For Want of a Good Lawyer: Deportation Without Representation, N.Y. Times, Dec. 25, 2011, at SR14, available at http://www.nytimes.com/2011/12/25/opinion/ sunday/deportation-without-representation.html ("[In deportation cases,] [a]bout 67 percent of those with lawyers during the period reviewed were allowed to stay, while only 8 percent of those without counsel avoided deportation.").
435. See, e.g., Editorial, For Want of a Good Lawyer: Deportation Without Representation, N.Y. Times, Dec. 25, 2011, at SR14, available at http://www.nytimes.com/2011/12/25/opinion/ sunday/deportation-without-representation.html ("[In deportation cases,] [a]bout 67 percent of those with lawyers during the period reviewed were allowed to stay, while only 8 percent of those without counsel avoided deportation.").
436. Ethan Bronner, Right to Lawyer Can Be Empty Promise for Poor, N.Y. Times, Mar. 16, 2013, at A1, available at http://www.nytimes.com/2013/03/16/us/16gideon.html?pagewanted= all.
437. But see Walters v. Nat'l Ass'n of Radiation Survivors, 473 U.S. 305, 333-34 (1985) (noting, in nonadversarial veterans' benefits proceedings, "no... great disparity" between outcomes when claimants were represented by attorneys and other cases).
438. E.g., 7 C.F.R. § 1755.390(a)(7) (2013) (incorporating ASTM D 4566-90, "Standard Test Methods for Electrical Performance Properties of Insulations and Jackets for Telecommunications Wire and Cable").
439. E.g., 40 C.F.R. pt. 80, app. B (2012) (covering methods for determining total lead content in gasoline, including dilution, stabilization, calibration, and calculation procedures).
440. Emily S. Bremer, Incorporation by Reference in an Open-Government Age, 36 Harv. J.L. & Pub. Pol'y 131, 150 (2013) (stating that the database included 9,475 incorporations by reference of standards in 2012 and listing the top ten suppliers of private IBR standards).
441. Even the NTTAA's definition of "technical standards, " which does not in any way constrain agency incorporation of private material, stretches broadly to include standards with policy and values components: the standards are defined to mean "performance-based or design-specific technical specifications and related management systems practices. " National Technology Transfer and Advancement Act of 1995 § 12(d)(4), 15 U.S.C. § 272 note (2012) (Utilization of Consensus Technical Standards by Federal Agencies).
442. eStandards Store: ISO/IEC 19794-5:2005, Am. Nat'l Standards Inst., available for sale at http://webstore.ansi.org/RecordDetail.aspx?sku=ISO%2fIEC+19794-5%3a2005 (last visited Nov. 13, 2013), incorporated by reference in 6 C.F.R. § 37.17(e)(1) (2013).
443. See, e.g., Samir Nanavati et al., Biometrics (2002).
444. Mark G. Milone, Biometric Surveillance: Searching for Identity, 57 Bus. Law. 497 (2001).
445. Tim Büthe and Walter Mattli, The New Global Rulers 224 (2011) (noting that consumers are outsiders in global standards discussions).
446. eStandards Store: ISO/IEC 19794-5:2005, Am. Nat'l Standards Inst., available for sale at http://webstore.ansi.org/RecordDetail.aspx?sku=ISO%2fIEC+19794-5%3a2005 (last visited Nov. 13, 2013), incorporated by reference in 6 C.F.R. § 37.17(e)(1) (2013).
447. eStandards Store: ISO/IEC 19794-5:2005, Am. Nat'l Standards Inst., available for sale at http://webstore.ansi.org/RecordDetail.aspx?sku=ISO%2fIEC+19794-5%3a2005 (last visited Nov. 13, 2013), incorporated by reference in 6 C.F.R. § 37.17(e)(1) (2013).
448. eStandards Store: ISO/IEC 19794-5:2005, Am. Nat'l Standards Inst., available for sale at http://webstore.ansi.org/RecordDetail.aspx?sku=ISO%2fIEC+19794-5%3a2005 (last visited Nov. 13, 2013), incorporated by reference in 6 C.F.R. § 37.17(e)(1) (2013).
449. eStandards Store: ISO/IEC 19794-5:2005, Am. Nat'l Standards Inst., available for sale at http://webstore.ansi.org/RecordDetail.aspx?sku=ISO%2fIEC+19794-5%3a2005 (last visited Nov. 13, 2013), incorporated by reference in 6 C.F.R. § 37.17(e)(1) (2013).
450. See ASTM Int'l, ASTM F1447-93: Protective Headgear Used in Bicycling § 4.2 (1993), available at http://www.astm.org/READINGLIBRARY/VIEW/F1447-93.html (incorporated by reference into 16 C.F.R. § 1203.53(a)(2) (2013).
451. Office of Mgmt. & Budget, Circular No. A-119 Revised: Federal Participation in the Development and Use of Voluntary Consensus Standards and in Conformity Assessment Activities para. 1 (1998) [hereinafter Circular No. A-119], available at http://www.whitehouse.gov/omb/circulars_a119.
452. See 1 C.F.R. § 51.7(a)(2) (2013) (current law).
453. Incorporation by Reference, 78 Fed. Reg. 60,784, 60,797 (revision to same, proposed Oct. 2, 2013).
454. Incorporation by Reference, 78 Fed. Reg. 60,784, 60,797 (revision to same, proposed Oct. 2, 2013).
455. Some statutes also authorize citizen suits to enforce rules-as to these, again, attorney assistance is likely to be valuable. E.g., 33 U.S.C. § 1365 (2006) (authorizing citizens to commence a civil action against any person alleging violation of an effluent standard or limitation under the Clean Water Act).
456. Comment of Jacob Speidel, Staff Att'y, Senior Citizens Law Project, Vermont Legal Aid, Inc. 2 (OFR Docket June 21, 2012) [hereinafter Comment of Vermont Legal Aid], available at http://www.regulations.gov/contentStreamer? objectId=09000064810258aa&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf (reporting Drugdex price of $6,000). Another source states that Drugdex is not available for purchase by members of the general public and that the publisher would not provide details of pricing.
457. Comment of Jacob Speidel, Staff Att'y, Senior Citizens Law Project, Vermont Legal Aid, Inc. 2 (OFR Docket June 21, 2012) [hereinafter Comment of Vermont Legal Aid], available at http://www.regulations.gov/contentStreamer? objectId=09000064810258aa&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf (reporting Drugdex price of $6,000). Another source states that Drugdex is not available for purchase by members of the general public and that the publisher would not provide details of pricing.
458. see also Comment of the Modification & Replacement Parts Ass'n 14 (OFR Docket June 1, 2012), available at http://www.regulations.gov/ contentStreamer?objectId=09000064810266b8&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf ("Standard-setting organizations or companies may attempt to lock out their competitors via incorporated standards that restrict processes or allowable materials or practices.").
459. See generally Cary Coglianese, Citizen Participation in Rulemaking: Past, Present, and Future, 55 Duke L.J. 943 (2006) (discussing rulemaking participation trends).
460. Cynthia R. Farina et al., Rulemaking vs. Democracy: Judging and Nudging Public Participation That Counts, 2 Mich. J. Envtl. & Admin. L. 123, 126-29 (2012) (same).
461. E.g., Comment of Cary Coglianese, Edward B. Shils Professor of Law, Univ. of Penn. Law Sch. 1 (OFR Docket May 30, 2012), available at http://www.regulations.gov/content Streamer?objectId=0900006481022904&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf ("The ability of members of the public to read and understand the rules imposed by their government has long been a hallmark of democracy. Accordingly, both Congress and every President over the last twenty years have adopted laws, policies, or initiatives directing agencies to make regulatory and other information more readily available to the public on the internet.").
462. U.S. Const. amend. XXIV, § 2.
463. Harper v. Va. Bd. of Elections, 383 U.S. 663, 666-68 (1966) (invalidating a state $1.50 poll tax as violating equal protection and as effective denial of the right to vote).
464. Harper v. Va. Bd. of Elections, 383 U.S. 663, 666-68 (1966) (invalidating a state $1.50 poll tax as violating equal protection and as effective denial of the right to vote).
465. See FLDP for Public, U.S. Gov't Printing Office, http://www.gpo.gov/libraries/ public (last visited Nov. 13, 2013).
466. See Nat'l Acad. of Pub. Admin., Rebooting the Government Printing Office 37 (2013), available at http://www.napawash.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/02/GPO-Final. pdf (noting that the Government Printing Office ("GPO") elected not to charge users for access to digital content because "administrative costs of collecting payments were higher than what GPO could charge").
467. E.g., Comment of Cary Coglianese, Edward B. Shils Professor of Law, Univ. of Penn. Law Sch. 1 (OFR Docket May 30, 2012), available at http://www.regulations.gov/content Streamer?objectId=0900006481022904&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf ("The ability of members of the public to read and understand the rules imposed by their government has long been a hallmark of democracy. Accordingly, both Congress and every President over the last twenty years have adopted laws, policies, or initiatives directing agencies to make regulatory and other information more readily available to the public on the internet.").
468. Memorandum on Transparency and Open Government, 2009 Daily Comp. Pres. Doc., no. 10, at 1 (Jan. 21, 2009), available at http://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/DCPD-200900010/pdf/DCPD-200900010.pdf.
469. Cf. Elizabeth S. Anderson & Richard H. Pildes, Expressive Theories of Law: A General Restatement, 148 U. Pa. L. Rev. 1503, 1554 (2000).
470. Donald Regan, The Supreme Court and State Protectionism: Making Sense of the Dormant Commerce Clause, 84 Mich. L. Rev. 1091, 1113 (1986) (internal quotation marks omitted).
471. Cf. Adam Liptak, Seeking Justice? Try the Courtroom, Not the Line Outside, N.Y. Times, Apr. 16, 2013, at A13, available at http://www.nytimes.com/2013/04/16/us/supremecourt-spectator-line-acts-as-a-toll-booth.html (quoting Harvard professor Michael Sandel that permitting line-standing companies to sell seats in the Supreme Court "is yet another instance of letting money dominate democracy... at odds with equal access").
472. see also Electronic Public Access Fee Schedule, PACER (Apr. 1, 2013), http://www.pacer.gov/documents/epa_feesched.pdf. PACER's imposition of fees for electronic access has been criticized.
473. See, e.g., Comment of Laura Breyers 1 (OFR Docket Mar. 21, 2012), available at http://www.regulations.gov/contentStreamer?objectId=0900006480fdc436&disposition=attachment& contentType=pdf ("There's parts of the law that are owned by private corporations? Really? Well, if that's ok with you, then let's just go ahead and privatize the court system.... In fact why do we need the government at all, wal-mart seems to be really efficient at what they do, lets [sic] have them run things.").
474. Cynthia R. Farina et al., Rulemaking vs. Democracy: Judging and Nudging Public Participation That Counts, 2 Mich. J. Envtl. & Admin. L. 123, 126-29 (2012) (same).
475. E.g., John Schwartz, An Effort to Upgrade a Court Archive System to Free and Easy, N.Y. Times, Feb. 13, 2009, at A16, available at http://www.nytimes.com/2009/02/13/us/ 13records.html. As noted, however, PACER imposes no charge for accessing the most important documents issued by the judicial branch-opinions that decide the cases.
476. Cf. Elizabeth S. Anderson & Richard H. Pildes, Expressive Theories of Law: A General Restatement, 148 U. Pa. L. Rev. 1503, 1554 (2000).
477. Snyder v. Phelps, 131 S. Ct. 1207, 1215 (2011) ("[S]peech on public issues occupies the highest rung of the hierarchy of First Amendment values. ").
478. Connick v. Myers, 461 U.S. 138, 145 (1983).
479. See United States v. Classic, 313 U.S. 299, 314 (1941) ("The right of the people to choose... is a right established and guaranteed by the Constitution.... ").
480. At some point, the payment restrictions that the OFR has permitted for incorporated material may affect First Amendment values, since the public cannot become informed of or criticize government actions if the public does not know-or cannot readily learn-what they are. See Globe Newspaper Co. v. Superior Court, 457 U.S. 596, 604 (1982) "[A] major purpose of [the First] Amendment was to protect the free discussion of governmental affairs. "
481. Mills v. Alabama, 384 U.S. 214, 218 (1966).
482. Leigh v. Salazar, 677 F.3d 892 (9th Cir. 2012) ("[A] court cannot rubber-stamp an access restriction simply because the government says it is necessary. By reporting about the government, the media are 'surrogates for the public.' ") (requiring consideration of public right of access to view Bureau of Land Management horse roundups).
483. Harper v. Va. Bd. of Elections, 383 U.S. 663, 666-68 (1966) (invalidating state $1.50 poll tax as effective denial of right to vote).
484. Gitto v. Worcester Telegram & Gazette Corp. (In re Gitto Global Corp.), 422 F.3d 1, 6 (1st Cir. 2005) (holding that only the most compelling reasons can justify nondisclosure of judicial records). An agency interpretation that runs close to a constitutional line must be clearly authorized by Congress.
485. E.g., Solid Waste Agency v. U.S. Army Corps. of Eng'rs, 531 U.S. 159, 172 (2001) ("Where an administrative interpretation of a statute invokes the outer limits of Congress' power, we expect a clear indication that Congress intended that result. ").
486. E.g., Lubin v. Panish, 415 U.S. 710, 717-18 (1974) (striking down as violative of equal protection a $701 filing fee requirement for California county supervisor election).
487. see also Harper, 383 U.S. at 666 ("[A] State violates the Equal Protection Clause... whenever it makes the affluence of the voter or payment of any fee an electoral standard. ").
488. E.g., Michael S. Barr, The Financial Crisis and the Path of Reform, 29 Yale J. on Reg. 91, 108 n.114 (noting use, in the Dodd-Frank Act, of mechanisms to assess consumer responses to particular sorts of disclosure).
489. Michael S. Barr, An Inclusive, Progressive National Savings and Financial Services Policy, 1 Harv. L. & Pol'y Rev. 161, 174 (2007) (noting that "behavioral economics suggests that consumers will underestimate how much they will borrow and overestimate their ability to pay their bills in a timely manner, " a characteristic exploited by credit card companies).
490. See generally Richard H. Thaler & Cass R. Sunstein, Nudge (2008) (suggesting that behavioral research insights can usefully inform regulatory choices).
491. William F. Pederson, Regulation and Information Disclosure: Parallel Universes and Beyond, 25 Harv. Envtl. L. Rev. 151 (2001).
492. See, e.g., Lawrence A. Cunningham, Private Standards in Public Law: Copyright, Lawmaking and the Case of Accounting, 104 Mich. L. Rev. 291, 334 (2005).
493. See Comment of Daniel Trebbien 1-2 (OFR Docket May 29, 2012), available at http://www.regulations.gov/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648101ebc6&disposition=attachment& contentType=pdf.
494. See Memorandum from John P. Holdren, Dir., Exec. Office of the President, Office of Sci. & Tech. Policy, to the Heads of Executive Departments and Agencies, Increasing Access to the Results of Federally Funded Scientific Research 1 (Feb. 22, 2013), available at http:// www.whitehouse.gov/sites/default/files/microsites/ostp/ostp_public_access_memo_2013.pdf.
495. See Memorandum from John P. Holdren, Dir., Exec. Office of the President, Office of Sci. & Tech. Policy, to the Heads of Executive Departments and Agencies, Increasing Access to the Results of Federally Funded Scientific Research 1 (Feb. 22, 2013), available at http:// www.whitehouse.gov/sites/default/files/microsites/ostp/ostp_public_access_memo_2013.pdf.
496. See Memorandum from John P. Holdren, Dir., Exec. Office of the President, Office of Sci. & Tech. Policy, to the Heads of Executive Departments and Agencies, Increasing Access to the Results of Federally Funded Scientific Research 1 (Feb. 22, 2013), available at http:// www.whitehouse.gov/sites/default/files/microsites/ostp/ostp_public_access_memo_2013.pdf.
497. Comment of Michael Herz, Sec. Chair, Section of Admin. Law & Regulatory Practice, Am. Bar Ass'n (OFR Docket June 1, 2012) [hereinafter Comment of ABA Admin. Law Section], available at http://www.regulations.gov/contentStreamer?objectId=0900006481025ea5& disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf.
498. Emily S. Bremer, Incorporation by Reference in an Open-Government Age, 36 Harv. J.L. & Pub. Pol'y 131, 150 (2013) (stating that the database included 9,475 incorporations by reference of standards in 2012 and listing the top ten suppliers of private IBR standards).
499. See Memorandum from John P. Holdren, Dir., Exec. Office of the President, Office of Sci. & Tech. Policy, to the Heads of Executive Departments and Agencies, Increasing Access to the Results of Federally Funded Scientific Research 1 (Feb. 22, 2013), available at http:// www.whitehouse.gov/sites/default/files/microsites/ostp/ostp_public_access_memo_2013.pdf.
500. See Memorandum from John P. Holdren, Dir., Exec. Office of the President, Office of Sci. & Tech. Policy, to the Heads of Executive Departments and Agencies, Increasing Access to the Results of Federally Funded Scientific Research 1 (Feb. 22, 2013), available at http:// www.whitehouse.gov/sites/default/files/microsites/ostp/ostp_public_access_memo_2013.pdf.
501. Incorporation by Reference, 78 Fed. Reg. 60,784, 60,797 (revision to 1 C.F.R. § 51.5(a)(1), proposed Oct. 2, 2013). In addition, as discussed above, the proposed rule would expressly broaden potential uses of IBR rules to include any rule that "[s]ubstantially reduces" Federal Register volume.
502. Incorporation by Reference, 78 Fed. Reg. 60,784, 60,797 (revision to 1 C.F.R. § 51.5(a)(1), proposed Oct. 2, 2013). In addition, as discussed above, the proposed rule would expressly broaden potential uses of IBR rules to include any rule that "[s]ubstantially reduces" Federal Register volume.
503. See, e.g., Lawrence A. Cunningham, Private Standards in Public Law: Copyright, Lawmaking and the Case of Accounting, 104 Mich. L. Rev. 291, 334 (2005).
504. SDOs have suggested that access charges represent compensation for the value SDOs create in drafting standards. See, e.g., Comment of Am. Soc'y of Civil Eng'rs 1 (OFR Docket June 4, 2012), available at http://www.regulations.gov/contentStreamer?objectId=0900 00648102e32a&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf (arguing that the phrase "reasonably available" must balance public access interests with "the right of organizations... to administer access to their intellectual property").
505. See, e.g., Lawrence A. Cunningham, Private Standards in Public Law: Copyright, Lawmaking and the Case of Accounting, 104 Mich. L. Rev. 291, 334 (2005).
506. see also Peter L. Strauss, Private Standards Organizations and Public Law, 22 Wm. & Mary Bill Rts. J. 497, 497 (2013) (quoting World Legal Info. Inst., http://www.worldlii. org/worldlii/declaration/montreal_en.html (last visited Dec. 12, 2013).
507. see also Peter L. Strauss, Private Standards Organizations and Public Law, 22 Wm. & Mary Bill Rts. J. 497, 497 (2013) (quoting World Legal Info. Inst., http://www.worldlii. org/worldlii/declaration/montreal_en.html (last visited Dec. 12, 2013).
508. see also Peter L. Strauss, Private Standards Organizations and Public Law, 22 Wm. & Mary Bill Rts. J. 497, 497 (2013) (quoting World Legal Info. Inst., http://www.worldlii. org/worldlii/declaration/montreal_en.html (last visited Dec. 12, 2013).
509. see also Comment of the Modification & Replacement Parts Ass'n 14 (OFR Docket June 1, 2012), available at http://www.regulations.gov/ contentStreamer?objectId=09000064810266b8&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf ("Standard-setting organizations or companies may attempt to lock out their competitors via incorporated standards that restrict processes or allowable materials or practices.").
510. see also Peter L. Strauss, Private Standards Organizations and Public Law, 22 Wm. & Mary Bill Rts. J. 497, 497 (2013) (quoting World Legal Info. Inst., http://www.worldlii. org/worldlii/declaration/montreal_en.html (last visited Dec. 12, 2013).
511. Comment of R. Bruce Josten, Exec. Vice President of Gov't Affairs, Chamber of Commerce of the U.S. 2 (OFR Docket Apr. 3, 2012) [hereinafter Comment of Chamber of Commerce], available at http://www.regulations.gov/contentStreamer?objectId= 0900006480feb794&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf (stating that incorporation of SDO standards "provides certainty and saves money for businesses, which are often either involved with the formation of the standard or already in compliance").
512. See, e.g., Lawrence A. Cunningham, Private Standards in Public Law: Copyright, Lawmaking and the Case of Accounting, 104 Mich. L. Rev. 291, 334 (2005).
513. See, e.g., Lawrence A. Cunningham, Private Standards in Public Law: Copyright, Lawmaking and the Case of Accounting, 104 Mich. L. Rev. 291, 334 (2005).
514. See Rights in Data-General, 48 C.F.R. § 52.227-14(b) (2012) (providing as default rule that government has unlimited rights in data produced in performance of or delivered under a contract).
515. see also Peter L. Strauss, Private Standards Organizations and Public Law, 22 Wm. & Mary Bill Rts. J. 497, 497 (2013) (quoting World Legal Info. Inst., http://www.worldlii. org/worldlii/declaration/montreal_en.html (last visited Dec. 12, 2013).
516. See, e.g., Lawrence A. Cunningham, Private Standards in Public Law: Copyright, Lawmaking and the Case of Accounting, 104 Mich. L. Rev. 291, 334 (2005).
517. see also Peter L. Strauss, Private Standards Organizations and Public Law, 22 Wm. & Mary Bill Rts. J. 497, 497 (2013) (quoting World Legal Info. Inst., http://www.worldlii. org/worldlii/declaration/montreal_en.html (last visited Dec. 12, 2013).
518. Emily S. Bremer, Incorporation by Reference in an Open-Government Age, 36 Harv. J.L. & Pub. Pol'y 131, 150 (2013) (stating that the database included 9,475 incorporations by reference of standards in 2012 and listing the top ten suppliers of private IBR standards).
519. Comment of Ronald E. Jarnagin, President, ASHRAE 4 (OFR Docket Mar. 30, 2012), available at http://www.regulations.gov/contentStreamer?objectId=0900006480fe4f56& disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf (providing comments from building standards development organization).
520. see also Peter L. Strauss, Private Standards Organizations and Public Law, 22 Wm. & Mary Bill Rts. J. 497, 497 (2013) (quoting World Legal Info. Inst., http://www.worldlii. org/worldlii/declaration/montreal_en.html (last visited Dec. 12, 2013).
521. see also Peter L. Strauss, Private Standards Organizations and Public Law, 22 Wm. & Mary Bill Rts. J. 497, 497 (2013) (quoting World Legal Info. Inst., http://www.worldlii. org/worldlii/declaration/montreal_en.html (last visited Dec. 12, 2013).
522. see also Peter L. Strauss, Private Standards Organizations and Public Law, 22 Wm. & Mary Bill Rts. J. 497, 497 (2013) (quoting World Legal Info. Inst., http://www.worldlii. org/worldlii/declaration/montreal_en.html (last visited Dec. 12, 2013).
523. 16 C.F.R. § 1203.53(a) (2013).
524. Comment of Michael Herz, Sec. Chair, Section of Admin. Law & Regulatory Practice, Am. Bar Ass'n (OFR Docket June 1, 2012) [hereinafter Comment of ABA Admin. Law Section], available at http://www.regulations.gov/contentStreamer?objectId=0900006481025ea5& disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf.
525. Tim Büthe and Walter Mattli, The New Global Rulers 17 (2011) (with respect to "voluntary" European standards, "the effect of standards is direct and binding since the cost and difficulty of proving equivalence are enormous").
526. Erwin Griswold, Government in Ignorance of the Law-A Plea for Better Publication of Executive Legislation, 48 Harv. L. Rev. 198, 294 (1934).
527. Incorporation by Reference, 78 Fed. Reg. 60,784, 60,787 (proposed Oct. 2, 2013).
528. E.g., Transp. Sec. Admin., 3-1-1 for Carry-ons: Prepare for Take-off (n.d.), available at http://www.tsa.gov/sites/default/files/assets/pdf/311_brochure.pdf.
529. Jody Freeman, The Private Role in Public Governance, 75 N.Y.U. L. Rev. 534, 641-42 (2000).
530. See Lesley K. McAllister, Third Party Programs to Assess Regulatory Compliance 33-38 (2012), available at http://www.acus.gov/sites/default/files/documents/ Third-Party-Programs-Report_Final.pdf.