Treatment of Dystonia

Neurotherapeutics

Volumn 11, Issue 1, 2014, Pages 139-152

  Thenganatt, Mary Ann ^a   Jankovic, Joseph ^a  

^a BAYLOR COLLEGE OF MEDICINE   (United States)

Author keywords

blepharospasm; botulinum toxin; cervical dystonia; deep brain stimulation; Dystonia; trihexyphenidyl

Indexed keywords

BACLOFEN; BENZODIAZEPINE DERIVATIVE; BOTULINUM TOXIN; CARBAMAZEPINE; CARBIDOPA PLUS LEVODOPA; CARISOPRODOL; CHLORZOXAZONE; CLONAZEPAM; CLOZAPINE; CYCLOBENZAPRINE; DIAZEPAM; DOPAMINE RECEPTOR BLOCKING AGENT; LEVODOPA; LORAZEPAM; METAXALONE; METHOCARBAMOL; ORPHENADRINE; OXCARBAZEPINE; OXYBATE SODIUM; PREGABALIN; TETRABENAZINE; TRIHEXYPHENIDYL; ZOLPIDEM;

ABLATION THERAPY; BRAIN DEPTH STIMULATION; DENERVATION; DYSTONIA; FOCAL DYSTONIA; GENERALIZED DYSTONIA; HUMAN; PHYSIOTHERAPY; PRIORITY JOURNAL; QUALITY OF LIFE; REVIEW; SEGMENTAL DYSTONIA; SURGICAL TECHNIQUE; TRANSCRANIAL MAGNETIC STIMULATION;

ANTI-DYSKINESIA AGENTS; BOTULINUM TOXINS; DYSTONIA; HUMANS; NEUROSURGERY; QUALITY OF LIFE; TRIHEXYPHENIDYL;

EID: 84893141064     PISSN: 19337213     EISSN: 18787479     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1007/s13311-013-0231-4     Document Type: Review

References (144)

1. Albanese A, Bhatia K, Bressman SB, et al. Phenomenology and classification of dystonia: A consensus update. Mov Disord 2013;28: 863-873.
2. Charlesworth G, Bhatia KP, Wood NW. The genetics of dystonia: new twists in an old tale. Brain 2013;136: 2017-2037.
3. Ozelius LJ, Lubarr N, Bressman SB. Milestones in dystonia. Mov Disord 2011;26: 1106-1126.
4. Pavese N. Dystonia: hopes for a better diagnosis and a treatment with long-lasting effect. Brain 2013;136: 694-695.
5. Patel N, Jankovic J, Hallett M. Sensory aspects of movement disorders. Lancet Neurol 2013 (in press).
6. Jankovic J. Medical treatment of dystonia. Mov Disord 2013;28: 1001-1012.
7. Burke RE, Fahn S, Marsden CD. Torsion dystonia: a double-blind, prospective trial of high-dosage trihexyphenidyl. Neurology 1986;36: 160-164.
8. Taylor AE, Lang AE, Saint-Cyr JA, Riley DE, Ranawaya R. Cognitive processes in idiopathic dystonia treated with high-dose anticholinergic therapy: implications for treatment strategies. Clin Neuropharmacol 1991;14: 62-77.
9. Greene PE, Fahn S. Baclofen in the treatment of idiopathic dystonia in children. Mov Disord 1992;7: 48-52.
10. Karp BI, Goldstein SR, Chen R, et al. An open trial of clozapine for dystonia. Mov Disord 1999;14: 652-657.
11. Trugman JM, Leadbetter R, Zalis ME, Burgdorf RO, Wooten GF. Treatment of severe axial tardive dystonia with clozapine: case report and hypothesis. Mov Disord 1994;9: 441-446.
12. Kenney C, Hunter C, Jankovic J. Long-term tolerability of tetrabenazine in the treatment of hyperkinetic movement disorders. Mov Disord 2007;22: 193-197.
13. Jankovic J, Clarence-Smith K. Tetrabenazine for the treatment of chorea and other hyperkinetic movement disorders. Expert Rev Neurother 2011;11: 1509-1523.
14. Jimenez-Shahed, Jankovic J. Tetrabenazine for treatment of chorea associated with Huntington's disease. Exp Opin Orphan Drugs 2013 (in press).
15. Waln O, Jankovic J. Zolpidem improves tardive dyskinesia with and without akathisia. Mov Disord 2013 May 1 [Epub ahead of print].
16. Miyazaki Y, Sako W, Asanuma K, et al. Efficacy of zolpidem for dystonia: a study among different subtypes. Front Neurol 2012;3: 58.
17. Kang UJ, Burke RE, Fahn S. Tardive dystonia. Adv Neurol 1988;50: 415-429.
18. Trender-Gerhard I, Sweeney MG, Schwingenschuh P, et al. Autosomal-dominant GTPCH1-deficient DRD: clinical characteristics and long-term outcome of 34 patients. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 2009;80: 839-845.
19. Nygaard TG, Marsden CD, Fahn S. Dopa-responsive dystonia: long-term treatment response and prognosis. Neurology 1991;41: 174-181.
20. Hwang WJ, Calne DB, Tsui JK, de la Fuente-Fernandez R. The long-term response to levodopa in dopa-responsive dystonia. Parkinsonism Relat Disord 2001;8: 1-5.
21. Friedman J, Roze E, Abdenur JE, et al. Sepiapterin reductase deficiency: a treatable mimic of cerebral palsy. Ann Neurol 2012;71: 520-530.
22. Pearl PL, Taylor JL, Trzcinski S, Sokohl A. The pediatric neurotransmitter disorders. J Child Neurol 2007;22: 606-616.
23. Kitahara M, Shimohata T, Tokunaga J, Nishizawa M. Cervical dystonia associated with spinocerebellar ataxia type 2 successfully treated with levodopa: a case report. Mov Disord 2009;24: 2163-2164.
24. Bernard G, Vanasse M, Chouinard S. A case of secondary dystonia responding to levodopa. J Child Neurol 2010;25: 780-781.
25. Kinugawa K, et al. Myoclonus-dystonia: an update. Mov Disord 2009;24: 479-489.
26. Frucht SJ, Bordelon Y, Houghton WH, Reardan D. A pilot tolerability and efficacy trial of sodium oxybate in ethanol-responsive movement disorders. Mov Disord 2005;20: 1330-1337.
27. Yang Y, Su Y, Guo Y, et al. Oxcarbazepine versus carbamazepine in the treatment of paroxysmal kinesigenic dyskinesia. Int J Neurosci 2012;122: 719-722.
28. Ramirez-Castaneda, Jankovic J, Comella C, Dashtipour K, Fernandez HH, Mari Z. Diffusion, spread, dilution, and migration of botulinum toxin. Mov Disord 2013 Jul 18 [Epub ahead of print].
29. Dressler D. Five-year experience with incobotulinumtoxinA (Xeomin (®)): the first botulinum toxin drug free of complexing proteins. Eur J Neurol 2012;19: 385-389.
30. Tintner R, Gross R, Winzer UF, Smalky KA, Jankovic J. Autonomic function after botulinum toxin type A or B: a double-blind, randomized trial. Neurology 2005;65: 765-767.
31. Simpson DM, Blitzer A, Brashear A, et al. Assessment: Botulinum neurotoxin for the treatment of movement disorders (an evidence-based review): report of the Therapeutics and Technology Assessment Subcommittee of the American Academy of Neurology. Neurology 2008;70: 1699-1706.
32. Hallett M, Albanese A, Dressler D, et al. Evidence-based review and assessment of botulinum neurotoxin for the treatment of movement disorders. Toxicon 2013;67: 94-114.
33. Thenganatt MA, Fahn S. Botulinum toxin for the treatment of movement disorders. Curr Neurol Neurosci Rep 2012;12: 399-409.
34. Colosimo C, Tiple D, Berardelli A. Efficacy and safety of long-term botulinum toxin treatment in craniocervical dystonia: a systematic review. Neurotox Res 2012;22: 265-273.
35. Ramirez-Castaneda J, Jankovic J. Long-term efficacy and safety of botulinum toxin injections in dystonia. Toxins (Basel) 2013;5: 249-266.
36. Baizabal-Carvallo JF, Jankovic J, Feld J. Flu-like symptoms and associated immunological response following therapy with botulinum toxins. Neurotox Res 2013;24: 298-306.
37. Misra VP, Ehler E, Zakine B, et al. Factors influencing response to Botulinum toxin type A in patients with idiopathic cervical dystonia: results from an international observational study. BMJ Open 2012;2.
38. Nijmeijer SW, Koelman JH, Kamphuis DJ, Tijssen MA. Muscle selection for treatment of cervical dystonia with botulinum toxin-a systematic review. Parkinsonism Relat Disord 2012;18: 731-716.
39. Bhidayasiri R. Treatment of complex cervical dystonia with botulinum toxin: involvement of deep-cervical muscles may contribute to suboptimal responses. Parkinsonism Relat Disord 2011;17(Suppl. 1): S20-S24.
40. Jankovic J, Vuong KD, Ahsan J. Comparison of efficacy and immunogenicity of original versus current botulinum toxin in cervical dystonia. Neurology 2003;60: 1186-1188.
41. Zoons E, Dijkgraaf MG, Dijk JM, van Schaik IN, Tijssen MA. Botulinum toxin as treatment for focal dystonia: a systematic review of the pharmaco-therapeutic and pharmaco-economic value. J Neurol 2012;259: 2519-2526.
42. Koshy JC, Sharabi SE, Feldman EM, et al. Effect of dietary zinc and phytase supplementation on botulinum toxin treatments. J Drugs Dermatol 2012;11: 507-512.
43. Park TY, Shin MJ, Park SD, Lee SK. Alleviation of abnormal synaptic neurotransmitter release by cell-permeable form of the truncated SNAP-25 upon transcutaneous delivery. Neurosci Lett 2013;543: 52-57.
44. Vidailhet M, Vercueil L, Houeto JL, et al. Bilateral deep-brain stimulation of the globus pallidus in primary generalized dystonia. N Engl J Med 2005;352: 459-467.
45. Kupsch A, Benecke R, Muller J, et al. Pallidal deep-brain stimulation in primary generalized or segmental dystonia. N Engl J Med 2006;355: 1978-1990.
46. Vidailhet M, Vercueil L, Houeto JL, et al. Bilateral, pallidal, deep-brain stimulation in primary generalised dystonia: a prospective 3 year follow-up study. Lancet Neurol 2007;6: 223-229.
47. Volkmann J, Wolters A, Kupsch A, et al. Pallidal deep brain stimulation in patients with primary generalised or segmental dystonia: 5-year follow-up of a randomised trial. Lancet Neurol 2012;11: 1029-1038.
48. Panov F, Gologorsky Y, Connors G, et al. Deep brain stimulation in DYT1 Dystonia: A 10-year experience. Neurosurgery 2013;73: 86-93.
49. Speelman JD, Contarino MF, Schuurman PR, Tijssen MA, de Bie RM. Deep brain stimulation for dystonia: patient selection and outcomes. Eur J Neurol 2010;17(Suppl. 1): 102-106.
50. Andrews C, Aviles-Olmos I, Hariz M, Foltynie T. Which patients with dystonia benefit from deep brain stimulation? A metaregression of individual patient outcomes. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 2010;81: 1383-1389.
51. Markun LC, Starr PA, Air EL, et al. Shorter disease duration correlates with improved long-term deep brain stimulation outcomes in young-onset DYT1 dystonia. Neurosurgery 2012;71: 325-330.
52. Isaias IU, Volkmann J, Kupsch A, et al. Factors predicting protracted improvement after pallidal DBS for primary dystonia: the role of age and disease duration. J Neurol 2011;258: 1469-1476.
53. Kiss ZH, Doig-Beyaert K, Eliasziw M, et al. The Canadian multicentre study of deep brain stimulation for cervical dystonia. Brain 2007;130: 2879-2886.
54. Hung SW, Hamani C, Lozano AM, et al. Long-term outcome of bilateral pallidal deep brain stimulation for primary cervical dystonia. Neurology 2007;68: 457-459.
55. Walsh RA, Sidiropoulos C, Lozano AM, et al. Bilateral pallidal stimulation in cervical dystonia: blinded evidence of benefit beyond 5 years. Brain 2013;136: 761-769.
56. Skogseid IM, Ramm-Pettersen J, Volkmann J, et al. Good long-term efficacy of pallidal stimulation in cervical dystonia: a prospective, observer-blinded study. Eur J Neurol 2012;19: 610-615.
57. Witt JL, Moro E, Ash RS, et al. Predictive factors of outcome in primary cervical dystonia following pallidal deep brain stimulation. Mov Disord 2013 Jun 20 [Epub ahead of print].
58. Yamada K, Hamasaki T, Hasegawa Y, Kuratsu J. Long disease duration interferes with therapeutic effect of globus pallidus internus pallidal stimulation in primary cervical dystonia. Neuromodulation 2013;16: 219-225.
59. Capelle HH, Blahak C, Schrader C, et al. Bilateral deep brain stimulation for cervical dystonia in patients with previous peripheral surgery. Mov Disord 2012;27: 301-304.
60. Reese R, Gruber D, Schoenecker T, et al. Long-term clinical outcome in meige syndrome treated with internal pallidum deep brain stimulation. Mov Disord 2011;26: 691-698.
61. Hagenacker T, Gerwig M, Gasser T, et al. Pallidal deep brain stimulation relieves camptocormia in primary dystonia. J Neurol 2013;260: 1833-1837.
62. Gruber D, Trottenberg T, Kivi A, et al. Long-term effects of pallidal deep brain stimulation in tardive dystonia. Neurology 2009;73: 53-58.
63. Chang EF, Schrock LE, Starr PA, Ostrem JL. Long-term benefit sustained after bilateral pallidal deep brain stimulation in patients with refractory tardive dystonia. Stereotact Funct Neurosurg 2010;88: 304-310.
64. Tormenti MJ, Tomycz ND, Coffman KA, et al. Bilateral subthalamic nucleus deep brain stimulation for dopa-responsive dystonia in a 6-year-old child. J Neurosurg Pediatr 2011;7: 650-653.
65. Tierney TS, Lozano AM. Surgical treatment for secondary dystonia. Mov Disord 2012;27: 1598-1605.
66. Aguilar JA, Vesagas TS, Jamora RD, et al. The promise of deep brain stimulation in X-linked dystonia parkinsonism. Int J Neurosci 2011;121(Suppl.) 1: 57-63.
67. Krause M, Fogel W, Tronnier V, et al. Long-term benefit to pallidal deep brain stimulation in a case of dystonia secondary to pantothenate kinase-associated neurodegeneration. Mov Disord 2006;21: 2255-2257.
68. Witt J, Starr PA, Ostrem JL. Use of pallidal deep brain stimulation in postinfarct hemidystonia. Stereotact Funct Neurosurg 2013;91: 243-247.
69. Marks WA, Honeycutt J, Acosta F, Jr, et al. Dystonia due to cerebral palsy responds to deep brain stimulation of the globus pallidus internus. Mov Disord 2011;26: 1748-1751.
70. Vidailhet M, Yelnik J, Lagrange C, et al. Bilateral pallidal deep brain stimulation for the treatment of patients with dystonia-choreoathetosis cerebral palsy: a prospective pilot study. Lancet Neurol 2009;8: 709-717.
71. Lumsden DE, Ashmore J, Charles-Edwards G, et al. Accuracy of stimulating electrode placement in paediatric pallidal deep brain stimulation for primary and secondary dystonia. Acta Neurochir (Wien) 2013;155: 823-836.
72. Jahanshahi M, Czernecki V, Zurowski AM. Neuropsychological, neuropsychiatric, and quality of life issues in DBS for dystonia. Mov Disord 2011;26(Suppl. 1): S63-S78.
73. Foncke EM, Schuurman PR, Speelman JD. Suicide after deep brain stimulation of the internal globus pallidus for dystonia. Neurology 2006;66: 142-143.
74. Tagliati M, Krack P, Volkmann J, et al. Long-Term management of DBS in dystonia: response to stimulation, adverse events, battery changes, and special considerations. Mov Disord 2011;26(Suppl. 1): S54-S62.
75. Schrader C, Capelle HH, Kinfe TM, et al. GPi-DBS may induce a hypokinetic gait disorder with freezing of gait in patients with dystonia. Neurology 2011;77: 483-488.
76. Blahak C, Capelle HH, Baezner H, et al. Micrographia induced by pallidal DBS for segmental dystonia: a subtle sign of hypokinesia? J Neural Transm 2011;118: 549-553.
77. Zauber SE, Watson N, Comella CL, Bakay RA, Metman LV. Stimulation-induced parkinsonism after posteroventral deep brain stimulation of the globus pallidus internus for craniocervical dystonia. J Neurosurg 2009;110: 229-233.
78. Lumsden DE, Kaminska M, Tustin K, et al. Battery life following pallidal deep brain stimulation (DBS) in children and young people with severe primary and secondary dystonia. Childs Nerv Syst 2012;28: 1091-1097.
79. Blahak C, Capelle HH, Baezner H, et al. Battery lifetime in pallidal deep brain stimulation for dystonia. Eur J Neurol 2011;18: 872-875.
80. Kaminska M, Lumsden DE, Ashkan K, et al. Rechargeable deep brain stimulators in the management of paediatric dystonia: well tolerated with a low complication rate. Stereotact Funct Neurosurg 2012;90: 233-239.
81. Gillies MJ, Joint C, Forrow B, et al. Rechargeable vs. Nonrechargeable Internal Pulse Generators in the Management of Dystonia. Neuromodulation 2013;16: 226-229.
82. Morishita T, Foote KD, Haq IU, et al. Should we consider Vim thalamic deep brain stimulation for select cases of severe refractory dystonic tremor. Stereotact Funct Neurosurg 2010;88: 98-104.
83. Ostrem JL, Racine CA, Glass GA, et al. Subthalamic nucleus deep brain stimulation in primary cervical dystonia. Neurology 2011;76: 870-878.
84. Sun B, Chen S, Zhan S, Le W, Krahl SE. Subthalamic nucleus stimulation for primary dystonia and tardive dystonia. Acta Neurochir Suppl 2007;97: 207-214.
85. Schjerling L, Hjermind LE, Jespersen B, et al. A randomized double-blind crossover trial comparing subthalamic and pallidal deep brain stimulation for dystonia. J Neurosurg 2013. doi: 10. 3171/2013. 8. JNS13844.
86. Cao C, Pan Y, Li D, et al. Subthalamus deep brain stimulation for primary dystonia patients: A long-term follow-up study. Mov Disord 2013 Jul 16 [Epub ahead of print].
87. Wohrle JC, Blahak C, Capelle HH, et al. Combined pallidal and subthalamic nucleus stimulation in sporadic dystonia-parkinsonism. J Neurosurg 2012;116: 95-98.
88. Baizabal-Carvallo JF, Roze E, Aya-Kombo M, et al. Combined pallidal and subthalamic nucleus deep brain stimulation in secondary dystonia-parkinsonism. Parkinsonism Relat Disord 2013;19: 566-568.
89. Gross RE. What happened to posteroventral pallidotomy for Parkinson's disease and dystonia? Neurotherapeutics 2008;5: 281-293.
90. Ondo WG, Desaloms JM, Jankovic J, Grossman RG. Pallidotomy for generalized dystonia. Mov Disord 1998;13: 693-698.
91. Fonoff ET, Campos WK, Mandel M, Alho EJ, Teixeira MJ. Bilateral subthalamic nucleus stimulation for generalized dystonia after bilateral pallidotomy. Mov Disord 2012;27: 1559-1563.
92. Waln O, Jankovic J. Bilateral globus pallidus internus deep brain stimulation after bilateral pallidotomy in a patient with generalized early-onset primary dystonia. Mov Disord 2013;28: 1162-1163.
93. Ford B, Louis ED, Greene P, Fahn S. Outcome of selective ramisectomy for botulinum toxin resistant torticollis. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1998;65: 472-478.
94. Munchau A, Palmer JD, Dressler D, et al. Prospective study of selective peripheral denervation for botulinum-toxin resistant patients with cervical dystonia. Brain 2001;124: 769-783.
95. Braun V, Richter HP. Selective peripheral denervation for spasmodic torticollis: 13-year experience with 155 patients. J Neurosurg 2002;97(2 Suppl.): 207-212.
96. Cohen-Gadol AA, Ahlskog JE, Matsumoto JY, et al. Selective peripheral denervation for the treatment of intractable spasmodic torticollis: experience with 168 patients at the Mayo Clinic. J Neurosurg 2003;98: 1247-1254.
97. Huh R, Han IB, Chung M, Chung S. Comparison of treatment results between selective peripheral denervation and deep brain stimulation in patients with cervical dystonia. Stereotact Funct Neurosurg 2010;88: 234-238.
98. Pin TW, McCartney L, Lewis J, Waugh MC. Use of intrathecal baclofen therapy in ambulant children and adolescents with spasticity and dystonia of cerebral origin: a systematic review. Dev Med Child Neurol 2011;53: 885-895.
99. Hou JG, Ondo W, Jankovic J. Intrathecal baclofen for dystonia. Mov Disord 2001;16: 1201-1202.
100. Albright AL, Barry MJ, Shafton DH, Ferson SS. Intrathecal baclofen for generalized dystonia. Dev Med Child Neurol 2001;43: 652-657.
101. Uchiyama T, Nakanishi K, Fukawa N, et al. Neuromodulation using intrathecal baclofen therapy for spasticity and dystonia. Neurol Med Chir (Tokyo) 2012;52: 463-469.
102. Narayan RK, Loubser PG, Jankovic J, Donovan WH, Bontke CF. Intrathecal baclofen for intractable axial dystonia. Neurology 1991;41: 1141-1142.
103. Brennan PM, Whittle IR. Intrathecal baclofen therapy for neurological disorders: a sound knowledge base but many challenges remain. Br J Neurosurg 2008;22: 508-519.
104. Turner M, Nguyen HS, Cohen-Gadol AA. Intraventricular baclofen as an alternative to intrathecal baclofen for intractable spasticity or dystonia: outcomes and technical considerations. J Neurosurg Pediatr 2012;10: 315-319.
105. Albright AL, Ferson SS. Intraventricular baclofen for dystonia: techniques and outcomes. Clinical article. J Neurosurg Pediatr 2009;3: 11-14.
106. Rocque BG, Leland Albright A. Intraventricular vs intrathecal baclofen for secondary dystonia: a comparison of complications. Neurosurgery 2012;70(2 Suppl. Operative): 321-325.
107. Chapman KL, Bartley GB, Waller RR, Hodge DO. Follow-up of patients with essential blepharospasm who underwent eyelid protractor myectomy at the Mayo Clinic from 1980 through 1995. Ophthal Plast Reconstr Surg 1999;15: 106-110.
108. Georgescu D, Vagefi MR, McMullan TF, McCann JD, Anderson RL. Upper eyelid myectomy in blepharospasm with associated apraxia of lid opening. Am J Ophthalmol 2008;145: 541-547.
109. Wabbels B, Roggenkamper P. Long-term follow-up of patients with frontalis sling operation in the treatment of essential blepharospasm unresponsive to botulinum toxin therapy. Graefes Arch Clin Exp Ophthalmol 2007;245: 45-50.
110. Nicoletti AG, Pereira IC, Matayoshi S. Browlifting as an alternative procedure for apraxia of eyelid opening. Ophthal Plast Reconstr Surg 2009;25: 46-47.
111. Satoh M, Narita M, Tomimoto H. Three cases of focal embouchure dystonia: classifications and successful therapy using a dental splint. Eur Neurol 2011;66: 85-90.
112. Queiroz MA, Chien HF, Sekeff-Sallem FA, Barbosa ER. Physical therapy program for cervical dystonia: a study of 20 cases. Funct Neurol 2012;27: 187-192.
113. Tassorelli C, Mancini F, Balloni L, et al. Botulinum toxin and neuromotor rehabilitation: An integrated approach to idiopathic cervical dystonia. Mov Disord 2006;21: 2240-2243.
114. Cogiamanian F, Barbieri S, Priori A. Novel nonpharmacologic perspectives for the treatment of task-specific focal hand dystonia. J Hand Ther 2009;22: 156-61.
115. Pelosin E, Avanzino L, Marchese R, et al. Kinesio taping reduces pain and modulates sensory function in patients with focal dystonia: a randomized crossover pilot study. Neurorehabil Neural Repair 2013;27: 722-731.
116. Kimberley TJ, Borich MR, Arora S, Siebner HR. Multiple sessions of low-frequency repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation in focal hand dystonia: clinical and physiological effects. Restor Neurol Neurosci 2013; 31: 533-542.
117. Kieslinger K, Holler Y, Bergmann J, Golaszewski S, Staffen W. Successful treatment of musician's dystonia using repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation. Clin Neurol Neurosurg 2013; 115: 1871-1872.
118. Angelakis E, Liouta E, Andreadis N, et al. Transcranial alternating current stimulation reduces symptoms in intractable idiopathic cervical dystonia: a case study. Neuroscience letters 2013;533: 39-43.
119. Jankovic J, Orman J. Botulinum A toxin for cranial-cervical dystonia: a double-blind, placebo-controlled study. Neurology 1987;37: 616-623.
120. Greene P, Kang U, Fahn S, et al. Double-blind, placebo-controlled trial of botulinum toxin injections for the treatment of spasmodic torticollis. Neurology 1990;40: 1213-1218.
121. Yoshimura DM, Aminoff MJ, Olney RK. Botulinum toxin therapy for limb dystonias. Neurology 1992;42: 627-630.
122. Tsui JK, Bhatt M, Calne S, Calne DB. Botulinum toxin in the treatment of writer's cramp: a double-blind study. Neurology 1993;43: 183-185.
123. Cole R, Hallett M, Cohen LG. Double-blind trial of botulinum toxin for treatment of focal hand dystonia. Mov Disord 1995;10: 466-471.
124. Troung DD, Rontal M, Rolnick M, Aronson AE, Mistura K. Double-blind controlled study of botulinum toxin in adductor spasmodic dysphonia. Laryngoscope 1991;101: 630-634.
125. Truong D, Comella C, Fernandez HH, Ondo WG, Dysport Benign Essential Blepharospasm Study G. Efficacy and safety of purified botulinum toxin type A (Dysport) for the treatment of benign essential blepharospasm: a randomized, placebo-controlled, phase II trial. Parkinsonism Relat Disord 2008;14: 407-414.
126. Poewe W, Deuschl G, Nebe A, et al. What is the optimal dose of botulinum toxin A in the treatment of cervical dystonia? Results of a double blind, placebo controlled, dose ranging study using Dysport. German Dystonia Study Group. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1998;64: 13-17.
127. Truong D, Duane DD, Jankovic J, et al. Efficacy and safety of botulinum type A toxin (Dysport) in cervical dystonia: results of the first US randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study. Mov Disord 2005;20: 783-791.
128. Truong D, Brodsky M, Lew M, et al. Long-term efficacy and safety of botulinum toxin type A (Dysport) in cervical dystonia. Parkinsonism Relat Disord 2010;16: 316-323.
129. Lee SJ, McCall WD, Jr., Kim YK, Chung SC, Chung JW. Effect of botulinum toxin injection on nocturnal bruxism: a randomized controlled trial. Am J Phys Med Rehabil 2010;89: 16-23.
130. Kruisdijk JJ, Koelman JH, Ongerboer de Visser BW, de Haan RJ, Speelman JD. Botulinum toxin for writer's cramp: a randomised, placebo-controlled trial and 1-year follow-up. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 2007;78: 264-270.
131. Jankovic J, Comella C, Hanschmann A, Grafe S. Efficacy and safety of incobotulinumtoxinA (NT 201, Xeomin) in the treatment of blepharospasm-a randomized trial. Mov Disord 2011;26: 1521-1528.
132. Comella CL, Jankovic J, Truong DD, et al. Efficacy and safety of incobotulinumtoxinA (NT 201, XEOMIN ®, botulinum neurotoxin type A, without accessory proteins) in patients with cervical dystonia. J Neurol Sci 2011;308: 103-109.
133. Lew MF, Adornato BT, Duane DD, et al. Botulinum toxin type B: a double-blind, placebo-controlled, safety and efficacy study in cervical dystonia. Neurology 1997;49: 701-707.
134. Brashear A, Lew MF, Dykstra DD, et al. Safety and efficacy of NeuroBloc (botulinum toxin type B) in type A-responsive cervical dystonia. Neurology 1999;53: 1439-1446.
135. Brin MF, Lew MF, Adler CH, et al. Safety and efficacy of NeuroBloc (botulinum toxin type B) in type A-resistant cervical dystonia. Neurology 1999;53: 1431-1438.
136. Nussgens Z, Roggenkamper P. Comparison of two botulinum-toxin preparations in the treatment of essential blepharospasm. Graefes Arch Clin Exp Ophthalmol 1997;235: 197-199.
137. Roggenkamper P, Jost WH, Bihari K, et al. Efficacy and safety of a new Botulinum Toxin Type A free of complexing proteins in the treatment of blepharospasm. J Neural Transm 2006;113: 303-312.
138. Wabbels B, Reichel G, Fulford-Smith A, Wright N, Roggenkamper P. Double-blind, randomised, parallel group pilot study comparing two botulinum toxin type A products for the treatment of blepharospasm. J Neural Transm 2011;118: 233-239.
139. Odergren T, Hjaltason H, Kaakkola S, et al. A double blind, randomised, parallel group study to investigate the dose equivalence of Dysport and Botox in the treatment of cervical dystonia. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1998;64: 6-12.
140. Benecke R, Jost WH, Kanovsky P, et al. A new botulinum toxin type A free of complexing proteins for treatment of cervical dystonia. Neurology 2005;64: 1949-1951.
141. Pappert EJ, Germanson T, Myobloc/Neurobloc European Cervical Dystonia Study G. Botulinum toxin type B vs. type A in toxin-naive patients with cervical dystonia: Randomized, double-blind, noninferiority trial. Mov Disord 2008;23: 510-517.
142. Coubes P, Cif L, El Fertit H, et al. Electrical stimulation of the globus pallidus internus in patients with primary generalized dystonia: long-term results. J Neurosurg 2004;101: 189-194.
143. Haridas A, Tagliati M, Osborn I, et al. Pallidal deep brain stimulation for primary dystonia in children. Neurosurgery 2011;68: 738-743; discussion 743.
144. Sarubbo S, Latini F, Quatrale R, et al. Five-year follow-up of 10 patients treated with globus pallidus internus deep brain stimulation for segmental or multisegmental dystonia. Stereotact Funct Neurosurg 2012;90: 84-91.