The "new deadly quartet" for cardiovascular disease in the 21st century: Obesity, metabolic syndrome, inflammation and climate change: How does statin therapy fit into this equation?

Current Atherosclerosis Reports

Volumn 16, Issue 1, 2014, Pages

  Clearfield, Michael ^a   Pearce, Melissa ^a   Nibbe, Yasmin ^a   Crotty, David ^a   Wagner, Alesia ^a  

^a Touro University California   (United States)

Author keywords

Air pollution climate change; Metabolic syndrome obesity; Prevention cardiovascular risk; Statin pharmacology; Subclinical inflammation

Indexed keywords

HYDROXYMETHYLGLUTARYL COENZYME A REDUCTASE INHIBITOR;

AIR POLLUTION; ARTICLE; ATHEROSCLEROSIS; CARDIOMETABOLIC RISK; CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASE; CARDIOVASCULAR RISK; CLIMATE CHANGE; DISEASE ASSOCIATION; DRUG EFFICACY; DYSLIPIDEMIA; GLUCOSE INTOLERANCE; HUMAN; HYPERTENSION; HYPERTRIGLYCERIDEMIA; INCIDENCE; INFLAMMATION; ISCHEMIC HEART DISEASE; METABOLIC SYNDROME X; NONHUMAN; OBESITY; PARTICULATE MATTER; PATIENT COMPLIANCE; PRIMARY PREVENTION; RISK REDUCTION; SECONDARY PREVENTION; ANIMAL; REVIEW; RISK FACTOR;

ANIMALS; CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASES; CLIMATE CHANGE; HUMANS; HYDROXYMETHYLGLUTARYL-COA REDUCTASE INHIBITORS; INFLAMMATION; METABOLIC SYNDROME X; OBESITY; RISK FACTORS;

EID: 84892555999     PISSN: 15233804     EISSN: 15346242     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1007/s11883-013-0380-2     Document Type: Article

References (85)

1. Kaplan N. The deadly quartet: Upper body obesity, glucose intolerance, hypertriglyceridemia and hypertension. Arch Int Med. 1989;7:1514-20.
2. The National Cholesterol Education Program (NCEP). Expert Panel of Detection, Evaluation and Treatment of High Blood Cholesterol in Adults (ATP III). JAMA. 2001;285:2486-97.
3. Young F, Capewell S, Ford E, et al. Coronary mortality declines in the US between 1980 and 2000. Quantifying the contributions from primary and secondary prevention. Am J Prev Med. 2010;39:228-34.
4. Koh HK. A 2020 vision for healthy people. N Engl J Med. 2010;362:1653-6.
5. Hoyert DL, Xu J. Deaths: Preliminary data for 2011. Natl Vital Stat Rep. 2012;61(6):1-52.
6. Kones R. Primary prevention of coronary heart disease: integration of new data, evolving views, revised goals and role of rosuvastatin in management. A comprehensive survey. Drug Des Dev Ther. 2011;5:325-80.
7. Current cigarette smoking among adults -United States 2011. Morbidity and Monthly Weekly Report (MMWR) 2012;61:889-894.
8. Yoon SS, Burt V, Louis T, et al. Hypertension among adults in United States. National Center Health Statistics Data Brief 2012 http://www.cdc.gov/ nchs/data/databriefs/db107.hm
9. CDC. Vital signs: prevalence, treatment and control of LDL-C. (/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/mm6004a5.ht,?s cid = mm6004a5 w) (MMWR) 2011;60Z(4):109-114.\
10. Goldfine AB. Statins: Is it really time to reassess benefits and risks? N Engl J Med. 2012;366(19):1752-5.
11. Minder CM, Blaha MJ, Horne A, et al. Evidence based use of statins for primary prevention of cardiovascular disease. Am J Med. 2012;125(5):440-6.
12. Rehfield P, Kopes-Kerr C, Clearfield M. The evolution or revolution of statin therapy in primary prevention: Where do we go from here? Curr Atheroslcer Rep. 2013;15:298-309.
13. Lustig RH, Schmidt LA, Brindis CD. The toxic truth about sugar. Nature. 2012;482:27-9.
14. McLaughlin T, Abbasi F, Cheal A, et al. Use of metabolic markers to identify overweight individuals who are insulin resistant. Ann Intern Med. 2003;139:802-9.
15. Kip KE, Marroquin OC, Kelley DE, et al. Clinical importance of obesity versus metabolic syndrome in cardiovascular risk in women. A report from the Women's Ischemia Syndrome Evalaution (WISE). Circulation. 2004;109:706-13.
16. Wajchenberg BL. Subcutaneous and visceral adipose their relation to the metabolic syndrome. Endocr Rev. 2000;21:697-708.
17. Mottillo S, Filion KB, Genest J, et al. The metabolic syndrome.
18. Alexander CM, Landsman P, Teutsch S, et al. NCEP defined metabolic syndrome, diabetes and prevalence of coronary heart disease among NHANES III participants age 50 years and older. Diabetes. 2003;52:1210-4.
19. Khan U, Wang D, Thurston R, et al. Burden of subclinical cardiovascular disease in "metabolically benign" and "at risk" overweight and obese women. The Study of Women's Health Across the Nation (SWAN). Atherosclerosis. 2011;217:179-86.
20. •• Ortega FB, Lee D, Katzmarzyk PT, et al. The intriguing metabolically healthy but obese phenotype: cardiovascular prognosis and role of fitness. Eur Heart J. 2013;34:389-99. This article showed that once fitness is accounted for, metabolically healthy but obese individuals appear to have a relatively benign condition.
21. Iacobellis G, Ribaudo MC, Zappaterreno A, et al. Small, dense-LDL and CRP in obese subjects with and without other criteria for the metabolic syndrome. J Clin Lipid. 2007;1:599-604.
22. Miller M, Zhan M, Havas S. High attributable risk of elevated CRP level to conventional coronary heart disease risk factors: The Third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey. Arch Int Med. 2005;165(18):2063-8.
23. Bray G, Fintel DJ, Clearfield MB, et al. Overweight and Obesity: the pathogenesis of cardiometabolic risk. Clin Cornerstone. 2009;9(4):30-42.
24. St-Onge MP, Janssen I, Heymsfield SB. Metabolic syndrome in normal-weight Americans. New definition of the metabolically obese, normal-weight individual. Diabetes Care. 2004;27:2222-8.
25. Cohen JD, Cziraky MJ, Cai Q, et al. 30-year trends in serum lipids among United States adults: results from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Surveys II, III and 1999-2006. Am J Cardiol. 2010;106:969-75.
26. Ridker PM, Danielson E, Fonseca F, et al. Rosuvastatin to prevent vascular events in men and women with elevated CRP. N Engl J Med. 2008;359:2195-207.
27. Blaha MJ, Rivera JJ, Budoff MJ, et al. Association between obesity, hsCRP > 2 mg/L, and subclinical atherosclerosis: Implications of JUPITER from the Multi-Ethnic Study of Atherosclerosis (MESA). Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. 2011;31(6):1430-8.
28. Cholesterol Treatment Trialists (CTT) Collaboration. Efficacy and safety of more intensive lowering of LDL cholesterol: a meta-analysis of data from 170,000 participants in 26 randomized trials. Lancet. 2010;376:1670-81.
29. Cholesterol Treatment Trialists (CTT). The effects of lowering LDL cholesterol with statin therapy in people at low risk of vascular disease: meta-analysis of individual data from 27 randomized trials. Lancet. 2012;380:581-90.
30. • Kokkinos P, Faselis C, Myers J, et al. Interactive effects of fitness and statin treatment on mortality risk in veterans with dyslipidemia: a cohort study. Lancet. 2013;381:394-9. This analysis demonstrated that statins and fitness were independently associated with lower cardiovascular mortality.
31. World Health Organization. World Health Report 2002: Reducing risks, promoting healthy life. Geneva Switzerland: World Health Organization 2002.
32. • Brook RD, Rajagopalan S, Pope CA, et al. Particulate matter air pollution and cardiovascular disease. An update to the scientific statement from the American Heart Association. Circulation. 2010;121:2331-78. Good synopsis of the association between particulate matter and CVD.
33. Lepeule J, Laden F, Dockery D, et al. Chronic exposure to fine particles and mortality: An extended follow-up of the Harvard six cities study from 1974 to 2009. Environ Health Perspect. 2012;120:965-70.
34. Bauer M, Mobeus S, Mohlenkamp S, et al. Residential exposure to urban air pollution is associated with coronary atherosclerosis: results from the Heinz Nixdorf Recall Study. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2010;56:1803-8.
35. Kaufman J. Does air pollution accelerate progression of atherosclerosis? J Am Coll Cardiol. 2010;56:1809-11.
36. Hyun Y, Koh S, Chae J, et al. Atherogenicity of LDL and unfavorable adipokine profile in metabolically obese, normal weight women. Obesity. 2008;16:784-9.
37. Weiss R. Fat distribution and storage: how much, where and how? Eur J Endocrinol. 2007;157:S39-45.
38. Li Y. Rittenhouse-Olson, Schneider W et al. Effects of particulate matter air pollution on CRP: a review of epidemiologic studies. Rev Environ Health. 2012;27:133-49.
39. Egger G, Dixon J. Should obesity be the main game? Or do we need an environmental makeover to combat the inflammatory and chronic disease epidemics? Obes Rev. 2009;10:237-49.
40. •• Gold DR, Mittleman MA. New insights into pollution and the cardiovascular system 2010-2012. Circulation. 2013;127:1903-13. Recent update on the association between particulate matter and CVD.
41. Sacks J, Stanek L, Luben T, et al. Particulate matter induced health effects: who is susceptible? Environ Health Perspect. 2011;119:454-66.
42. Takano H, Yanagisawa R, Inoue K, et al. Nitrogen dioxide air pollution near ambient levels is an atherogenic risk primarily in obese subjects: a brief communication. Exp Biol Med. 2004;229:361-4.
43. Miller J, Siscovick D, Sheppard L, et al. Long term exposure to air pollution and incidence of cardiovascular events in women. N Engl J Med. 2007;356:447-58.
44. Zeka A, Sullivan J, Vokanos P, et al. Inflammatory markers and particulate air pollution: characterizing the pathway to disease. Int J Epidemiol. 2006;35:13471354.
45. Diez R, Auchincloss A, Franklin T, et al. Long term exposure to ambient particulate matter and prevalence of subclinical atherosclerosis in the MESA Study. Am J Epidemiol. 2008;167:667-75.
46. Bennett W, Zeman K. Effect of body size on breathing pattern and fine particulate deposition in children. J Appl Physiol. 2004;97:821-6.
47. Hickling S, Hung J, Knuiman M, et al. Are the associations between diet and CRP independent of obesity? Prev Med. 2008;47:71-6.
48. Girman C, Rhodes T, Mercuri M, et al. The metabolic syndrome and risk of major coronary events in the Scandinavian Simvastatin Survival Study (4S) and the Air Force Coronary Atherosclerosis Prevention Study. Am J Cardiol. 2004;93:136-41.
49. Clearfield M, Downs J, Lee M, et al. Implications from the Air Force Coronary Atherosclerosis Prevention Study for the Adult Treatment Panel III guidelines. Am J Cardiol. 2005;96:1674-80.
50. Sever P, Poulter N, Chang C, et al. Evaluation of CRP prior to and on-treatment as a predictor of the Anglo-Scandinavian Cardiac Outcomes Trial (ASCOT). Eur Heart J. 2012;33:486-94.
51. Wald N, Law M. Statins for people at low risk for cardiovascular disease. Lancet. 2012;380:1818.
52. Law M, Wald N, Rudnicka A. Quantifying effects of statins on LDL-C, ischemic heart disease and stroke. Brit Med J. 2003;326:1423-7.
53. Wong N, Chuang J, Wong K, et al. Residual dyslipidemia among United States adults treated with lipid modifying therapy (Data from National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 2009-2010). Am J Cardiol. 2013;112:373-9.
54. Onat A, Ceyhan K, Basar O, et al. Metabolic syndrome: major impact on coronary risk in a population with low cholesterol levels-a prospective and cross sectional evaluation. Atherosclerosis. 2002;165:285-92.
55. Cole T, Contois J, Csako G, et al. Association of apolipoprotein B and nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy derived LDL particle number with outcomes in 25 clinical studies: assessment of the AACC lipoprotein and vascular diseases division working group on best practices. Clin Chem. 2013;59:752-70.
56. Otvos J, Mora S, Shalaurova I, et al. Clinical implications of discordance between LDL-C and particle number. J Clin Lipid. 2011;5:105113.
57. Cromwell J, Otvos J, Keyes M, et al. LDL particle number and risk of future cardiovascular disease in the Framingham Offspring study-implications for LDL management. J Clin Lipid. 2007;1:583-92.
58. • Sniderman A, Thanassoulis G, Couture P, et al. Is lower and lower better and better? A re-evaluation of the evidence from the Cholesterol Treatment Trialsists' Collaboration meta-analysis for LDL-C lowering. J Clin Lipid. 2012;6:303-9. A different perspective, using the large CTT database with apo B to predict CV risk when statins lower LDL-C < 80 mg./dl.
59. Malave H, Castro M, Burkle J, et al. Evaluation of low density particle number distribution in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus with LDL-C < 50 mg/dl and Non-HDL-C < 80. Am J Cardiol. 2012;110:662-5.
60. Faraj M, Lavole ME, Messier L, et al. Reduction in serum apoB is associated with reduced inflammation and insulin resistance in post-menopausal women: a MONET study. Atherosclerosis. 2010;211:682-8.
61. Kathiresan S, Otvos J, Sullivan L, et al. Increased small LDL particle number: A prominent feature fo the Metabolic syndrome in the Framingham Heart Study. Circulation. 2006;113:20-9.
62. Sniderman A. Differential response of cholesterol and particle measures of atherogenic lipoproteins to LDL lowering therapy: implications for clinical practice. J Clin Lipid. 2008;2:36-42.
63. Sniderman A, Willaims K, Contois J, et al. A meta-analysis of LDL-C, non-HDL-C and apolipoprotein B as markers of cardiovascular disease. Circ Cardiovasc Qual Outcome. 2011;5:337-45.
64. Yang Q, Cogswell M, Flanders D, et al. Trends in cardiovascular health metrics associations with all-cause mortality among US adults. JAMA. 2012;307:1273-83.
65. O'Keefe J, Cordain L, Harris W, et al. Optimal LDL is 50 to 70 mg/dl: Lower is better and physiologically normal. JACC. 2004;43:2142-6.
66. Jacobson T, Griffiths G, Varas C, et al. Impact of evidence based "clinical judgement" on the number of American adults requiring lipid lowering therapy based on updated NHANES III data. JAMA. 2000;160:1361-9.
67. Cohen J, Czuraky N, Cai Q, et al. 30 year trends in serum lipids among United States adults: Results from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Surveys II, III and 1999-2006. AJC. 2010;106:969-75.
68. Munter P, Levitan E, Brown T, et al. Trends in the prevalence, awareness, treatment and control of high LDL-C among US Adults from 1999-2000 through 2009-2010. Am J Cardiol 2013.
69. Goldfine A, Sanjay K, Hiatt W. Fibrates in the treatment of dyslipidemia: time for reassessment. NEJM. 2011;365:481-4.
70. 10 triglyceride/HDL-C) predicts high blood pressure, diabetes, vascular events. Clin Lipid. 2010;4:89-98.
71. Carey V, Bishop L, Harshfield B, et al. Contribution of high plasma triglyceride and low HDL-C to residual risk of coronary heart disease after establishment of LDL-C control. Am J Cardiol. 2010;106:757-64.
72. • Bayturan J, Kapadia S, Nicholls S, et al. Clinical predictors of plaque progression despite very low levels of LDL-C. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2010;55:2736-42. This study suggests increased LDL particle number played a role in the further progression of atherosclerosis despite statin therapy lowering LDL-C < 70 mg/dl.
73. Clearfield M. Another inconvenient truth: Combining the risks from obesity and metabolic syndrome with global warming. Curr Atheroscler Rep. 2008;10:273-6.
74. Quan C, Sun Q, Lippman M, et al. Comparative effects of inhaled diesel exhaust and ambient fine particles on inflammation, atherosclerosis and vascular dysfunction. Inhal Toxicol. 2010;22:738-53.
75. James W, Caterson I, Coutinho W, et al. Effect of sibutramine on cardiovascular outcomes in overweight and obese subjects. N Engl J Med. 2010;363:905-17.
76. Kahn R, Buse J, Ferrannini E, et al. The metabolic syndrome: Time for critical appraisal: the study of Diabetes. Diabet Care. 2005;28:2289-311.
77. Cromwell W, Otvos J, Keyes M, et al. LDL particle number and risk of future CVD in the Framingham Offspring Study Implications for LDL management. J Clin Lipid. 2007;1:583-92.
78. Yousef O, Mohanty B, Martin S, et al. High sensitivity CRP and Cardiovascular Disease: a resolute belief or an elusive link? J Am Coll Cardiol. 2013;62:397-408.
79. Everett BM, Pradham AD, Solomon DH, et al. Rationale and design of the Cardiovascular Inflammation Reduction Trial: A test of the inflammatory hypothesis of atherothrombosis. Am Heart J. 2013;166:199-207.
80. Genest J, McPherson R, Frohlich J, et al. 2009 Canadian Cardiovascular Society/Canadian guidelines for the diagnosis and prevention of cardiovascular disease in the adult. Can J Cardiol. 2009;25:567-79.
81. Reiner Z, Catapano A, De Backer G, et al. ESC/EAS guidelines for the management of dyslipidemis: The task force for the management of dyslipidemias of the European Society of Cardiology and the European Atherosclerosis Society. Eur Heart J. 2011;32:1769-818.
82. Martin S, Metkus T, Horne A, et al. Waiting for the National Cholesterol Education Program Adult Treatment Panel IV Guidelines, and in the meantime, some challenges and recommendations. Am J Cardiol. 2012;110:307-13.
83. Cromwell W, Dayspring T. Lipid and lipoprotein disorders: Current Clinical Solutions. Catonsville: International Guideline Center; 2012.
84. American Lung Association State of the Air 2011 http//:www.stateoftheair. org http//:www.lungusa.org.
85. Murray C, Lopez A. Measuring the global burden of disease. N Engl J Med. 2013;369:448-57.