Toward a child-centered approach to evaluating claims of alienation in high-conflict custody disputes

Michigan Law Review

Volumn 112, Issue 4, 2014, Pages 663-688

  Nichols, Allison M ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN LAW SCHOOL   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

CHILD; CHILD PARENT RELATION; CHILD PSYCHOLOGY; CUSTODY; DIVORCE; DOMESTIC VIOLENCE; EXPERT WITNESS; FAMILY RELATION; FORENSIC PSYCHIATRY; HUMAN; LEGAL ASPECT; MENTAL DISEASE; MINOR (PERSON); NOTE; PARENT; PSYCHOLOGICAL ASPECT; SOCIAL ISOLATION; STANDARD; UNITED STATES;

CHILD; CHILD CUSTODY; CHILD PSYCHOLOGY; DIVORCE; DOMESTIC VIOLENCE; EXPERT TESTIMONY; FAMILY RELATIONS; FORENSIC PSYCHIATRY; HUMANS; LEGAL GUARDIANS; MENTAL DISORDERS; MINORS; PARENT-CHILD RELATIONS; PARENTS; SOCIAL ALIENATION; UNITED STATES;

EID: 84892419902     PISSN: 00262234     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Note

References (238)

1. Kathleen Coulborn Faller, Essay, Child Maltreatment and Endangerment in the Context of Divorce, 22 U. Ark. Little Rock L. Rev. 429, 429 (2000).
2. George J. Cohen, Comm. on Psychosocial Aspects of Child & Family Health, Helping Children and Families Deal with Divorce and Separation, 110 Pediatrics 1019, 1019 (2002).
3. Stephanie J. Dallam & Joyanna L. Silberg, Myths That Place Children at Risk During Custody Disputes, 9 Sexual Assault Rep. 33, 33 (2006), available at http://www.leadership council.org/docs/Dallam&Silberg.pdf.
4. Kathleen Coulborn Faller, Essay, Child Maltreatment and Endangerment in the Context of Divorce, 22 U. Ark. Little Rock L. Rev. 429, 429 (2000).
5. Stephanie J. Dallam & Joyanna L. Silberg, Myths That Place Children at Risk During Custody Disputes, 9 Sexual Assault Rep. 33, 33 (2006), available at http://www.leadership council.org/docs/Dallam&Silberg.pdf.
6. High-Conflict Custody Cases: Reforming the System for Children-Conference Report and Action Plan, 34 Fam. L.Q. 589, 590 (2001)
7. Linda D. Elrod, Reforming the System to Protect Children in High Conflict Custody Cases, 28 Wm. Mitchell L. Rev. 495, 500 (2001).
8. Richard A. Gardner, Recent Trends in Divorce and Custody Litigation, Acad. F., Summer 1985, at 3, 3. For a general critique of Gardner's methods and views
9. see, for example, Joan S. Meier, A Historical Perspective on Parental Alienation Syndrome and Parental Alienation, 6 J. Child Custody 232, 237-38 (2009).
10. Richard A. Gardner, Parental Alienation Syndrome vs. Parental Alienation: Which Diagnosis Should Evaluators Use in Child-Custody Disputes?, 30 Am. J. Fam. Therapy 93, 95 (2002) [hereinafter Gardner, PAS vs. Parental Alienation].
11. see also Richard A. Gardner, The Parental Alienation Syndrome: A Guide for Mental Health and Legal Professionals 73-74 (2d ed. 1998) [hereinafter Gardner, PAS Guide] ("The disorder refers to a situation in which the parental programming is combined with the child's own scenarios of denigration of the allegedly hated parent. ").
12. These symptoms include (1) "a campaign of denigration" by the child; (2) "[w]eak, absurd, or frivolous rationalizations for the deprecation"; (3) a "lack of ambivalence" in hostility; (4) "the 'independent-thinker' phenomenon"; (5) "[r]eflexive support" of the favored parent; (6) a lack of guilt over behavior toward the target parent; (7) recounting "borrowed scenarios" as justification for the hostility; and (8) a "[s]pread of the animosity" to the extended family and friends of the target parent. Gardner, PAS vs. Parental Alienation, at 97.
13. Gardner, PAS vs. Parental Alienation, at 106.
14. Maggie Tamburro, Daubert, Frye. or Both? Tracking Florida's Buy-In, BullsEye (Mar. 12, 2012), http://www.ims-expertservices.com/blog/2012/daubert-frye-or-both/.
15. State rules of evidence apply, as state courts initially handle custody disputes.
16. Maggie Tamburro, Daubert, Frye. or Both? Tracking Florida's Buy-In, BullsEye (Mar. 12, 2012), http://www.ims-expertservices.com/blog/2012/daubert-frye-or-both/.
17. see also Daubert v. Merrell Dow Pharm., Inc., 509 U.S. 579 (1993).
18. Frye v. United States, 293 F. 1013 (D.C. Cir. 1923)
19. Superseded by rule, Fed. R. Evid. 702
20. As recognized in Daubert, 509 U.S. at 588-89
21. Maggie Tamburro, Daubert, Frye. or Both? Tracking Florida's Buy-In, BullsEye (Mar. 12, 2012), http://www.ims-expertservices.com/blog/2012/daubert-frye-or-both/.
22. see, for example, Joan S. Meier, A Historical Perspective on Parental Alienation Syndrome and Parental Alienation, 6 J. Child Custody 232, 237-38 (2009).
23. See, e.g., Nicholas Bala & John Schuman, Allegations of Sexual Abuse When Parents Have Separated, 17 Canadian Fam. L.Q. 191, 199 (2000).
24. see, for example, Joan S. Meier, A Historical Perspective on Parental Alienation Syndrome and Parental Alienation, 6 J. Child Custody 232, 237-38 (2009).
25. Nancy Thoennes & Patricia G. Tjaden, The Extent, Nature, and Validity of Sexual Abuse Allegations in Custody/Visitation Disputes, 14 Child Abuse & Neglect 151, 160-61 (1990), cited in Meier, supra note 6, at 237.
26. Nancy Thoennes & Patricia G. Tjaden, The Extent, Nature, and Validity of Sexual Abuse Allegations in Custody/Visitation Disputes, 14 Child Abuse & Neglect 151, 160-61 (1990), cited in Meier, supra note 6, at 237.
27. Kathleen Coulborn Faller, The Parental Alienation Syndrome: What Is It and What Data Support It?, 3 Child Maltreatment 100, 107 (1998) (summarizing the findings of numerous studies and focusing on two studies that found that about 70% of sexual abuse allegations in custody disputes were "likely").
28. See, e.g., Nicholas Bala & John Schuman, Allegations of Sexual Abuse When Parents Have Separated, 17 Canadian Fam. L.Q. 191, 199 (2000).
29. See Gardner, PAS vs. Parental Alienation, at 105
30. He later revised this estimate to 50%, apparently to reflect the greater number of custodial fathers with increased opportunity to induce PAS.
31. See Gardner, PAS vs. Parental Alienation, at 105
32. See Gardner, PAS vs. Parental Alienation, at 105
33. Richard A. Gardner, Sex Abuse Hysteria 24, 87 (1991).
34. see also Michele A. Adams, Framing Contests in Child Custody Disputes: Parental Alienation Syndrome, Child Abuse, Gender, and Fathers' Rights, 40 Fam. L.Q. 315, 330-31 (2006).
35. See Joan S. Meier, Parental Alienation Syndrome and Parental Alienation: Research Reviews, VAWnet. org, 3 (Jan. 2009), http://www.vawnet.org/Assoc_Files_VAWnet/AR_PAS. pdf.
36. See Joan S. Meier, Parental Alienation Syndrome and Parental Alienation: Research Reviews, VAWnet. org, 3 (Jan. 2009), http://www.vawnet.org/Assoc_Files_VAWnet/AR_PAS. pdf.
37. Carol S. Bruch, Parental Alienation Syndrome and Parental Alienation: Getting It Wrong in Child Custody Cases, 35 Fam. L.Q. 527, 530 (2001) (footnote omitted).
38. See, e.g., Joan S. Meier, Domestic Violence, Child Custody, and Child Protection: Understanding Judicial Resistance and Imagining the Solutions, 11 Am. U. J. Gender Soc. Pol'y & Law 657, 679-80 (2003).
39. see also Stephanie Dallam, Are "Good Enough" Parents Losing Custody to Abusive Ex-Partners?, Leadership Council on Child Abuse & Interpersonal Violence (2008), http://www.leadershipcouncil.org/1/pas/dv.html (summarizing empirical research and reports indicating that "too often custody decisions are based on bad science, misinterpretation of fact, and evaluator bias").
40. Richard A. Gardner, Differentiating Between Parental Alienation Syndrome and Bona Fide Abuse-Neglect, 27 Am. J. Fam. Therapy 97, 97 (1999).
41. See, e.g., Joan S. Meier, Domestic Violence, Child Custody, and Child Protection: Understanding Judicial Resistance and Imagining the Solutions, 11 Am. U. J. Gender Soc. Pol'y & Law 657, 679-80 (2003).
42. See Timothy M. Houchin et al., The Parental Alienation Debate Belongs in the Courtroom, Not in DSM-5, 40 J. Am. Acad. Psychiatry & Law 127, 127 (2012) ("[R]ecently, parental alienation supporters have renamed PAS as PAD. "). In this context, the distinction between "syndrome" and "disorder" is merely semantic.
43. See Timothy M. Houchin et al., The Parental Alienation Debate Belongs in the Courtroom, Not in DSM-5, 40 J. Am. Acad. Psychiatry & Law 127, 127 (2012) ("[R]ecently, parental alienation supporters have renamed PAS as PAD. "). In this context, the distinction between "syndrome" and "disorder" is merely semantic.
44. See Lenore E. Walker & David L. Shapiro, Parental Alienation Disorder: Why Label Children with a Mental Diagnosis?, 7 J. Child Custody 266, 267-68, 275-76 (2010).
45. See, e.g., Sueiro v. Gallardo, 105 So. 3d 585, 587-88 (Fla. Dist. Ct. App. 2012) (holding that the mother did not engage in "parental alienation").
46. Rooney v. Rooney, No. 2009CA00256, 2010-Ohio-2439, at ¶¶ 8-11, 2010 WL 2186026, at *2-3 (Ohio Ct. App. June 1, 2010) (discussing experts' opinions that the mother engaged in "parental alienation").
47. Saleh v. Parsadmehr, No. 49859-2-I, 2003 WL 21321829, at *4 (Wash. Ct. App. June 9, 2003) (unpublished opinion) (noting that the father engaged in "parental alienation" and failed to participate in "parental-alienation counseling" as ordered).
48. Gardner, PAS vs. Parental Alienation, at 94-95.
49. Gardner, PAS vs. Parental Alienation, at 94-95.
50. See, e.g., Bond v. MacLeod, 921 N.Y.S. 2d 671, 673-74 (N.Y. App. Div. 2011) (referring to "parental alienation" but describing estrangement provoked by the father).
51. Buxton v. Storm (In re Custody of D.T.J.S.-B), 238 P.3d 30, 36 (Or. Ct. App. 2010) (describing behavior that was indicative of possible alienation without characterizing the behavior as a syndrome or a disorder).
52. See, e.g., In re Miller, 20 A.3d 854, 864 (N.H. 2011) (citing the Vermont Supreme Court for its refusal to "condone[] a parent's willful alienation of a child from the other parent"
53. Begins v. Begins, 721 A.2d 469, 472 (Vt. 1998).
54. Bond, 921 N.Y.S.2d at 674 (relying on the family court's finding that "some degree of parental alienation by the father had occurred").
55. Woodward v. Woodward, 776 N.W.2d 567, 571 (N.D. 2009) (affirming the trial court's order requiring the mother to undergo a parental alienation evaluation).
56. Buxton, 238 P.3d at 36 (noting the psychologist's testimony that the child's behavior indicated alienation and granting custody to the target parent).
57. 293 F. 1013 (D.C. Cir. 1923), superseded by rule, Fed. R. Evid. 702, as recognized in Daubert v. Merrell Dow Pharm., Inc., 509 U.S. 579, 588-89 (1993).
58. Daubert v. Merrell Dow Pharm., Inc., 509 U.S. 579, 588-89 (1993).
59. Frye, 293 F. at 1014.
60. Henry F. Fradella et al., The Impact of Daubert on the Admissibility of Behavioral Science Testimony, 30 Pepp. L. Rev. 403, 406 (2003)
61. Peter Huber, Junk Science in the Courtroom, 26 Val. U. L. Rev. 723, 742 (1992) (internal quotation marks omitted).
62. Peter Huber, Junk Science in the Courtroom, 26 Val. U. L. Rev. 723, 742 (1992) (internal quotation marks omitted).
63. 509 U.S. 579 (1993).
64. Daubert, 509 U.S. at 585, 587. The Federal Rules of Evidence were originally adopted in 1975, more than fifty years after the D.C. Circuit decided Frye.
65. Fed. R. Evid. 702 (1975) (amended 2000 and 2011). The 2000 amendment to Rule 702 added a nonexclusive list of factors to consider in determining the reliability of expert testimony; however, there are no substantive differences between the original and amended versions of the Rule for the purposes of this Note's analysis. The 2011 amendment was limited to stylistic changes.
66. Daubert, 509 U.S. at 588-89
67. Beech Aircraft Corp. v. Rainey, 488 U.S. 153, 169 (1988)
68. Beech Aircraft Corp. v. Rainey, 488 U.S. 153, 169 (1988)
69. Daubert, 509 U.S. at 591.
70. Daubert, 509 U.S. at 592-94. The Court included the caveat that these factors are "general observations, " not a "definitive checklist. "
71. Daubert, 590 U.S. at 595-96.
72. Daubert, 590 U.S. at 595-96.
73. Daubert, 590 U.S. at 595-96.
74. Daubert, 590 U.S. at 595-96.
75. Daubert, 590 U.S. at 595-96.
76. Maggie Tamburro, Daubert, Frye. or Both? Tracking Florida's Buy-In, BullsEye (Mar. 12, 2012), http://www.ims-expertservices.com/blog/2012/daubert-frye-or-both/.
77. Frye, 293 F. at 1014.
78. United States v. Zeiger, 350 F. Supp. 685, 688 (D.D.C. 1972)
79. (Quoting Platt v. Craig, 63 N.E. 594, 595 (Ohio 1902) (internal quotation marks omitted)
80. Rev'd 475 F.2d 1280 (D.C. Cir. 1972).
81. United States v. Williams, 443 F. Supp. 269, 273 (S.D.N.Y. 1977).
82. Donaldson v. Cent. Ill. Pub. Serv. Co., 767 N.E.2d 314, 324 (Ill. 2002), abrogated by In re Commitment of Simons, 621 N.E.2d 1184 (Ill. 2004).
83. see also Michele A. Adams, Framing Contests in Child Custody Disputes: Parental Alienation Syndrome, Child Abuse, Gender, and Fathers' Rights, 40 Fam. L.Q. 315, 330-31 (2006).
84. Kathleen Coulborn Faller, The Parental Alienation Syndrome: What Is It and What Data Support It?, 3 Child Maltreatment 100, 107 (1998) (summarizing the findings of numerous studies and focusing on two studies that found that about 70% of sexual abuse allegations in custody disputes were "likely").
85. Barbara Jo Fidler & Nicholas Bala, Children Resisting Postseparation Contact with a Parent: Concepts, Controversies, and Conundrums, 48 Fam. Ct. Rev. 10, 13 (2010) (noting the controversy among mental health professionals regarding the validity of PAS as a diagnosis).
86. Janet R. Johnston, Children of Divorce Who Reject a Parent and Refuse Visitation: Recent Research and Social Policy Implications for the Alienated Child, 38 Fam. L.Q. 757, 758 (2005) (referencing the "ideological battle" surrounding PAS and calling for a reformulation of the concept of alienation).
87. See Jamie Talan, The Debate Rages on. In Death, Can He Survive?, Leadership Council on Child Abuse & Interpersonal Violence (July 1, 2003), http://www.leadershipcouncil. org/1/pas/talan.html.
88. Statement on Parental Alienation Syndrome, Am. Psychol. Ass'n (Jan. 1, 2008), http://www.apa.org/news/press/releases/2008/01/pas-syndrome.aspx (noting that the American Psychological Association currently has "no official position on the purported syndrome").
89. See Lenore E. Walker & David L. Shapiro, Parental Alienation Disorder: Why Label Children with a Mental Diagnosis?, 7 J. Child Custody 266, 267-68, 275-76 (2010).
90. David Crary, Parental Alienation Not on List of Disorders, Washington Times (Sept. 23, 2012), http://www.washingtontimes.com/news/2012/sep/23/parental-alienation-noton-list-of-disorders/?page=1.
91. The American Psychiatric Association defines this field as "the U.S. healthcare system. " See About DSM-5, Am. Psychiatric Ass'n, http://www.dsm5.org/about/Pages/Default. aspx (last visited Oct. 4, 2013).
92. David Crary, Parental Alienation Not on List of Disorders, Washington Times (Sept. 23, 2012), http://www.washingtontimes.com/news/2012/sep/23/parental-alienation-noton-list-of-disorders/?page=1.
93. See Timothy M. Houchin et al., The Parental Alienation Debate Belongs in the Courtroom, Not in DSM-5, 40 J. Am. Acad. Psychiatry & Law 127, 127 (2012) ("[R]ecently, parental alienation supporters have renamed PAS as PAD. "). In this context, the distinction between "syndrome" and "disorder" is merely semantic.
94. Notably, the National Institute of Mental Health, a federal agency dedicated to research on mental illnesses, recently called into question the validity of the DSM. The Institute's director, Dr. Insel, distinguished between the DSM's usefulness as a "clinical tool" and its ability to guide research on complex mental disorders that may "cut across" the manual's diagnostic categories.
95. Pam Belluck & Benedict Carey, Psychiatry's New Guide Falls Short, Experts Say, N.Y. Times (May 7, 2013), at A13, available at http://www.nytimes.com/2013/05/07/ health/psychiatrys-new-guide-falls-short-experts-say.html?partner=rss&emc=rss&_r=2&. This criticism does not undermine the American Psychiatric Association's decision to exclude PAD from the latest edition of the DSM, which remains the central authority for recognized psychiatric conditions. But it does highlight disagreement within the field over the distinction between recognition (or rejection) by the DSM and the validity of underlying research methodologies.
96. Daubert v. Merrell Dow Pharm., Inc., 509 U.S. 579, 592-94 (1993).
97. See, e.g., Moore v. Ashland Chem. Inc., 151 F.3d 269 (5th Cir. 1998) (excluding testimony where the expert's opinion was not grounded in independently validated scientific methodology).
98. See Daubert, 509 U.S. at 585-89, 594 (" '[G]eneral acceptance' can. be an important factor in ruling particular evidence admissible. ").
99. See, e.g., Jennifer Hoult, The Evidentiary Admissibility of Parental Alienation Syndrome: Science, Law, and Policy, Child. Legal Rts. J., Spring 2006, at 1, 10-12.
100. See, e.g., Joan S. Meier, Domestic Violence, Child Custody, and Child Protection: Understanding Judicial Resistance and Imagining the Solutions, 11 Am. U. J. Gender Soc. Pol'y & Law 657, 679-80 (2003).
101. See Lenore E. Walker & David L. Shapiro, Parental Alienation Disorder: Why Label Children with a Mental Diagnosis?, 7 J. Child Custody 266, 267-68, 275-76 (2010).
102. See Lenore E. Walker & David L. Shapiro, Parental Alienation Disorder: Why Label Children with a Mental Diagnosis?, 7 J. Child Custody 266, 267-68, 275-76 (2010).
103. Stanley S. Clawar & Brynne V. Rivlin, Children Held Hostage: Dealing with Programmed and Brainwashed Children app. 173, 180 tbl.17 (1991) (finding evidence of programming in 80 percent of the 700 cases observed).
104. Leona M. Kopetski, Identifying Cases of Parental Alienation Syndrome-Part I, Colo. Law., Feb. 1998, at 65, 65 (finding parental alienation dynamics in 20 percent of 413 families studied).
105. Robert M. Gordon et al., MMPI-2 Findings of Primitive Defenses in Alienating Parents, 36 Am. J. Fam. Therapy 211 (2008) (comparing the results of the MMPI-2, a common psychological assessment, to classification as an alienating or target parent).
106. Jeffrey C. Siegel & Joseph S. Langford, MMPI-2 Validity Scales and Suspected Parental Alienation Syndrome, Am. J. Forensic Psychol., no. 4, 1998, at 5 (1998) (analyzing the MMPI-2 profile of parents exhibiting characteristics of PAS).
107. John Dunne & Marsha Hedrick, The Parental Alienation Syndrome: An Analysis of Sixteen Selected Cases, J. Divorce & Remarriage, no. 3-4, 1994, at 21.
108. Kristen Carey, Exploring Long-Term Outcomes of the Parental Alienation Syndrome 39 (Jan. 2003) (unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, California School of Professional Psychology) (available through ProQuest) (diagnosing with PAS eight out of the ten children studied).
109. Robert E. Emery, Reader Commentary, Parental Alienation Syndrome: Proponents Bear the Burden of Proof, 43 Fam. Ct. Rev. 8, 9 (2005).
110. See, e.g., Joan S. Meier, Domestic Violence, Child Custody, and Child Protection: Understanding Judicial Resistance and Imagining the Solutions, 11 Am. U. J. Gender Soc. Pol'y & Law 657, 679-80 (2003).
111. See, e.g., Jennifer Hoult, The Evidentiary Admissibility of Parental Alienation Syndrome: Science, Law, and Policy, Child. Legal Rts. J., Spring 2006, at 1, 10-12.
112. See, e.g., Joan S. Meier, Domestic Violence, Child Custody, and Child Protection: Understanding Judicial Resistance and Imagining the Solutions, 11 Am. U. J. Gender Soc. Pol'y & Law 657, 679-80 (2003).
113. Carlos A. Rueda, An Inter-Rater Reliability Study of Parental Alienation Syndrome, 32 Am. J. Fam. Therapy 391 (2004).
114. Carlos A. Rueda, An Inter-Rater Reliability Study of Parental Alienation Syndrome, 32 Am. J. Fam. Therapy 391 (2004).
115. see also Divorce and Parental Alienation Resources, Dr. Richard A. Warshak: Building Family Bridges, www.warshak. com (last visited Oct. 4, 2013) (describing Warshak's work in this area).
116. Carlos A. Rueda, An Inter-Rater Reliability Study of Parental Alienation Syndrome, 32 Am. J. Fam. Therapy 391 (2004).
117. Carlos A. Rueda, An Inter-Rater Reliability Study of Parental Alienation Syndrome, 32 Am. J. Fam. Therapy 391 (2004).
118. Carlos A. Rueda, An Inter-Rater Reliability Study of Parental Alienation Syndrome, 32 Am. J. Fam. Therapy 391 (2004).
119. See, e.g., Joan S. Meier, Domestic Violence, Child Custody, and Child Protection: Understanding Judicial Resistance and Imagining the Solutions, 11 Am. U. J. Gender Soc. Pol'y & Law 657, 679-80 (2003).
120. Carlos A. Rueda, An Inter-Rater Reliability Study of Parental Alienation Syndrome, 32 Am. J. Fam. Therapy 391 (2004).
121. See, e.g., Joan S. Meier, Domestic Violence, Child Custody, and Child Protection: Understanding Judicial Resistance and Imagining the Solutions, 11 Am. U. J. Gender Soc. Pol'y & Law 657, 679-80 (2003).
122. Stephen Lee Morrison, Parental Alienation Syndrome: An Inter-Rater Reliability Study (Dec. 2006) (unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, University of Southern Mississippi) (available through ProQuest).
123. Stephen Lee Morrison, Parental Alienation Syndrome: An Inter-Rater Reliability Study (Dec. 2006) (unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, University of Southern Mississippi) (available through ProQuest).
124. Stephen Lee Morrison, Parental Alienation Syndrome: An Inter-Rater Reliability Study (Dec. 2006) (unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, University of Southern Mississippi) (available through ProQuest).
125. Stephen Lee Morrison, Parental Alienation Syndrome: An Inter-Rater Reliability Study (Dec. 2006) (unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, University of Southern Mississippi) (available through ProQuest).
126. Carlos A. Rueda, An Inter-Rater Reliability Study of Parental Alienation Syndrome, 32 Am. J. Fam. Therapy 391 (2004).
127. Carlos A. Rueda, An Inter-Rater Reliability Study of Parental Alienation Syndrome, 32 Am. J. Fam. Therapy 391 (2004).
128. Stephen Lee Morrison, Parental Alienation Syndrome: An Inter-Rater Reliability Study (Dec. 2006) (unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, University of Southern Mississippi) (available through ProQuest).
129. Stephen Lee Morrison, Parental Alienation Syndrome: An Inter-Rater Reliability Study (Dec. 2006) (unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, University of Southern Mississippi) (available through ProQuest).
130. Stephen Lee Morrison, Parental Alienation Syndrome: An Inter-Rater Reliability Study (Dec. 2006) (unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, University of Southern Mississippi) (available through ProQuest).
131. See, e.g., Jennifer Hoult, The Evidentiary Admissibility of Parental Alienation Syndrome: Science, Law, and Policy, Child. Legal Rts. J., Spring 2006, at 1, 10-12.
132. See Lenore E. Walker & David L. Shapiro, Parental Alienation Disorder: Why Label Children with a Mental Diagnosis?, 7 J. Child Custody 266, 267-68, 275-76 (2010).
133. See Lenore E. Walker & David L. Shapiro, Parental Alienation Disorder: Why Label Children with a Mental Diagnosis?, 7 J. Child Custody 266, 267-68, 275-76 (2010).
134. See, e.g., Rita Smith & Pamela Coukos, Fairness and Accuracy in Evaluations of Domestic Violence and Child Abuse in Custody Determinations, Judges' J., Fall 1997, at 38, 54.
135. Cheri L. Wood, Comment, The Parental Alienation Syndrome: A Dangerous Aura of Reliability, 27 Loy. L.A. L. Rev. 1367, 1375-76 (1994).
136. References Relevant to Parental Alienation Syndrome, Richard A. Warshak: Building Family Bridges, http://www.warshak.com/alienation/pa-references/pasarticles.html (last visited Oct. 4, 2013).
137. I verified the status for each of the American journal publications included on Warshak's bibliography by performing a search for each publication on Ulrich's. UlrichsWeb, http://www.ulrichsweb.com (last visited Oct. 4, 2013). Ulrich's is a database that catalogs the peer-review status (whether a publication is "refereed") for over 300,000 periodicals.
138. Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs), UlrichsWeb, http://www.ulrichsweb.com/ulrichsweb/faqs. asp (last visited Oct. 4, 2013). Aside from the articles in bar journals, which Ulrich's does not classify as peer reviewed, only three of the articles (published in Divorce Litigation, The Medico-Legal Journal, and Justice of the Peace) were not peer reviewed.
139. Sarah H. Ramsey & Robert F. Kelly, Social Science Knowledge in Family Law Cases: Judicial Gate-Keeping in the Daubert Era, 59 U. Miami L. Rev. 1, 73 (2004).
140. Sarah H. Ramsey & Robert F. Kelly, Social Science Knowledge in Family Law Cases: Judicial Gate-Keeping in the Daubert Era, 59 U. Miami L. Rev. 1, 73 (2004).
141. Sarah H. Ramsey & Robert F. Kelly, Social Science Knowledge in Family Law Cases: Judicial Gate-Keeping in the Daubert Era, 59 U. Miami L. Rev. 1, 73 (2004).
142. Carlos A. Rueda, An Inter-Rater Reliability Study of Parental Alienation Syndrome, 32 Am. J. Fam. Therapy 391 (2004).
143. See, e.g., Jennifer Hoult, The Evidentiary Admissibility of Parental Alienation Syndrome: Science, Law, and Policy, Child. Legal Rts. J., Spring 2006, at 1, 10-12.
144. See, e.g., Jennifer Hoult, The Evidentiary Admissibility of Parental Alienation Syndrome: Science, Law, and Policy, Child. Legal Rts. J., Spring 2006, at 1, 10-12.
145. See, e.g., Jennifer Hoult, The Evidentiary Admissibility of Parental Alienation Syndrome: Science, Law, and Policy, Child. Legal Rts. J., Spring 2006, at 1, 10-12.
146. The journal is the most prolific source of pieces in support of PAS. See, e.g., Amy J.L. Baker, The Long-Term Effects of Parental Alienation on Adult Children: A Qualitative Research Study, 33 Am. J. Fam. Therapy 289 (2005).
147. Amy J.L. Baker, Patterns of Parental Alienation Syndrome: A Qualitative Study of Adults Who Were Alienated from a Parent as a Child, 34 Am. J. Fam. Therapy 63 (2006).
148. Amy J.L. Baker, The Power of Stories/Stories About Power: Why Therapists and Clients Should Read Stories About the Parental Alienation Syndrome, 34 Am. J. Fam. Therapy 191 (2006).
149. William Bernet et al., Parental Alienation, DSM-V, and ICD-11, 38 Am. J. Fam. Therapy 76 (2010).
150. Terence W. Campbell, Why Doesn't Parental Alienation Occur More Frequently? The Significance of Role Discrimination, 33 Am. J. Fam. Therapy 365 (2005).
151. Glenn F. Cartwright, Expanding the Parameters of Parental Alienation Syndrome, 21 Am. J. Fam. Therapy 205 (1993).
152. Douglas Darnall & Barbara F. Steinberg, Motivational Models for Spontaneous Reunification with the Alienated Child: Part I, 36 Am. J. Fam. Therapy 107 (2008).
153. Douglas Darnall & Barbara F. Steinberg, Motivational Models for Spontaneous Reunification with the Alienated Child: Part II, 36 Am. J. Fam. Therapy 253 (2008).
154. Elizabeth M. Ellis, Help for the Alienated Parent, 33 Am. J. Fam. Therapy 415 (2005).
155. Richard A. Gardner, Denial of the Parental Alienation Syndrome Also Harms Women, 30 Am. J. Fam. Therapy 191 (2002).
156. Richard A. Gardner, Denial of the Parental Alienation Syndrome Also Harms Women, 30 Am. J. Fam. Therapy 191 (2002).
157. Richard A. Gardner, Does DSM-IV Have Equivalents for the Parental Alienation Syndrome (PAS) Diagnosis?, 31 Am. J. Fam. Therapy 1 (2003).
158. Gardner, PAS vs. Parental Alienation.
159. Richard A. Gardner, The Relationship Between the Parental Alienation Syndrome (PAS) and the False Memory Syndrome (FMS), 32 Am. J. Fam. Therapy 79 (2004).
160. David L. Levy, Book Review, 20 Am. J. Fam. Therapy 276 (1992) (reviewing Gardner, PAS Guide).
161. Ron Meister, Book Review, 31 Am. J. Fam. Therapy 321 (2003) (reviewing Richard A. Gardner, Therapeutic Interventions for Children with Parental Alienation Syndrome (2001).
162. Nancy Rainey Palmer, Legal Recognition of the Parental Alienation Syndrome, 16 Am. J. Fam. Therapy 361 (1988).
163. Carlos A. Rueda, An Inter-Rater Reliability Study of Parental Alienation Syndrome, 32 Am. J. Fam. Therapy 391 (2004).
164. Ed Spruijt et al., Parental Alienation Syndrome (PAS) in the Netherlands, 33 Am. J. Fam. Therapy 303 (2005).
165. Despina Vassiliou & Glenn F. Cartwright, The Lost Parents' Perspective on Parental Alienation Syndrome, 29 Am. J. Fam. Therapy 181 (2001).
166. Richard A. Warshak, Remarriage as a Trigger of Parental Alienation Syndrome, 28 Am. J. Fam. Therapy 229 (2000).
167. See The American Journal of Family Therapy: Editorial Board, Taylor & Francis Online, http://www.tandfonline.com/action/aboutThisJournal?show=editorialBoard&journal Code=uaft20 (last visited Oct. 4, 2013) (listing S. Richard Sauber (editor-in-chief), Amy Baker, William Bernet, Barry Bricklin, Douglas Darnall, Demosthenes Lorandos, L.F. Lowenstein, and Richard Warshak as part of the editorial board). For a sampling of PAS-related works and resources with which these individuals are involved
168. Richard A. Gardner, The Relationship Between the Parental Alienation Syndrome (PAS) and the False Memory Syndrome (FMS), 32 Am. J. Fam. Therapy 79 (2004).
169. Amy J.L. Baker, Adult Children of Parental Alienation Syndrome (2007).
170. William Bernet, Parental Alienation Disorder and DSM-V, 36 Am. J. Fam. Therapy 349 (2008).
171. Barry Bricklin & Gail Elliott, Psychological Test-Assisted Detection of the Parental Alienation Syndrome, in The International Handbook of PAS, at 264.
172. Parental Alienation and Parental Alienation Syndrome, PsyCare, www.parentalalienation.org (last updated Oct. 30, 2012) (website run by Douglas Darnall); Parental Alienation, www.parental-alienation.info (last visited Oct. 4, 2013) (website run by L.F. Lowenstein).
173. and Divorce and Parental Alienation Resources, 73 (website run by Richard A. Warshak).
174. A more detailed analysis of the intricacies and controversies of the peer-review system is beyond the scope of this Note. For a general primer on some common criticisms
175. see Richard Smith, Peer Review: A Flawed Process at the Heart of Science and Journals, 99 J. Royal Soc'y Med. 178 (2006).
176. Daubert v. Merrell Dow Pharmaceuticals, Inc., 509 U.S. 579, 594 (1993) (emphasis added).
177. Daubert v. Merrell Dow Pharmaceuticals, Inc., 509 U.S. 579, 594 (1993) (emphasis added).
178. See, e.g., Bond v. MacLeod, 921 N.Y.S. 2d 671, 673-74 (N.Y. App. Div. 2011) (referring to "parental alienation" but describing estrangement provoked by the father).
179. See, e.g., Bond v. MacLeod, 921 N.Y.S. 2d 671, 673-74 (N.Y. App. Div. 2011) (referring to "parental alienation" but describing estrangement provoked by the father).
180. See, e.g., Bond v. MacLeod, 921 N.Y.S. 2d 671, 673-74 (N.Y. App. Div. 2011) (referring to "parental alienation" but describing estrangement provoked by the father).
181. See, e.g., Bond v. MacLeod, 921 N.Y.S. 2d 671, 673-74 (N.Y. App. Div. 2011) (referring to "parental alienation" but describing estrangement provoked by the father).
182. See Fed. R. Evid. 602.
183. Child Welfare Info. Gateway, U.S. Dep't of Health & Human Servs., Determining the Best Interests of the Child, Child Welfare Info. Gateway, 1 (2013), https://www.child welfare.gov/systemwide/laws_policies/statutes/best_interest.pdf.
184. Child Welfare Info. Gateway, U.S. Dep't of Health & Human Servs., Determining the Best Interests of the Child, Child Welfare Info. Gateway, 1 (2013), https://www.child welfare.gov/systemwide/laws_policies/statutes/best_interest.pdf.
185. see also Am. Bar Ass'n Comm'n on Domestic & Sexual Violence, Child Custody and Domestic Violence by State, Am. Bar Ass'n (Feb. 2008), http://www.americanbar. org/content/dam/aba/migrated/domviol/docs/Custody.authcheckdam.pdf (noting which states include domestic violence and friendly parent provisions in their best interests factors).
186. Linda D. Elrod, Reforming the System to Protect Children in High Conflict Custody Cases, 28 Wm. Mitchell L. Rev. 495, 500 (2001).
187. Linda D. Elrod, Reforming the System to Protect Children in High Conflict Custody Cases, 28 Wm. Mitchell L. Rev. 495, 500 (2001).
188. Linda D. Elrod, Reforming the System to Protect Children in High Conflict Custody Cases, 28 Wm. Mitchell L. Rev. 495, 500 (2001).
189. Carol S. Bruch, Parental Alienation Syndrome and Parental Alienation: Getting It Wrong in Child Custody Cases, 35 Fam. L.Q. 527, 530 (2001) (footnote omitted).
190. Claire Dalton et al., Nat'l Council of Juvenile & Family Court Judges, Navigating Custody & Visitation Evaluations in Cases with Domestic Violence (rev. ed. 2006).
191. Claire Dalton et al., Nat'l Council of Juvenile & Family Court Judges, Navigating Custody & Visitation Evaluations in Cases with Domestic Violence (rev. ed. 2006). at 25
192. Claire Dalton et al., Nat'l Council of Juvenile & Family Court Judges, Navigating Custody & Visitation Evaluations in Cases with Domestic Violence (rev. ed. 2006). at 25
193. Claire Dalton et al., Nat'l Council of Juvenile & Family Court Judges, Navigating Custody & Visitation Evaluations in Cases with Domestic Violence (rev. ed. 2006). at 25
194. Claire Dalton et al., Nat'l Council of Juvenile & Family Court Judges, Navigating Custody & Visitation Evaluations in Cases with Domestic Violence (rev. ed. 2006). at 24-25
195. Claire Dalton et al., Nat'l Council of Juvenile & Family Court Judges, Navigating Custody & Visitation Evaluations in Cases with Domestic Violence (rev. ed. 2006). at 24-25
196. Linda D. Elrod, Reforming the System to Protect Children in High Conflict Custody Cases, 28 Wm. Mitchell L. Rev. 495, 500 (2001).
197. 42 U.S.C. § 5106a(b)(2)(B)(xiii) (2006) ("[I]n every case involving a victim of child abuse or neglect which results in a judicial proceeding, a guardian ad litem. shall be appointed to represent the child in such proceedings. to obtain first-hand, a clear understanding of the situation and the needs of the child; and. to make recommendations to the court concerning the best interests of the child. ").
198. See Appointment Laws in Divorce Cases, Am. Bar Ass'n (Jan. 2007), http://www. americanbar.org/content/dam/aba/migrated/legalservices/probono/childcustody/divorce_chart _with_role.authcheckdam.pdf.
199. see also, e.g., Cal. Fam. Code § 3150 (West 2013) (allowing the appointment of counsel to represent the child's interests in custody proceedings).
200. See Appointment Laws in Divorce Cases
201. Linda D. Elrod, Reforming the System to Protect Children in High Conflict Custody Cases, 28 Wm. Mitchell L. Rev. 495, 500 (2001).
202. Claire Dalton et al., Nat'l Council of Juvenile & Family Court Judges, Navigating Custody & Visitation Evaluations in Cases with Domestic Violence (rev. ed. 2006). at 24-25
203. Mich. Comp. Laws Ann. § 722.24(2) (West 2013) (allowing for the appointment of an L-GAL in private custody cases if the court finds that the child's interests are not adequately represented).
204. Mich. Comp. Laws Ann. § 722.24(2) (West 2013) (allowing for the appointment of an L-GAL in private custody cases if the court finds that the child's interests are not adequately represented).
205. Mich. Comp. Laws Ann. § 722.24(2) (West 2013) (allowing for the appointment of an L-GAL in private custody cases if the court finds that the child's interests are not adequately represented).
206. Mich. Comp. Laws Ann. § 722.24(2) (West 2013) (allowing for the appointment of an L-GAL in private custody cases if the court finds that the child's interests are not adequately represented).
207. Mich. Comp. Laws Ann. § 722.24(2) (West 2013) (allowing for the appointment of an L-GAL in private custody cases if the court finds that the child's interests are not adequately represented).
208. Mich. Comp. Laws Ann. § 722.24(2) (West 2013) (allowing for the appointment of an L-GAL in private custody cases if the court finds that the child's interests are not adequately represented).
209. Mich. Comp. Laws Ann. § 722.24(2) (West 2013) (allowing for the appointment of an L-GAL in private custody cases if the court finds that the child's interests are not adequately represented).
210. Mich. Comp. Laws Ann. § 722.24(2) (West 2013) (allowing for the appointment of an L-GAL in private custody cases if the court finds that the child's interests are not adequately represented).
211. See Richard Ducote, Guardians Ad Litem in Private Custody Litigation: The Case for Abolition, 3 Loy. J. Pub. Int. L. 106 (2002).
212. See Richard Ducote, Guardians Ad Litem in Private Custody Litigation: The Case for Abolition, 3 Loy. J. Pub. Int. L. 106 (2002).
213. Quoting Josh Gelinas, Group Calls for Oversight of Guardians, Augusta Chron., July 20, 2001, at C2.
214. Mich. Comp. Laws Ann. § 722.24(2) (West 2013) (allowing for the appointment of an L-GAL in private custody cases if the court finds that the child's interests are not adequately represented).
215. Mich. Comp. Laws Ann. § 722.24(2) (West 2013) (allowing for the appointment of an L-GAL in private custody cases if the court finds that the child's interests are not adequately represented).
216. § 712A.17d(3).
217. See Richard Ducote, Guardians Ad Litem in Private Custody Litigation: The Case for Abolition, 3 Loy. J. Pub. Int. L. 106 (2002).
218. Mich. Comp. Laws Ann. § 722.24(2) (West 2013) (allowing for the appointment of an L-GAL in private custody cases if the court finds that the child's interests are not adequately represented).
219. See Richard Ducote, Guardians Ad Litem in Private Custody Litigation: The Case for Abolition, 3 Loy. J. Pub. Int. L. 106 (2002).
220. See, e.g., In re Miller, 20 A.3d 854, 864 (N.H. 2011) (citing the Vermont Supreme Court for its refusal to "condone[] a parent's willful alienation of a child from the other parent"
221. See Richard Ducote, Guardians Ad Litem in Private Custody Litigation: The Case for Abolition, 3 Loy. J. Pub. Int. L. 106 (2002).
222. See Richard Ducote, Guardians Ad Litem in Private Custody Litigation: The Case for Abolition, 3 Loy. J. Pub. Int. L. 106 (2002).
223. See Appointment Laws in Divorce Cases, 121 (noting that every state but Pennsylvania includes a statutory provision for assessing fees to the parties-i.e., the parents).
224. See Richard Ducote, Guardians Ad Litem in Private Custody Litigation: The Case for Abolition, 3 Loy. J. Pub. Int. L. 106 (2002).
225. See, e.g., 750 Ill. Comp. Stat. 5/506(a)(2) (2012) (providing that the responsibility of the GAL is to offer testimony or a written report regarding the child's best interests). In Illinois, the role of "guardian ad litem" is crafted as an advisor to the court.
226. See, e.g., 750 Ill. Comp. Stat. 5/506(a)(2) (2012) (providing that the responsibility of the GAL is to offer testimony or a written report regarding the child's best interests). In Illinois, the role of "guardian ad litem" is crafted as an advisor to the court.
227. See, e.g., 750 Ill. Comp. Stat. 5/506(a)(2) (2012) (providing that the responsibility of the GAL is to offer testimony or a written report regarding the child's best interests). In Illinois, the role of "guardian ad litem" is crafted as an advisor to the court.
228. See, e.g., Bond v. MacLeod, 921 N.Y.S. 2d 671, 673-74 (N.Y. App. Div. 2011) (referring to "parental alienation" but describing estrangement provoked by the father).
229. Richard A. Gardner, The Relationship Between the Parental Alienation Syndrome (PAS) and the False Memory Syndrome (FMS), 32 Am. J. Fam. Therapy 79 (2004).
230. S.J. Dallam & J.L. Silberg, Myths That Place Children at Risk During Custody Litigation, Leadership Council on Child Abuse & Interpersonal Violence, http://www.leadershipcouncil. org/1/res/cust_myths.html (last visited Oct. 4, 2013).
231. Paula J. Caplan, "Parental Alienation Syndrome:" Another Alarming DSM-5 Proposal, Psychol. Today (June 6, 2011) (updated July 15, 2011), http://www.psychologytoday. com/blog/science-isnt-golden/201106/parental-alienation-syndrome-another-alarming-dsm-5-proposal
232. Quoting Julie R. Ancis, Parental Alienation Syndrome, Ass'n for Women Psychology, http://awpsych.org/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=110&catid=74& Itemid=126 (last visited Oct. 4, 2013). Batterers win joint or sole custody in 70 percent of contested custody cases.
233. Domestic Violence & the Courtroom, Am. Judges Ass'n, http://aja. ncsc.dni.us/domviol/page5.html (last visited Oct. 4, 2013).
234. Paula J. Caplan, "Parental Alienation Syndrome:" Another Alarming DSM-5 Proposal, Psychol. Today (June 6, 2011) (updated July 15, 2011), http://www.psychologytoday. com/blog/science-isnt-golden/201106/parental-alienation-syndrome-another-alarming-dsm-5-proposal
235. See, e.g., Joan S. Meier, Domestic Violence, Child Custody, and Child Protection: Understanding Judicial Resistance and Imagining the Solutions, 11 Am. U. J. Gender Soc. Pol'y & Law 657, 679-80 (2003).
236. See, e.g., Joan S. Meier, Domestic Violence, Child Custody, and Child Protection: Understanding Judicial Resistance and Imagining the Solutions, 11 Am. U. J. Gender Soc. Pol'y & Law 657, 679-80 (2003).
237. 42 U.S.C. § 5106a(b)(2)(B)(xiii) (2006) ("[I]n every case involving a victim of child abuse or neglect which results in a judicial proceeding, a guardian ad litem. shall be appointed to represent the child in such proceedings. to obtain first-hand, a clear understanding of the situation and the needs of the child; and. to make recommendations to the court concerning the best interests of the child. ").
238. Claire Dalton et al., Nat'l Council of Juvenile & Family Court Judges, Navigating Custody & Visitation Evaluations in Cases with Domestic Violence (rev. ed. 2006).