Psychosocial resilience factors in the aftermath of potentially traumatic events in adulthood: An integrated model

Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD): Causes, Symptoms and Treatment

Volumn , Issue , 2012, Pages 79-107

  Prati, Gabriele ^a   Pietrantoni, Luca ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF BOLOGNA   (Italy)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 84892036237     PISSN: None     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book    
DOI: None     Document Type: Chapter

References (150)

1. Abramowitz, S. (2005). The poor have become rich, and the rich have become poor: Collective trauma in the Guinean Languette. Social Science and Medicine, 61, 2106-2118.
2. Adams, R. E., Boscarino, J. A., & Galea, S. (2006). Social and psychological resources and health outcomes after the World Trade Center disaster. Social Science & Medicine, 62, 176-188.
3. Ahern, J., & Galea, S. (2006). Social context and depression after a disaster: The role of income inequality. Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health, 60, 766-770.
4. Almedom, A. M., & Glandon, D. (2007). Resilience is not the absence of PTSD any more than health is the absence of disease, Journal of Loss & Trauma, 12, 127-143.
5. Al-Turkait, F. A., & Ohaeri, J. U. (2007). Prevalence and correlates of posttraumatic stress disorder among Kuwaiti military men according to level of involvement in the first Gulf War. Depression And Anxiety, 0, 1-10.
6. Andrews, B., Brewin, C. R., & Rose, S. (2003). Gender, social support and PTSD in victims of violent crime. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 16, 421-427.
7. Antonovsky, A. (1987). Unraveling the mystery of health: How people manage stress and stay well. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
8. Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy. The exercise of control. New York: W. H. Freeman and Company.
9. Bartone, P. T. (1999). Hardiness protects against war-related stress in Army Reserve forces. Consulting Psychology Journal, 51, 72-82.
10. Bartone, P. T., Ursano, R. J., Wright, K. M., & Ingraham, L. H., (1989). The impact of a military air disaster on the health of assistance workers. A prospective study. Journal of Nervous & Mental Disease, 177(6), 317-328.
11. Benight, C. (2004). Collective efficacy following a series of natural disasters. Anxiety, Stress, and Coping, 17, 401-420.
12. Benight, C. C., & Bandura, A. (2004). Social cognitive theory of posttraumatic recovery: The role of perceived self-efficacy. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 42, 1129-1148.
13. Benight, C. C., & Harper, M. (2002). Coping self-efficacy as a mediator for distress following multiple natural disasters. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 15, 177-186.
14. Benight, C. C., Antoni, M. H., Kilbourn, K., Ironson, G., Kumar, M. A., Fletcher, M. A., et al. (1997). Coping self-efficacy buffers psychological and physiological disturbances in HIV+ men following a natural disaster. Health Psychology, 16, 248-255.
15. Benight, C. C., Freyaldenhoven, R., Hughes, J., Ruiz, J. M., Zoesche, T. A. & Lovallo, W. (2000). Coping self-efficacy and psychological distress following the Oklahoma City bombing: A longitudinal analysis. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 30, 1331-1344.
16. Benight, C. C., Ironson, G., & Durham, B. (1999). Psychometric properties of a hurricane coping self-efficacy measure. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 12, 379-386.
17. Benight, C. C., Ironson, G., Klebe, K., Carver, C. S., Wynings, C., Burnett, K., et al. (1999). Conservation of resources and coping self-efficacy predicting distress following a natural disaster: A causal model analysis where the environment meets the mind. Anxiety, Stress & Coping: An International Journal, 12, 107-126.
18. Benight, C. C., Swift, E., Sanger, J., Smith, A., & Zeppelin, D. (1999). Coping self-efficacy as a mediator of distress following a natural disaster. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 29, 2443-2464.
19. Bisson, J. I. (2003). Single-session early psychological interventions following traumatic events. Clinical Psychology Review, 23, 481-499
20. Black, E. K., & White, C. A. (2005). Fear of recurrence, sense of coherence and posttraumatic stress disorder in haematological cancer survivors. Psycho-Oncology, 14(6), 510-515.
21. Boehmer, S., Luszczynska, A., & Schwarzer, R. (2007). Coping and quality of life after tumor surgery: Personal and social resources promote different domains of quality of life. Anxiety, Stress, and Coping, 20, 61-75.
22. Bonanno, G. A. (2004). Loss, trauma, and human resilience: Have we underestimated the human capacity to thrive after extremely adverse events? American Psychologist, 59, 20-28.
23. Bonanno, G. A. (2005). Resilience in the face of potential trauma. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 14, 135-138.
24. Bonanno, G. A., Colak, D. M., Keltner, D., Shiota, L., Papa, A., Noll, J. G., et al., (2007). Context matters: The benefits and costs of expressing positive emotion among survivors of childhood sexual abuse. Emotion, 7(4), 824-837.
25. Bonanno, G. A., Galea, S., Bucciarelli, A., & Vlahov, D. (2007). What predicts psychological resilience after disaster? The role of demographics, resources, and life stress. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 75, 671-682.
26. Bonanno, G. A., Ho, S. M. Y., Chan, J. C. K, Kwong, R. S. Y., Cheung, C. K. Y., Wong, C. P. Y., & Wong, V. C. W. (in press). Psychological resilience and dysfunction among hospitalized survivors of the SARS epidemic in Hong Kong: A latent class approach. Health Psychology.
27. Bonanno, G. A., Papa, A., Lalande, K., Westphal, M., & Coifman, K. (2004). The importance of being flexible: The ability to both enhance and suppress emotional expression predicts long-term adjustment. Psychological Science, 157, 482-487.
28. th terrorist attack: Resilience or social maladjustment? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 88, 984-998.
29. Bradley, R., Schwartz, A. C., & Kaslow, N. J. (2005). Posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms among low-income, African American women with a history of intimate partner violence and suicidal behaviors: self-esteem, social support, and religious coping. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 18(6), 685-696.
30. Bremer, B. A., Moore, C. T., Bourbon, B. M., Hess, D. R., & Bremer, K. L. (1997). Perceptions of control, physical exercise and psychological adjustment to breast cancer in South African women. Annals of Behavioral Medicine, 19, 51-60.
31. Brewin, C. R., Andrews, B., & Valentine, J. D. (2000). Meta-analysis of risk factors for posttraumatic stress disorder in trauma-exposed adults. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 68, 748-766.
32. Bunce, S. C., Larson, R. J., & Peterson C. (1995). Life after trauma: Personality and daily life experiences of traumatized people. Journal of Personality, 63(2), 165-188.
33. Carver, C. S., & Scheier, M. F. (2002). Optimism. In Handbook of Positive Psychology, ed. C. R. Snyder, S.J. Lopez, pp. 231-43. New York: Oxford University Press.
34. Calhoun, L. G., & Tedeschi, R. G. (2006). The foundations of posttraumatic growth: An expanded framework. In L. G. Calhoun & R. G. Tedeschi (Eds.), Handbook of posttraumatic growth: Research and practice(pp.3-23). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
35. Charuvastra, A., & Cloitre, M. (2008). Social Bonds and Posttraumatic Stress Disorder. Annual Review of Psychology, 59, 301-328.
36. Cieslak, R., Benight, C. C., & Caden Lehman, V. (2008). Coping self-efficacy mediates the effects of negative cognitions on posttraumatic distress. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 46, 788-798.
37. Creamer, M., Burgess, P., & Mcfarlane, A. C. (2001). Post-traumatic stress disorder: Findings from the Australian National Survey of Mental Health and Well-being. Psychological Medicine, 31, 1237-1247.
38. Cunningham, A. J., Lockwood, G. A., & Cunningham, J. A. (1991). A relationship between perceived self-efficacy and quality of life in cancer patients. Patient Education and Counseling, 17, 71-78.
39. Darves-Bornoz, J.M, Lepine, J. P, Choquet, M, Berger, C, Degiovanni, A, & Gaillard, P. (1998). Predictive factors of chronic Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder in rape victims. European Psychiatry, 13(6), 281-287.
40. Deshields, T., Tibbs, T., Fan, M. Y., & Taylor, M. (2006). Differences in patterns of depression after treatment for breast cancer. Psychooncology, 15(5):398-406.
41. Dohrenwend, B. P., Neria, Y., Turner, J. B., Turse, N., Marshall, R., Lewis-Fernandez, R., & Koenen, K. C. (2004). Positive tertiary appraisals and post-traumatic stress disorder in U.S. male veterans of the war in Vietnam: the roles of positive affirmation, positive reformulation, and defensive denial. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 3, 417-433.
42. Dougall, A. L., Hyman, K. B., Hayward, M. C., McFeeley, S., & Baum, A. (2001). Optimism and traumatic stress: The importance of social support and coping. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 31, 223-245.
43. Drory, Y., & Florian, V. (1991). Long-term psychosocial adjustment to coronary artery disease. Archives of physical medicine and rehabilitation, 72(5), 326-31.
44. Dudek, B., & Koniarek, J. (2000). Relationship between sense of coherence and post-traumatic stress disorder symptoms among firefighters. International journal of occupational medicine and environmental health, 13(4), 299-305.
45. Engelhard, I. M., van den Hout, M. A., & Vlaeyen, J. W. (2003). The sense of coherence in early pregnancy and crisis support and posttraumatic stress after pregnancy loss: a prospective study. Behavioral Medicine, 29(2), 80-84.
46. Eriksson, N. G., & Lundin, T. (1996). Early traumatic stress reactions among Swedish survivors of the m/s Estonia disaster. British Journal of Psychiatry, 169: 713-716.
47. Folkman, S., & Moskowitz, J. T. (2004). Coping: Pitfalls and promises. Annual Review of Psychology, 55, 745-774.
48. Frankl, V. E. (1963). Man's search for meaning: An introduction to logotherapy. New York: Washington Square Press.
49. Franks, H. M., & Roesch, S. C. (2006). Appraisals and coping in people living with cancer: A meta-analysis. Psycho-Oncology, 15(12), 1027-1037.
50. Frazier, P. (2003). Perceived control and distress following sexual assault: A longitudinal test of a new model. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 84, 1257-1269.
51. Frazier, P., Berman, M., & Steward, J. (2002). Perceived control and posttraumatic stress: A temporal model. Applied & Preventive Psychology: Current Perspectives, 10, 207-223.
52. Frazier, P., Mortensen H., & Steward J. (2005). Coping strategies as mediators of the relations among perceived control and distress in sexual assault survivors. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 52, 267-278.
53. Frazier, P., Steward, J., & Mortensen, H. (2004). Perceived control and adjustment to trauma: A comparison across events. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 23, 303-324.
54. Fredrickson, B. L. (2001). The role of positive emotions in positive psychology: The broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions. American Psychologist, 56, 218-226.
55. Fredrickson, B. L., Tugade, M. M., Waugh, C. E., & Larkin, G. R. (2003). What good are positive emotions in crisis? A prospective study of resilience and emotions following the terrorist attacks on the United States on September 11th, 2001. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 84, 365-376.
56. Freedy, J. R., Shaw, D., Jarrell, M. P., & Masters, C. (1992). Towards an understanding of the psychological impact of natural disaster: An application of the conservation resources stress model. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 5, 441-454.
57. Frommberger, U., Stieglitz, R. D., Straub, S., Nyberg, E., Schlickewei, W., Kuner, E., & Berger, M. (1999). The concept of "sense of coherence" and the development of posttraumatic stress side order in traffic accident victims. Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 46(4), 343-348.
58. Fuglsang, A. K., Moergeli, H., Hepp-Beg, S., & Schnyder, U. (2002). Who develops acute stress disorder after accidental injuries? Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics, 71, 214-222.
59. Fullerton, C. S., Ursano, R. J., Kao, T.C., & Bharitya, V. R. (1999). Disaster-related bereavement: acute symptoms and subsequent depression. Aviation, Space and Environment Medicine, 70(9), 902-909.
60. Galea, S., Ahern, J., Tracy, M., Hubbard, A., Cerda, M., Goldmann, E., & Vlahov, D. (2008). Longitudinal determinants of posttraumatic stress in a population-based cohort study. Epidemiology, 19(1), 47-54.
61. Ghazinour, M., Richter, J., & Eisemann, M. (2004). Quality of life among Iranian Refugees resettled in Sweden. Journal of Immigrant Health, 6(2), 71-81.
62. Gibson, L. E., Ruzek J. I., Naturale, A. J., Watson, P. J., Bryant, R. A., Rynearson, T., et al. (2006). Interventions for Individuals After Mass Violence and Disaster: Recommendations from the Roundtable on Screening and Assessment, Outreach, and Intervention for Mental Health and Substance Abuse Needs Following Disasters and Mass Violence. Journal of Trauma Practice, 5, 1-28.
63. Ginzburg, K., Solomon, Z., & Bleich, A., (2002). Repressive coping style, acute stress disorder, and posttraumatic stress disorder after myocardial infarction. Psychosomatic Medicine, 64, 748-757.
64. Golding, J. M., Wilsnack, S. C., Cooper, M. L. (2002). Sexual assault history and social support: six general population studies. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 15(3), 187-197.
65. Graves, K. D. (2003). Social cognitive theory and cancer patients' quality of life: a meta-analysis of psychosocial intervention components. Health Psychology. 22(2), 210-219.
66. Gustavsson-Lilius, M., Julkunen, J., Keskivaara, P., Hietanen, P. (2007). Sense of coherence and distress in cancer patients and their partners. Psycho-Oncology, 16(12), 1100-1110.
67. Haber, M. G., Cohen, J. L., Lucas, T., & Baltes, B. B. (2007). The relationship between self-reported received and perceived social support: A meta-analytic review. American Journal of Community Psychology, 39, 133-144.
68. Harvey, M. R, Mondesir, A. V., & Aldrich, H. (2007). Fostering resilience in traumatized communities: A community empowerment model of intervention. Journal of Aggression, Maltreatment and Trauma, 14(1-2), 265-285.
69. Harvey, M. R. (2007). Towards an ecological understanding of resilience in trauma survivors: Implications for theory, research, and practice. Journal of Aggression, Maltreatment and Trauma. 14(1-2), 9-32.
70. Hepp, U., Moergeli, H., Buchi, S., Bruchhaus-Steinert, H., Kraemer, B., Sensky, T., & Schnyder, U. (2008). Post-traumatic stress disorder in serious accidental injury: 3-year follow-up study. The British Journal of Psychiatry, 192, 376-383.
71. Hipkins, J., Whitworth, M., Tarrier, N., & Jayson, G. (2004). Social support, anxiety, and depression after chemotherapy for ovarian cancer: A prospective study. British Journal of Health Psychology, 9, 569-581.
72. Hobfoll, S. E. (2002). Social and psychological resources and adaptation. Review of General Psychology, 6(4), 307-324.
73. Hobfoll, S. E., Canetti-Nisim, D., Johnson, R. J., Palmieri, P. A., Varley, J. D., Galea, S. (2008). The association of exposure, risk, and resiliency factors with PTSD among Jews and Arabs exposed to repeated acts of terrorism in Israel. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 21(1): p. 9-21.
74. Hodgkinson, P. E., & Shepherd, M. A. (1994). The impact of disaster support work. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 7(4), 587-600.
75. Ironson, G., Wynings, C., Schneiderman, N., Baum, A., Rodriquez, M., Greenwood, D., et al. (1997). Post-traumatic stress symptoms, intrusive thoughts, loss, and immune function after Hurricane Andrew. Psychosomatic Medicine, 59, 128-141.
76. Janoff-Bulman, R. (1992). Shattered assumptions: Toward a new psychology of trauma. New York Free Press.
77. Jonsson, A., Segesten, K., & Mattsson, B. (2003). Post-traumatic stress among Swedish ambulance personnel. Emergency Medicine Journal, 20(1), 79-84.
78. Joseph, S., & Linley P. A. (2006). Growth following adversity: Theoretical perspectives and implications for clinical practice. Clinical Psychology Review, 26, 1041-1053.
79. Joseph, S., Williams, R., & Yule, W. (1997). Understanding post-traumatic stress: A psychosocial perspective on PTSD and treatment. Chichester, England: Wiley.
80. Jovanovic, A. A., Aleksandric, B. V., Dunjic, D., & Todorovic, V. S. (2004). Family Hardiness and Social Support as Predictors of Post-traumatic Stress Disorder. Psychiatry, Psychology And Law, 11(2), 263-268.
81. Kaniasty, K., & Norris, F. (2004). Social support in the aftermath of disasters, catastrophes, and acts of terrorism: Altruistic, overwhelmed, uncertain, antagonistic, and patriotic communities. In R. Ursano, A. Norwood, & C. Fullerton (Eds.), Bioterrorism: Psychological and public health interventions (pp. 200-229). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
82. Kashdan, T. B., Uswatte, G., Steger, M. F., & Julian, T. (2006). Fragile self-esteem and affective instability in posttraumatic stress disorder. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 44(11), 1609-1619.
83. Kessler, R. C., Berglund, P., Demler, O., Jin, R., Merikangas, K. R., & Walters, E. E. (2005). Lifetime Prevalence and Age-of-Onset Distributions of DSM-IV Disorders in the National Comorbidity Survey Replication. Archives of General Psychiatry, 62: 593-602.
84. Kessler, R. C., Sonnega, A., Bromet, E., Hughes, M., & Nelson, C. B. (1995). Posttraumatic stress disorder in the National Comorbidity Survey. Archives of General Psychiatry, 52, 1048-1060.
85. st Century. In C. L. M. Keyes and J. Haidt (Eds), Flourishing: Positive Psychology and the Life Well-Lived (pp. 293-312). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association Press.
86. King, D. W., Taft, C. T., King, L. A., Hammond, C., & Stone, E. R. (2006). Directionality of the association between social support and posttraumatic stress disorder: a longitudinal investigation. Journal of Applied Social Psychology. 36(12), 2980-2992.
87. King, L. A., King, D. W., Fairbank, J. A., Keane, T. M., & Adams, G. A. (1998). Resilience-Recovery Factors in Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder Among Female and Male Vietnam Veterans: Hardiness, Postwar Social Support, and Additional Stressful Life Events. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 74(2), 420-434.
88. Klein, C. T. F., & Helweg-Larsen, M. (2002). Perceived control and the optimistic bias: A meta-analytic review. Psychology and Health, 17, 437-446.
89. Kobasa, S. C. (1979). Stressful life events, personality and health: An inquiry into hardiness. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 37, 1-11.
90. Koenen, K. C., Stellman, J. M., Stellman, S. D., & Sommer, J. F. Jr. (2003). Risk factors for course of posttraumatic stress disorder among Vietnam veterans: a 14-year follow-up of American Legionnaires. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 71(6), 980-86.
91. Krahé, B. (2005) Cognitive Coping With the Threat of Rape: Vigilance and Cognitive Avoidance. Journal of Personality, 73(3), 609-644
92. Krantz, G., & Östergren, P. O. (2000). The association between violence victimisation and common symptoms in Swedish women. Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health, 54, 815-821.
93. Larsson, G., Michel, P., & Lundin, T. (2000). Systematic assessment of mental health following various types of posttrauma support. Military Psychology, 12, 121-135.
94. Lazarus, R. S. & Folkman, S. (1984). Stress Appraisal and Coping. New York: Springer.
95. Lepore, S. J. (2001). A social-cognitive processing model of emotional adjustment to cancer. In A. Baum & B. L. Andersen (Eds.), Psychosocial interventions for cancer (pp. 99-116).Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
96. Littleton, H. L., Horsley, S., John, S., & Nelson, D. V. (2007). Trauma coping strategies and psychological distress: A meta-analysis. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 20(6), 977-988.
97. Maddi, S. R. (2002). The story of hardiness: Twenty years of theorizing, research, and practice. Consulting Psychology Journal, 54, 173-185.
98. McFarlane, A. C., & Yehuda, R. (1996). Resilience, vulnerability, and the course of posttraumatic reactions. In B. A. van der Kolk, A. C. McFarlane, & L. Weisaeth (Eds.), Traumatic stress(pp. 155-181). New York: Guilford Press.
99. Monnier, J., Cameron, R. P., Hobfoll, S. E., & Gribble, J. R. (2002). The impact of resource loss and critical incidents on psychological functioning in fire-emergency workers: A pilot study. International Journal of Stress Management, 9(1), 11-29.
100. nd ed., pp. 234-257). New York: Free Press.
101. Murphy, S. A. (1987).Self-efficacy and social support mediators of stress on mental health following a natural disaster. Western Journal of Nursing Research, 9, 58-86.
102. Murphy, S. A., Johnson, L. C., Chung, I. J., & Beaton, R. D. (2003). The prevalence of PTSD Following the violent death of a child and predictors of change 5 years later. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 16(1), 17-25.
103. Norris, F. H., & Elrod, C. L. (2006). Psychosocial consequences of disaster: A review of past research. In F. Norris, S. Galea, M. Friedman, P. Watson (Eds), Methods for disaster mental health research (pp. 158-163). New York: Guilford Press.
104. Norris, F. H., & Kaniasty, K. (1996). Received and perceived social support in times of stress: A test of the social support deterioration deterrence model. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 71, 498-511.
105. Norris, F. H., Stevens, S. P., Pfefferbaum, B., Wyche, K. F., Pfefferbaum, R. L. (2008). Community resilience as a metaphor, theory, set of capacities, and strategy for disaster readiness. American Journal of Community Psychology, 41, 127-150.
106. Norris, F., Friedman, M., Watson, P., Byrne, C., Diaz, E., & Kaniasty, K. (2002). 60,000 disaster victims speak. Part I: An empirical review of the empirical literature, 1981-2001. Psychiatry, 65, 207-239.
107. O'Leary, V. E., & Ickovics, J. R. (1995). Resilience and thriving in response to challenge: An opportunity for a paradigm shift in women's health. Women's Health: Research on Gender, Behavior, and Policy, 1, 121-142.
108. Olff, M., Langeland, W., & Gersons, B. P., (2005). Effects of appraisal and coping on the neuroendocrine response to. extreme stress. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews, 29, 457-467.
109. Ouellette, S. C., & DiPlacido, J. (2001). Personality's role in the protection and enhancement of health: where the research has been, where it is stuck, how it might move. In: A. Baum, T. A. Revenson and J. E. Singer (Eds), Handbook of health psychology (pp. 175-193). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
110. Ozer, E. J., Best, S. R., Lipsey, T. L., & Weiss, D. S. (2003). Predictors of posttraumatic stress disorder and symptoms in adults: A metaanalysis. Psychological Bulletin, 129, 52-71.
111. Papa, A., & Bonanno, G.A. (2008). Smiling in the face of adversity: The interpersonal and intrapersonal functions of smiling. Emotion, 8(1), 1-12.
112. Park, C. L., & Folkman, S. (1997). Meaning in the context of stress and coping. Review of General Psychology. 1(2), 115-144.
113. Pinquart, M., & Fröhlich, C. (in press). Psychosocial resources and subjective well-being of cancer patients. Psychology and Health.
114. Prati, G., & Pietrantoni, L. (2009). Optimism, social support and coping strategies as factors contributing to posttraumatic growth: A meta-analysis. Journal of Loss and Trauma, 15(5), 364-388.
115. Prati, G., & Pietrantoni, L. (2010). The relation of perceived and received social support to mental health among first responders: a meta-analytic review. Journal of Community Psychology, 38, 403-417.
116. Punamaki, R. L., Komproe, I., Qouta, S., El-Masri, M., & de Jong, J. T. (2005). The deterioration and mobilization effects of trauma on social support: childhood maltreatment and adulthood military violence in a Palestinian community sample. Child Abuse & Neglect, 29(4), 351-373.
117. Riolli, L., Savicki, V., & Cepani, A. (2002). Resilience in the face of catastrophe: optimism, personality, and coping in the Kosovo crisis. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 32(8), 1604-1627.
118. Roesch, S. C., & Weiner, B. (2001). A meta-analytic review of coping with illness: Do causal attributions matter? Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 50, 205-219.
119. Roesch, S.C., Adams, L., Hines, A., Palmores, A., Vyas, P., Tran, C., et al. (2005). Coping with prostate cancer: A meta-analytic review. Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 28, 281-293.
120. Sattler, D. N., Preston, A. J., Kaiser, C. F., Olivera, V. E., Valdez, J., & Schlueter, S. (2002).
121. Rofé, Y. (2008). Does repression exist? Memory, pathogenic, unconscious and clinical evidence. Review of General Psychology, 12(1), 63-85.
122. Hurricane Georges: A Cross-National Study Examining Preparedness, Resource Loss, and Psychological Distress in the U.S. Virgin Islands, Puerto Rico, Dominican Republic, and the United States. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 15(5), 339-350.
123. Schnyder, U., Wittmann, L., Friedrich-Perez, J., Hepp, U., & Moergeli, H. (2008). Posttraumatic stress disorder following accidental injury: rule or exception in Switzerland? Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics, 77(2), 111-118.
124. Schoka, M. L., Kleberb, R. J., Elandsa, M., & Weerts, J. M. P. (2008). Meaning as a mission: A review of empirical studies on appraisals of war and peacekeeping experiences. Clinical Psychology Review. 28(3), 357-365.
125. Schroevers, M. J., Ranchor, A. V., & Sanderman, R. (2003). The role of social support and self-esteem in the presence and course of depressive symptoms: A comparison of cancer patients and individuals from the general population. Social Science and Medicine, 57, 375-385.
126. Shnek, Z. M., Irvine, J, Stewart, D., & Abbey, S. (2001). Psychological factors and depressive symptoms in ischemic heart disease. Health Psychology, 20, 141-45.
127. Siglen, E., Bjorvatn, C. Engebretsen, L. F., Berglund, G., & Natvig, G.K. (2007). The influence of cancer-related distress and sense of coherence on anxiety and depression in patients with hereditary cancer: a study of patients' sense of coherence 6 months after genetic counseling. Journal of Genetic Counseling, 16, 607-615.
128. Snekkevik, H., Anke, A. G. W., Stanghelle, J. K., & Fugl-Meyer, A. R. (2003). Is sense of coherence stable after multiple trauma? Clinical Rehabilitation, 17, 443-453.
129. Solberg Nes, L., & Segerstrom, S. C. (2006). Dispositional optimism and coping: A meta-analytic review. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 10(3), 235-251.
130. Solomon, Z. (2007). Resilience of Israeli body handlers: Implications of repressive coping style. Traumatology, 13(4), 64-74.
131. Solomon, Z., Benbenishty, R., & Mikulincer, M. (1991). The contribution of wartime, pre-war and post-war factors to self-efficacy: A longitudinal study of combat stress reaction. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 4, 345-361.
132. Solomon, Z., Weisenberg, M., Schwarzwald, J., & Mikulincer, M. (1988). Combat stress reaction and posttraumatic stress disorder as determinants of perceived self-efficacy in battle. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 6, 356-370.
133. Sommer, I., & Ehlert, U. (2004). Adjustment to trauma exposure Prevalence and predictors of posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms in mountain guides. Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 57, 329-335.
134. Southwick, S. M., Vythilingam, M., & Charney, D. S. (2005). The psychobiology of depression and resilience to stress: implications for prevention and treatment. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, 1, 255-291.
135. Stanton, A.L., & Snider, P.R. (1993). Coping with a breast cancer diagnosis: A prospective study. Health Psychology, 12, 16-23.
136. Stiegelis, H. E., Hagedoorn, M., Sanderman, R., van der Zee, K. I., Buunk, B. P., & van den Bergh, A. C. (2003). Cognitive adaptation: A comparison of cancer patients and healthy references. British Journal of Health Psychology, 8, 303-318.
137. Sumer, N,. Karanci, A. N., Berument, S. K. & Gunes, H. (2005). Personal resources, coping self-efficacy, and quake exposure as predictors of psychological distress following the 1999 earthquake in Turkey. Journal of Traumatic Stress. 18(4), 331-342.
138. Sutker, P. B., Davis, J. M., Uddo, M., & Ditta, S. R. (1995). War zone stress, personal resources, and PTSD in Persian Gulf War veterans. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 104, 444-452.
139. Taft, C. T., Stern, A. S., King, L. A., King, D. W. (1999). Modeling physical health and functional health status: the role of combat exposure, posttraumatic stress disorder, and personal resource attributes. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 12(1), 3-23.
140. Tate, R. L., & Broe, G. A. (1999). Psychosocial adjustment after traumatic brain injury: what are the important variables? Psychological Medicine, 29, 713-725.
141. Taylor, S. E., & Brown, J. D. (1988). Illusion and well-being: A social psychological perspective on mental health. Psychological Bulletin, 103, 193-210.
142. Taylor, S. E., & Brown, J. D. (1994). Positive illusions and well-being revisited: Separating fact from fiction. Psychological Bulletin, 116, 21-27.
143. Taylor, S. E., Lerner, J. S., Sherman, D. K., Sage, R. M., & McDowell, N. K. (2003). Are Self-Enhancing Cognitions Associated with Healthy or Unhealthy Biological Profiles? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 85, 605-615.
144. Vázquez, C., Cervellón, P., Pérez-Sales, P., Vidales, D., & Gaborit, M. (2005). Positive emotions in earthquake survivors in El Salvador (2001). Anxiety Disorders, 19, 313-328.
145. Waysman, M., Schwarzwald, J., & Solomon, Z. (2001). Hardiness: An examination of its relationship with positive and negative long term changes following trauma. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 14(3), 531-548.
146. Yap, M.B.H., Devilly, G.J. (2004). The role of perceived social support in crime victimization. Clinical Psychology Review, 24, 1-14.
147. Ying, Y., Akutsu, D. (1997). Psychological adjustment of Southeast Asian refugees: The contribution of sense of coherence. Journal of Community Psychology, 25(2), 125-139.
148. Ying, Y., Akutsu, P. D., Zhang, X. & Huang, L. N. (1997). Psychological Dysfunction In Southeast Asian Refugees: The Contribution of Sense Of Coherence, American Journal of Community Psychology, 25(6), 839-859.
149. Zakin, G., Solomon, Z., & Neria, Y. (2003). Hardiness, attachment style, and long term psychological distress among Israeli POWs and combat veterans. Personality and Individual Differences, 34, 819-829.
150. Zeidner, M., & Hammer, A. L. (1992). Coping with missile attack: Resources, strategies, and outcomes. Journal of Personality, 60,709-746.