Pharmacokinetic of antiepileptic drugs in patients with hepatic or renal impairment

Clinical Pharmacokinetics

Volumn 53, Issue 1, 2014, Pages 29-49

  Anderson, Gail D ^a   Hakimian, Shahin ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF WASHINGTON   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ANTICONVULSIVE AGENT;

CREATININE CLEARANCE; DIALYSIS; DISEASE SEVERITY; DRUG ELIMINATION; DRUG MONITORING; HUMAN; KIDNEY DISEASE; KIDNEY FUNCTION; KIDNEY INJURY; LIVER DISEASE; LIVER FUNCTION; LIVER INJURY; LIVER METABOLISM; MILD HEPATIC IMPAIRMENT; PRIORITY JOURNAL; PROTEIN BINDING; REVIEW; URINARY EXCRETION;

ANTICONVULSANTS; DRUG-INDUCED LIVER INJURY; HUMANS; KIDNEY DISEASES; LIVER DISEASES;

EID: 84891886217     PISSN: 03125963     EISSN: 11791926     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1007/s40262-013-0107-0     Document Type: Review

References (166)

1. French JA, Gazzola DM. Antiepileptic drug treatment: new drugs and new strategies. Continuum (Minneap Minn). 2013;19(3 Epilepsy):643-55.
2. Frye RF, Zgheib NK, Matzke GR, et al. Liver disease selectively modulates cytochrome P450 - mediated metabolism. Clin Pharmacol Ther. 2006;80(3):235-45. (Pubitemid 44313901)
3. Brater DC. Drug dosing in patients with impaired renal function. Clin Pharmacol Ther. 2009;86(5):483-9.
4. Benet LZ, Hoener BA. Changes in plasma protein binding have little clinical relevance. Clin Pharmacol Ther. 2002;71(3):115-21. (Pubitemid 34271114)
5. Perucca E. Age-related changes in pharmacokinetics: predictability and assessment methods. Int Rev Neurobiol. 2007;81:183-99.
6. Anderson GD, Lynn AM. Optimizing pediatric dosing: a developmental pharmacologic approach. Pharmacotherapy. 2009;29(6):680-90.
7. Sun H, Frassetto L, Benet LZ. Effects of renal failure on drug transport and metabolism. Pharmacol Ther. 2006;109(1-2):1-11. (Pubitemid 41740811)
8. Cockcroft DW, Gault MH. Prediction of creatinine clearance from serum creatinine. Nephron. 1976;16(1):31-41.
9. Levey AS, Bosch JP, Lewis JB, et al. A more accurate method to estimate glomerular filtration rate from serum creatinine: a new prediction equation. Modification of Diet in Renal Disease Study Group. Ann Intern Med. 1999;130(6):461-70. (Pubitemid 29135798)
10. Imai E, Horio M, Nitta K, et al. Modification of the Modification of Diet in Renal Disease (MDRD) Study equation for Japan. Am J Kidney Dis. 2007;50(6):927-37. (Pubitemid 350130278)
11. Ma YC, Zuo L, Zhang CL, et al. Comparison of 99mTc-DTPA renal dynamic imaging with modified MDRD equation for glomerular filtration rate estimation in Chinese patients in different stages of chronic kidney disease. Nephrol Dial Transplant. 2007;22(2):417-23. (Pubitemid 46189884)
12. Miller WG. Reporting estimated GFR: a laboratory perspective. Am J Kidney Dis. 2008;52(4):645-8.
13. Levey AS, Stevens LA, Schmid CH, et al. A new equation to estimate glomerular filtration rate. Ann Intern Med. 2009;150(9):604-12.
14. Stevens LA, Claybon MA, Schmid CH, et al. Evaluation of the Chronic Kidney Disease Epidemiology Collaboration equation for estimating the glomerular filtration rate in multiple ethnicities. Kidney Int. 2011;79(5):555-62.
15. Horio M, Imai E, Yasuda Y, et al. Modification of the CKD epidemiology collaboration (CKD-EPI) equation for Japanese: accuracy and use for population estimates. Am J Kidney Dis. 2010;56(1):32-8.
16. Matzke GR, Aronoff GR, Atkinson AJ Jr, et al. Drug dosing consideration in patients with acute and chronic kidney disease-a clinical update from Kidney Disease: Improving Global Outcomes (KDIGO). Kidney Int. 2011;80(11):1122-37.
17. Park EJ, Wu K, Mi Z, et al. A systematic comparison of Cockcroft-Gault and Modification of Diet in Renal Disease equations for classification of kidney dysfunction and dosage adjustment. Ann Pharmacother. 2012;46(9):1174-87.
18. Park EJ, Pai MP, Dong T, et al. The influence of body size descriptors on the estimation of kidney function in normal weight, overweight, obese, and morbidly obese adults. Ann Pharmacother. 2012;46(3):317-28.
19. Verbeeck RK, Musuamba FT. Pharmacokinetics and dosage adjustment in patients with renal dysfunction. Eur J Clin Pharmacol. 2009;65(8):757-73.
20. Morgan DJ, Smallwood RA. Clinical significance of pharmacokinetic models of hepatic elimination. Clin Pharmacokinet. 1990;18(1):61-76. (Pubitemid 20040338)
21. Williams RL, Schary WL, Blaschke TF, et al. Influence of acute viral hepatitis on disposition and pharmacologic effect of warfarin. Clin Pharmacol Ther. 1976;20(1):90-7.
22. Williams RL, Blaschke TF, Meffin PJ, et al. Influence of acute viral hepatitis on disposition and plasma binding of tolbutamide. Clin Pharmacol Ther. 1977;21(3):301-9. (Pubitemid 8064251)
23. Kraus JW, Desmond PV, Marshall JP, et al. Effect of aging and liver disease on disposition of lorazepam. Clin Pharmacol Ther. 1978;24:411-9. (Pubitemid 9059904)
24. Pugh RN, Murray-Lyon IM, Dawson JL, et al. Transection of the oesophagus for bleeding oesophageal varices. Br J Surg. 1973;60(8):646-9.
25. Child CG, Turcotte JG. Surgery and portal hypertension. In: Child CG, editor. The liver and portal hypertension. Philadelphia: WB Saunders; 1964. p. 1-85.
26. Johnson TN, Boussery K, Rowland-Yeo K, et al. A semi-mechanistic model to predict the effects of liver cirrhosis on drug clearance. Clin Pharmacokinet. 2010;49(3):189-206.
27. Ohnishi A, Murakami S, Akizuki S, et al. In vivo metabolic activity of CYP2C19 and CYP3A in relation to CYP2C19 genetic polymorphism in chronic liver disease. J Clin Pharmacol. 2005;45(11):1221-9. (Pubitemid 41513044)
28. Yang LQ, Li SJ, Cao YF, et al. Different alterations of cytochrome P450 3A4 isoform and its gene expression in livers of patients with chronic liver diseases. World J Gastroenterol. 2003;9(2):359-63.
29. Guengerich FP, Turvy CG. Comparison of levels of several human microsomal cytochrome P-450 enzymes and epoxide hydrolase in normal and disease states using immunochemical analysis of surgical liver samples. J Pharmacol Exp Ther. 1991;256(3):1189-94.
30. George J, Murray M, Byth K, et al. Differential alterations of cytochrome P450 proteins in livers from patients with severe chronic liver disease. Hepatology. 1995;21(1):120-8.
31. Zimmerer J, Tittor W, Degen P. Anti-rheumatic therapy in patients with liver diseases. Plasma levels of diclofenac and elimination of diclofenac and metabolites in urine of patients with liver disease [in German]. Fortschr Med. 1982;100(36):1683-8.
32. Juhl RP, Van Thiel DH, Dittert LW, et al. Ibuprofen and sulindac kinetics in alcoholic liver disease. Clin Pharmacol Ther. 1983;34(1):104-9. (Pubitemid 13073311)
33. Pacifici GM, Viani A, Franchi M, et al. Conjugation pathways in liver disease. Br J Clin Pharmacol. 1990;30(3):427-35. (Pubitemid 20281110)
34. Hoyumpa AM, Schenker S. Is glucuronidation truly preserved in patients with liver disease? Hepatology. 1991;13(4):786-95.
35. Rho JM, Sankar R. The pharmacologic basis of antiepileptic drug action. Epilepsia. 1999;40(11):1471-83. (Pubitemid 29518074)
36. McLean MJ. Clinical pharmacokinetics of gabapentin. Neurology. 1994;44(6 Suppl 5):S17-22 (discussion S31-2).
37. Urban TJ, Brown C, Castro RA, et al. Effects of genetic variation in the novel organic cation transporter, OCTN1, on the renal clearance of gabapentin. Clin Pharmacol Ther. 2008;83(3):416-21. (Pubitemid 351272627)
38. Blum RA, Comstock TJ, Sica DA, et al. Pharmacokinetics of gabapentin in subjects with various degrees of renal function. Clin Pharmacol Ther. 1994;56:154-9. (Pubitemid 24274181)
39. ®: product information. New York: Parke Davis; 2010.
40. Wong MO, Eldon MA, Keane WF, et al. Disposition of gabapentin in anuric subjects on hemodialysis. J Clin Pharmacol. 1995;35(6):622-6.
41. Lal R, Sukbuntherng J, Luo W, et al. Clinical pharmacokinetics of gabapentin after administration of gabapentin enacarbil extended-release tablets in patients with varying degrees of renal function using data from an open-label, single-dose pharmacokinetic study. Clin Ther. 2012;34(1):201-13.
42. Delahoy P, Thompson S, Marschner IC. Pregabalin versus gabapentin in partial epilepsy: a meta-analysis of dose-response relationships. BMC Neurol. 2010;10:104. doi: 10.1186/471-2377-10-104.
43. Bockbrader HN, Radulovic LL, Posvar EL, et al. Clinical pharmacokinetics of pregabalin in healthy volunteers. J Clin Pharmacol. 2010;50(8):941-50.
44. Randinitis EJ, Posvar EL, Alvey CW, et al. Pharmacokinetics of pregabalin in subjects with various degrees of renal function. J Clin Pharmacol. 2003;43(3):277-83. (Pubitemid 36232656)
45. Rho JM, Sankar R. The pharmacologic basis of antiepileptic drug action. Epilepsia. 1999;40:1471-83. (Pubitemid 29518074)
46. Willmore LJ, Abelson MB, Ben-Menachem E, et al. Vigabatrin: 2008 update. Epilepsia. 2009;50(2):163-73.
47. Rey G, Pons G, Olive G. Vigabatrin. Clin Pharmacokinet. 1992;23:267-78.
48. Haegele KD, Huebert ND, Ebel M, et al. Pharmacokinetics of vigabatrin: implications of creatinine clearance. Clin Pharmacol Ther. 1988;44:558-65. (Pubitemid 19002870)
49. SABRIL™: product information. Deerfield: Lundbeck, Inc.; 2009.
50. Kerr BM, Thummel KE, Wurden CJ, et al. Human liver carbamazepine: role of CYP3A4 and CYP2A8 in 10, 11 epoxide formation. Biochem Pharmacol. 1994;47:1969-79.
51. Faigle JW, Feldmann KF. Carbamazepine: chemistry and biotransformation. In: Levy RH, Mattson RH, Meldrun BS, editors. Antiepileptic drugs. 5th ed. New York: Raven Press; 2002. p. 499-514.
52. Kandrotas RJ, Oles KS, Gal P, et al. Carbamazepine clearance in hemodialysis and hemoperfusion. DICP. 1989;23(2):137-40. (Pubitemid 19076930)
53. Lazar JG, Rosenberg HC, Tietz E. Benzodiazepines. In: Wyllie E, editor. Treatment of epilepsy. 5th ed. Philadelphia: Lippincott, Williams & Wilkins; 2011. p. 668-89.
54. Giraud C, Tran A, Rey E, et al. In vitro characterization of clobazam metabolism by recombinant cytochrome P450 enzymes: importance of CYP2C19. Drug Metab Dispos. 2004;32(11):1279-86. (Pubitemid 39410913)
55. Kosaki K, Tamura K, Sato R, et al. A major influence of CYP2C19 genotype on the steady-state concentration of N-desmethylclobazam. Brain Dev. 2004;26(8):530-4. (Pubitemid 39463345)
56. Haigh JR, Pullar T, Gent JP, et al. N-desmethylclobazam: a possible alternative to clobazam in the treatment of refractory epilepsy? Br J Clin Pharmacol. 1987;23(2):213-8. (Pubitemid 17113499)
57. Anderson G, Miller J. Benzodiazepines: chemistry, biotransformation and pharmacokinetics. In: Levy R, Mattson R, Meldrum B, Perrucca E, editors. Antiepileptic drugs. Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins; 2002. p. 187-205.
58. Monjanel-Mouterde S, Antoni M, Bun H, et al. Pharmacokinetics of a single oral dose of clobazam in patients with liver disease. Pharmacol Toxicol. 1994;74:345-50. (Pubitemid 24180261)
59. ®: product information. Deerfield: Lundbeck Inc.; 2011.
60. de Leon J, Spina E, Diaz FJ. Clobazam therapeutic drug monitoring: a comprehensive review of the literature with proposals to improve future studies. Ther Drug Monit. 2013;35(1):30-47.
61. Seree EJ, Pisano PJ, Placidi M, et al. Identification of the human and animal hepatic cytochrome P450 involved in clonazepam metabolism. Fundam Clin Pharmacol. 1993;7:69-75. (Pubitemid 23107452)
62. Pacifici GM, Viani A, Rizzo G, et al. Plasma protein binding of clonazepam in hepatic and renal insufficiency and after hemodialysis. Ther Drug Monit. 1987;9:369-73. (Pubitemid 18007755)
63. Mandelli M, Tognoni G, Garattini S. Clinical pharmacokinetics of diazepam. Clin Pharmacokinet. 1978;3:72-91. (Pubitemid 8287275)
64. Klotz U, Avant GR, Hoyumpa A, et al. The effects of age and liver disease on the disposition and elimination of diazepam in adult man. J Clin Invest. 1975;55:347-59.
65. Kangas L, Kanto J, Forsstrom J, et al. The protein binding of diazepam and N-demethyldiazepam in patients with poor renal function. Clin Nephrol. 1976;5:114-8.
66. Greenblatt DJ, Harmatz JS, Shader RI. Factors influencing diazepam pharmacokinetics: age, sex, and liver disease. Int J Clin Pharmacol Biopharm. 1978;16(4):177-9. (Pubitemid 8305043)
67. Andreasen PB, Hendel J, Greisen G, et al. Pharmacokinetics of diazepam in disordered liver function. Eur J Clin Pharmacol. 1976;10(2):115-20.
68. Cohen AF, Land GS, Breimer DD, et al. Lamotrigine, a new anticonvulsant: pharmacokinetics in normal humans. Clin Pharmacol Ther. 1987;42:535-41. (Pubitemid 18002171)
69. Marcellin P, de Bony F, Garret C, et al. Influence of cirrhosis on lamotrigine pharmacokinetics. Br J Clin Pharmacol. 2001;51(5):410-4. (Pubitemid 32852977)
70. Posner J, Cohen AF, Land G, et al. The pharmacokinetics of lamotrigine (BW430C) in healthy subjects with unconjugated hyperbilirubinaemia. Br J Clin Pharmacol. 1989;28:117-20. (Pubitemid 19195674)
71. Wootton R, Soul-Lawton J, Rolan PE, et al. Comparison of the pharmacokinetics of lamotrigine in patients with chronic renal failure and healthy volunteers. Br J Clin Pharmacol. 1997;43:23-7. (Pubitemid 27060266)
72. Fillastre JP, Taburet AM, Fialaire A, et al. Pharmacokinetics of lamotrigine in patients with renal impairment: influence of haemodialysis. Drugs Exp Clin Res. 1993;19(1):25-32. (Pubitemid 23283687)
73. Chung JY, Cho JY, Yu KS, et al. Effect of the UGT2B15 genotype on the pharmacokinetics, pharmacodynamics, and drug interactions of intravenous lorazepam in healthy volunteers. Clin Pharmacol Ther. 2005;77(6):486-94.
74. Greenblatt DJ. Clinical pharmacokinetics of oxazepam and lorazepam. Clin Pharmacokinet. 1981;6(2):89-105. (Pubitemid 12212452)
75. Herman RJ, Chaudhary A, Szakacs CB. Disposition of lorazepam in Gilbert's syndrome: effects of fasting, feeding, and enterohepatic circulation. J Clin Pharmacol. 1994;34(10):978-84.
76. Morrison G, Chiang ST, Koepke HH, et al. Effect of renal impairment and hemodialysis on lorazepam kinetics. Clin Pharmacol Ther. 1984;35:646-52. (Pubitemid 14108750)
77. Anderson GD, Saneto RP. Current oral and non-oral routes of antiepileptic drug delivery. Adv Drug Deliv Rev. 2012;64(10):911-8.
78. Trouvin JH, Farinotti R, Haberer JP, et al. Pharmacokinetics of midazolam in anaesthetized cirrhotic patients. Br J Anaesth. 1988;60(7):762-7.
79. Pentikainen PJ, Valisalmi L, Himberg JJ, et al. Pharmacokinetics of midazolam following intravenous and oral administration in patients with chronic liver disease and in healthy subjects. J Clin Pharmacol. 1989;29(3):272-7. (Pubitemid 19087927)
80. MacGilchrist AJ, Birnie GG, Cook A, et al. Pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of intravenous midazolam in patients with severe alcoholic cirrhosis. Gut. 1986;27(2):190-5. (Pubitemid 16124115)
81. Chalasani N, Gorski JC, Patel NH, et al. Hepatic and intestinal cytochrome P450 3A activity in cirrhosis: effects of transjugular intrahepatic portosystemic shunts. Hepatology. 2001;34(6):1103-8. (Pubitemid 33096581)
82. McConn DJ 2nd, Lin YS, Mathisen TL, et al. Reduced duodenal cytochrome P450 3A protein expression and catalytic activity in patients with cirrhosis. Clin Pharmacol Ther. 2009;85(4):387-93.
83. Vinik HR, Reves JG, Greenblatt DJ, et al. The pharmacokinetics of midazolam in chronic renal failure patients. Anesthesiology. 1983;59:390-4. (Pubitemid 14227510)
84. Bajpai M, Roskos LK, Shen DD, et al. Roles of cytochrome P4502C9 and cytochrome P4502C19 in the stereoselective metabolism of phenytoin to its major metabolites. Drug Metab Dispos. 1996;24:1401-3. (Pubitemid 26427180)
85. Blaschke TF, Meffin PJ, Melmon KL, et al. Influence of acute viral hepatitis on phenytoin kinetics and protein binding. Clin Pharmacol Ther. 1975;17(6):685-91.
86. Kumar R, Chawla YK, Garg SK, et al. Pharmacokinetics of omeprazole in patients with liver cirrhosis and extrahepatic portal venous obstruction. Methods Find Exp Clin Pharmacol. 2003;25(8):625-30. (Pubitemid 37448678)
87. Adedoyin A, Arns PA, Richards WO, et al. Selective effect of liver disease on the activities of specific metabolizing enzymes: investigation of cytochromes P450 2C19 and 2D6. Clin Pharmacol Ther. 1998;64(1):8-17. (Pubitemid 28377325)
88. Pique JM, Feu F, de Prada G, et al. Pharmacokinetics of omeprazole given by continuous intravenous infusion to patients with varying degrees of hepatic dysfunction. Clin Pharmacokinet. 2002;41(12):999-1004. (Pubitemid 35168439)
89. Friel PN, Ojemann GA, Rapport RL, et al. Human brain phenytoin: correlation with unbound and total serum concentrations. Epilepsy Res. 1989;3(1):82-5. (Pubitemid 19009374)
90. Anderson GD, Pak C, Doane KW, et al. Revised Winter-Tozer equation for normalized phenytoin concentrations in trauma and elderly patients with hypoalbuminemia. Ann Pharmacother. 1997;31:279-84. (Pubitemid 27114351)
91. Reidenberg MM, Odar-Cederlof I, von Bahr C, et al. Protein binding of diphenylhydantoin and desmethylimipramine in plasma from patients with poor renal function. N Engl J Med. 1971;285(5):264-7.
92. Blum MR, Riegelman S, Becker CE. Altered protein binding of diphenylhydamtoin in uremic plasma. N Engl J Med. 1972;286(2):109.
93. Letteri JM, Mellk H, Louis S, et al. Diphenylhydantoin metabolism in uremia. N Engl J Med. 1971;285(12):648-52.
94. Mauro LS, Mauro VF, Bachmann KA, et al. Accuracy of two equations in determining normalized phenytoin concentrations. DICP. 1989;23(1):64-8. (Pubitemid 19078091)
95. Glauser T, Kluger G, Sachdeo R, et al. Rufinamide for generalized seizures associated with Lennox-Gastaut syndrome. Neurology. 2008;70(21):1950-8.
96. Bialer M, Johannessen SI, Kupferberg HJ, et al. Progress report on new antiepileptic drugs: a summary of the Fifth Eilat Conference (EILAT V). Epilepsy Res. 2001;43:11-58. (Pubitemid 32008536)
97. BANZEL™: product information. Woodcliff Lake: Eisai Co., Ltd; 2011.
98. Chiron C. Stiripentol. Neurotherapeutics. 2007;4(1):123-5. (Pubitemid 46127461)
99. Levy RH, Loiseau P, Guyot M, et al. Michaelis-Menten kinetics of stiripentol in normal humans. Epilepsia. 1984;25:486-91. (Pubitemid 14050144)
100. Moreland TA, Astoin J, Lepage F, et al. The metabolic fate of stiripentol in man. Drug Metab Dispos. 1986;14:654-62. (Pubitemid 17202402)
101. Luer MS, Rhoney DH. Tiagabine: a novel antiepileptic drug. Ann Pharmacother. 1998;32:1173-80. (Pubitemid 28543464)
102. 14C-Tiagabine in humans [abstract]. Epilepsia. 1992;33(Suppl 3):83.
103. 14C] tiagabine by human hepatic microsomes [abstract]. Epilepsia. 1995;36(Suppl 3):S158-9.
104. Thompson MS, Groes L, Schwietert H, et al. An open label sequence listed two period crossover pharmacokinetic trial evaluating the possible interaction between tiagabine and erythromycin during multiple administration to healthy volunteers [abstract]. Epilepsia. 1997;38(Suppl 3):64.
105. Lau AH, Gustavson LE, Sperelakis R, et al. Pharmacokinetics and safety of tiagabine in subjects with various degrees of hepatic function. Epilepsia. 1997;38:445-51. (Pubitemid 27172025)
106. Cato A 3rd, Gustavson LE, Qian J, et al. Effect of renal impairment on the pharmacokinetics and tolerability of tiagabine. Epilepsia. 1998;39:43-7. (Pubitemid 28116840)
107. Levy RH, Shen DD, Abbott FS, et al. Valproic acid: chemistry, biotransformation and pharmacokinetics. In: Levy RH, Mattson RH, Meldrum BS, Perrucca E, editors. Antiepileptic drugs. 5th ed. Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins; 2002. p. 780-800.
108. Cramer JA, Mattson RH, Bennett DM, et al. Variable free and total valproic acid concentrations in sole- and multidrug therapy. Ther Drug Monit. 1986;8:411-5. (Pubitemid 17215854)
109. Klotz U, Rapp T, Muller WA. Disposition of valproic acid in patients with liver disease. Eur J Clin Pharmacol. 1978;13:55-60. (Pubitemid 8291469)
110. Zimmerman CL, Patel IH, Levy RH, et al. Protein binding of valproic acid in the presence of elevated free fatty acids in patient and normal human serum. Epilepsia. 1981;22(1):11-7. (Pubitemid 11190151)
111. Bruni J, Wang LH, Marbury TC, et al. Protein binding of valproic acid in uremic patients. Neurology. 1980;30(5):557-9. (Pubitemid 10112819)
112. Fattore C, Perucca E. Novel medications for epilepsy. Drugs. 2011;71(16):2151-78.
113. Bialer M, Soares-da-Silva P. Pharmacokinetics and drug interactions of eslicarbazepine acetate. Epilepsia. 2012;53(6):935-46.
114. Almeida L, Potgieter JH, Maia J, et al. Pharmacokinetics of eslicarbazepine acetate in patients with moderate hepatic impairment. Eur J Clin Pharmacol. 2008;64(3):267-73.
115. Maia J, Almeida L, Falcao A, et al. Effect of renal impairment on the pharmacokinetics of eslicarbazepine acetate. Int J Clin Pharmacol Ther. 2008;46(3):119-30. (Pubitemid 351721154)
116. Bachmann K, He Y, Sarver JG, et al. Characterization of the cytochrome P450 enzymes involved in the in vitro metabolism of ethosuximide by human hepatic microsomal enzymes. Xenobiotica. 2003;33(3):265-76. (Pubitemid 36408195)
117. Buchanan RA, Kinkel AW, Smith TC. The absorption and excretion of ethosuximide. Int J Clin Pharmacol. 1973;7(2):213-8.
118. Marbury TC, Lee CS, Perchalski RJ, et al. Hemodialysis clearance of ethosuximide in patients with chronic renal disease. Am J Hosp Pharm. 1981;38(11):1757-60. (Pubitemid 12254158)
119. Palmer K, McTavish D. Felbamate: a review of its pharmacodynamic and pharmacokinetic properties, and therapeutic efficacy in epilepsy. Drugs. 1993;45:1041-65. (Pubitemid 23219076)
120. FELBATOL™: product information. Somerset: MEDA Pharmaceuticals, Inc.; 2011.
121. Glue P, Sulowicz W, Colucci R, et al. Single-dose pharmacokinetics of felbamate in patients with renal dysfunction. Br J Clin Pharmacol. 1997;44(1):91-3. (Pubitemid 27296801)
122. Cawello W, Fuhr U, Hering U, et al. Impact of impaired renal function on the pharmacokinetics of the antiepileptic drug lacosamide. Clin Pharmacokinet. 2013;52(10):897-906.
123. Strolin Benedetti M, Whomsley R, Nicolas JM, et al. Pharmacokinetics and metabolism of 14C-levetiracetam, a new antiepileptic agent, in healthy volunteers. Eur J Clin Pharmacol. 2003;59(8-9):621-30. (Pubitemid 37494530)
124. Brockmoller J, Thomsen T, Wittstock M, et al. Pharmacokinetics of levetiracetam in patients with moderate to severe liver cirrhosis (Child-Pugh classes A, B, and C): characterization by dynamic liver function tests. Clin Pharmacol Ther. 2005;77(6):529-41. (Pubitemid 40824966)
125. Keppra™: product information. Smyrna: UCB, Inc; 2009.
126. French J. Use of levetiracetam in special populations. Epilepsia. 2001;42(Suppl 4):40-3. (Pubitemid 32802087)
127. Theisohn M, Heimann G. Disposition of the antiepileptic drug oxcarbazepine and its metabolites in healthy volunteers. Eur J Clin Pharmacol. 1982;22:545-51. (Pubitemid 12059201)
128. May TW, Korn-Merker E, Rambeck B. Clinical pharmacokinetics of oxcarbazepine. Clin Pharmacokinet. 2003;42(12):1023-42. (Pubitemid 37186675)
129. Rouan MC, Lecaillon JB, Godbillon J, et al. The effect of renal impairment on the pharmacokinetics of oxcarbazepine and its metabolites. Eur J Clin Pharmacol. 1994;47:161-7. (Pubitemid 24314737)
130. Franco V, Crema F, Iudice A, et al. Novel treatment options for epilepsy: focus on perampanel. Pharmacol Res. 2013;70(1):35-40.
131. Anderson GD. Phenobarbital: chemistry, biotransformation and pharmacokinetics. In: Levy RH, Mattson RH, Meldrum BS, Perrucca E, editors. Antiepileptic drugs. 5th ed. Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins; 2002. p. 496-503.
132. Hargraves JA, Howald WN, Racha JK, et al. Identification of enzymes responsible for the metabolism of phenobarbital [abstract]. Int Soc Stud Xenobiotics Proc. 1996;10:259.
133. Alvin J, McHorse T, Hoyumpa A, et al. The effect of liver disease in man on the disposition of phenobarbital. J Pharmacol Exp Ther. 1975;192:224-35.
134. Tompson DJ, Crean CS. Clinical pharmacokinetics of retigabine/ezogabine. Curr Clin Pharmacol. Epub 2013 Jan 15.
135. Hempel R, Schupke H, McNeilly PJ, et al. Metabolism of retigabine (D-23129), a novel anticonvulsant. Drug Metabol Dispos. 1999;27(5):613-22. (Pubitemid 29214474)
136. Hermann R, Borlak J, Munzel U, et al. The role of Gilbert's syndrome and frequent NAT2 slow acetylation polymorphisms in the pharmacokinetics of retigabine. Pharmacogenomics J. 2006;6(3):211-9. (Pubitemid 43811572)
137. ®: product information. Research Triangle Park: GlaxoSmithKline; 2013.
138. Doose DR, Walker SA, Gisclon LG, et al. Single-dose pharmacokinetics and effect of food on the bioavailability of topiramate, a novel antiepileptic drug. J Clin Pharmacol. 1996;36(10):884-91. (Pubitemid 26384477)
139. Britzi M, Soback S, Isoherranen N, et al. Analysis of topiramate and its metabolites in plasma and urine of healthy subjects and patients with epilepsy by use of a novel liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry assay. Ther Drug Monit. 2003;25(3):314-22. (Pubitemid 36638177)
140. TOPAMAX™: product information. Titusville: Janssen Pharmaceuticals, Inc.; 2011.
141. Doose DR, Streeter AJ. Topiramate: chemistry, biotransformation and pharmacokinetics. In: Levy RH, Mattson RH, Meldrum BS, Perrucca E, editors. Antiepileptic drugs. 5th ed. Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins; 2002. p. 727-34.
142. Gisclon LG, Curtin CR. The pharmacokinetics of topiramate in subjects with end-stage renal disease undergoing hemodialysis [abstract]. Clin Pharmacol Ther. 1994;55(2):196.
143. Sills G, Brodie M. Pharmacokinetics and drug interactions with zonisamide. Epilepsia. 2007;48(3):435-41. (Pubitemid 46365198)
144. ®: product information. San Francisco: Elan Pharmaceuticals; 2002.
145. Schentag JJ, Gengo FM, Wilton JH, et al. Influence of phenobarbital, cimetidine, and renal disease on zonisamide kinetics [abstract]. Pharm Res. 1987;4(Suppl. 4):S79.
146. Bryantt AE, Dreifuss FE. Hepatotoxicity associated with antiepileptic drug therapy. CNS Drugs. 1995;4(2):99-113.
147. Zaccara G, Franciotta D, Perucca E. Idiosyncratic adverse reactions to antiepileptic drugs. Epilepsia. 2007;48(7):1223-44. (Pubitemid 47063067)
148. Handoko KB, van Puijenbroek EP, Bijl AH, et al. Influence of chemical structure on hypersensitivity reactions induced by antiepileptic drugs: the role of the aromatic ring. Drug Saf. 2008;31(8):695-702. (Pubitemid 352019567)
149. Hirsch LJ, Arif H, Nahm EA, et al. Cross-sensitivity of skin rashes with antiepileptic drug use. Neurology. 2008;71(19):1527-34.
150. Bryant AE 3rd, Dreifuss FE. Valproic acid hepatic fatalities. III. U.S. experience since 1986. Neurology. 1996;46(2):465-9. (Pubitemid 26081333)
151. Appleton RE, Farrell K, Applegarth DA, et al. The high incidence of valproate hepatotoxicity in infants may relate to familial metabolic defects. Can J Neurol Sci. 1990;17(2):145-8. (Pubitemid 20177528)
152. Krahenbuhl S, Brandner S, Kleinle S, et al. Mitochondrial diseases represent a risk factor for valproate-induced fulminant liver failure. Liver. 2000;20(4):346-8. (Pubitemid 30488006)
153. Koenig SA, Buesing D, Longin E, et al. Valproic acid-induced hepatopathy: nine new fatalities in Germany from 1994 to 2003. Epilepsia. 2006;47(12):2027-31. (Pubitemid 44952253)
154. Dickinson RG, Bassett ML, Searle J, et al. Valproate hepatotoxicity: a review and report of two instances in adults. Clin Exp Neurol. 1985;21:79-91.
155. Yamamoto Y, Takahashi Y, Imai K, et al. Risk factors for hyperammonemia in pediatric patients with epilepsy. Epilepsia. 2013;54(6):983-9.
156. Yamamoto Y, Takahashi Y, Suzuki E, et al. Risk factors for hyperammonemia associated with valproic acid therapy in adult epilepsy patients. Epilepsy Res. 2012;101(3):202-9.
157. Knights MJ, Finlay E. The effects of sodium valproate on the renal function of children with epilepsy. Pediatr Nephrol. Epub 2013 May 30.
158. Unay B, Akin R, Sarici SU, et al. Evaluation of renal tubular function in children taking anti-epileptic treatment. Nephrology. 2006;11(6):485-8. (Pubitemid 44951226)
159. Verrotti A, Greco R, Pascarella R, et al. Renal tubular function in patients receiving anticonvulsant therapy: a long-term study. Epilepsia. 2000;41(11):1432-5.
160. Lamb EJ, Stevens PE, Nashef L. Topiramate increases biochemical risk of nephrolithiasis. Ann Clin Biochem. 2004;41(Pt 2):166-9. (Pubitemid 38523607)
161. Mahmoud AA, Rizk T, El-Bakri NK, et al. Incidence of kidney stones with topiramate treatment in pediatric patients. Epilepsia. 2011;52(10):1890-3.
162. Kubota M, Nishi-Nagase M, Sakakihara Y, et al. Zonisamide - induced urinary lithiasis in patients with intractable epilepsy. Brain Dev. 2000;22(4):230-3. (Pubitemid 30323835)
163. Miyamoto A, Sugai R, Okamoto T, et al. Urine stone formation during treatment with zonisamide. Brain Dev. 2000;22(7):460.
164. Lockwood AH, Yap EW, Wong WH. Cerebral ammonia metabolism in patients with severe liver disease and minimal hepatic encephalopathy. J Cereb Blood Flow Metabol. 1991;11(2):337-41.
165. Sotaniemi EA, Rautio A, Backstrom M, et al. CYP3A4 and CYP2A6 activities marked by the metabolism of lignocaine and coumarin in patients with liver and kidney diseases and epileptic patients. Br J Clin Pharmacol. 1995;39(1):71-6.
166. Chalon SA, Desager JP, Desante KA, et al. Effect of hepatic impairment on the pharmacokinetics of atomoxetine and its metabolites. Clin Pharmacol Ther. 2003;73(3):178-91. (Pubitemid 36269669)