Industrial Organic Chemicals: Third Edition

Industrial Organic Chemicals: Third Edition

Volumn , Issue , 2013, Pages

  Wittcoff, Harold A ^c   Reuben, Bryan G ^a   Plotkin, Jeffrey S ^b  

^a LONDON SOUTH BANK UNIVERSITY   (United Kingdom)

^b NEXANT INC   (United States)

^c NONE

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 84891584138     PISSN: None     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book    
DOI: 10.1002/9781118229996     Document Type: Book

References (490)

1. http://factfinder.census.gov/servlet/SAFFEconFacts?_sse=on&_submenuI d=business_1.
2. T. Hartung and C. Rovida, Chemical regulators have overreached. Opinion, Nature, vol. 460, 27 August 2009; ECHA-New study inaccurate on the number of test animals for REACH, Helsinki, 28 August 2009.
3. The differences between the United States and Western Europe regarding chemicals registration are discussed in Chem. Eng. News, 11 February 2008.
4. See for example, C. F. Cranor, Legally Poisoned, Cambridge MA: Harvard University Press, 2011.
5. B. G. Reuben, Chem. Ind. in press.
6. C. Everett Koop's attack on phony chemical scares appeared in the Wall Street Journal, 22 June 1999 and there was a counterblast at www.mindfully.org.pesticide
7. Based on B . T. Mossman et al., Science, 1 9 Janu a ry 1990; s ee also http://spiderjohnson.com/asbestos.html.
8. London Times, 21 January 2011, p. 42.
9. ICIS News, 21 April 2011, http://www.icis.com/Articles/2011/04/21/9454636/dow-chemical-to-build-ne w-us-cracker-for-start-up-in-2017.html.
10. http://www.altassets.com/pdfs/EYchecmicalsjune04.pdf.
11. http://www.huntsman.com/eng/Aboutus/Brief_history/History_in_the_00's/in dex.cfm?pageID=7431.
12. In 2004, the European Union expanded from 15 to 27 countries, with the accession of eastern European states.
13. We are indebted to Dr Michael Derenenberg for discussions on the transportation of chemicals, and to Jan Fraser-Jenkins of Marsoft for information on rates.
14. DWT (d.w.t. or, D.W.T., dwt) is the so-called deadweight tonnage and is a measure of how much weight a ship is carrying or can safely carry. It is the sum of the weights of cargo, fuel, fresh water, ballast water, provisions, passengers, and crew.
15. Some basic information can be viewed by googling "ARG ethylene pipeline" for the gas section. ARG has data on pipeline costs versus overland/seaborne costs.
16. http://www.eia.doe.gov/emeu/security/oilflow2.gif.
17. Piracy in the Strait of Malacca , http://en.wikipedia.org.
18. J. Bahadur, Deadly Waters: Inside the Hidden World of Somalia's Pirates, London: Profile, 2011.
19. F. Gibb, London Times, 7 April 2011.
20. British Petroleum Company, Our Industry-Petroleum, 5th ed., 1977, is practically an antique but still contains useful information and is available through Amazon.
21. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LNG_carrier.
22. http://www.theodora.com/pipelines/world_oil_gas_and_products_pipelines.h tml.
23. http://bluebox.bohmann.at/24/downloads/download4578.pdf.
24. www.stoltnielsen.com
25. We are indebted to Essberger ( www.essberger.de) for this illustration.
26. Fred Doll, Oils and Fats International, July 2007, 26,29,30.
27. ICIS.com 3 June 2011.
28. SSY Consultancy and Research Ltd, January 2011.
29. The World Bank, World Bank, GGFR Partners Unlock Value of Wasted Gas, World Bank 14 December 2009.
30. BakerHughes.com has Excel files enumerating drilling rigs.
31. http://www.bp.com/liveassets/bp_internet/globalbp/STAGING/global_assets/ downloads/A/Andy_Inglis_spch_Lehman_Bro_Energy_Pwr_Conf.pdf details the search for shale gas and features Andy Inglis, who has since left BP.
32. http://investor.shareholder.com/bhi/index.cfm.
33. Chem. Eng. News, 31 May 2010, p. 4.
34. Chem. Eng. News, 31 May 2010, p. 42.
35. http://geology.com/articles/marcellus-shale.shtml.
36. M. Burke, Chem. Ind., 11 April 2011, pp. 25-27; TIME magazine, 31 March 2011; and many articles elsewhere.
37. Discovery magazine, http://news.discovery.com/earth/hydrofracking-shalemethane-leak-in-wells -110511.html.
38. CHEMTECH, 2 March 1976, p. 180.
39. Ethylene production technologies and cost of production economics are discussed in Nexant ChemSystems PERP report 00/01-4, Ethylene/Propylene (June 2001).
40. Methods of costing are discussed in Appendix A.
41. The problems of the European industry are discussed in B. G. Reuben and H. A.Wittcoff, Europe: swings and roundabouts, Chem. Ind. 2001, pp. 577-581. A U.S. perspective is provided by A. M. Thayer, Chem. Eng. News, 13 March 2000, pp. 20-24.
42. A. M. Rouhi, Chem Eng. News, 23 December 2002, pp. 29-33 and 34-38.
43. Propylene via metathesis of ethylene and butylenes is described in J. Cosyns and C. Cameron, Maximizing Propylene from Ethylene and 2-Butene: The Meta-4 Process ChemSystems Annual European Seminar, London, 12-13 February 1997.
44. Also, S. Stanley and M. Shreehan, Improving Steam Cracker Economics by Olefin Metathesis, Chem-Systems Annual U.S. Conference, 28-29 January 1998.
45. J. S. Plotkin, Catalysis Today, 106, 10-14, 2005.
46. A. Hoveyda et al., Nature, 471, 461, 2011.
47. A. Hoveyda et al., Chem. Ind., 11 April 2011, p. 9.
48. An early article on the effect of unleaded gasoline on the chemical industry is H.Wittcoff, J. Chem. Ed., 64, 773, 1987.
49. http://www.chemsystems.com/about/cs/news/items/PERP0607S12_MTBE.cfm.
50. For more detail see http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oil_sands.
51. Use of hydrocracking on residues from petroleum distillation as well as coal-derived liquids, shale oil, and tar sands is described in an article in Chem.Week, 18 February 1976, p. 69.
52. London Times, 11 February 2011, p. 57.
53. Nexant ChemSystems PERP report 08/09-1, LDPE (December, 2009).
54. See D. L. Lind and S. P. Saunders, The Physics of Skiing, American Institute of Physics, Woodbury, NY, 1997
55. P. Walter, Chem. Ind. 26 July 2010. The K2 Skibook, Some Information on the Technical Aspects of Skis, K2 Corporation, Vashon, WA, is excellent but not generally available.
56. Chemistry World, 31 March 2008.
57. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Braskem.
58. http://www.biofuelstp.eu/butanol.html.
59. See also A. Brownstein, ECN 2-8 October 2000, pp. 29-30.
60. M. J. Overett et al., J. Am. Chem. Soc., 127, 10723, 2005.
61. Chem. Eng. News, 13 December 2010, p. 17.
62. The SHOP process has been described in detail by B. G. Reuben and H. A. Wittcoff, J. Chem. Ed., 65, 605, 1988.
63. Key patents covering EVC's ethane to VCM process are: WO 95/07249 (16 March 1995), WO 95/07250 (16 March 1995), WO 95/07251 (16 March 1995), and WO 95/07252 (16 March 1995) all to EVC Technology AG.
64. Parshall's statement about the Wacker reaction is to be found in his book Homogeneous Catalysis, Wiley, Hoboken, NJ, 1980, p. 102.
65. Showa Denko's process for the direct oxidation of ethylene to acetic acid is described in U.S. Patent 5, 405,996 (11 April 1995) to Show Denko.
66. BP's fluidized bed reactor process for making vinyl acetate is described in U.S. Patent 6,180,821 (30 January 2001) and U.S. Patent 5,817,866 (6 October 1998) both to BP Chemicals Ltd.
67. U.S. Patent 6,448,432 to BP Chemicals, 10 September 2002.
68. http://www.chemsystems.com/about/cs/news/items/Polyester%20Intermediates %20Market%20Dynamics.cfm, http://www.slideshare.net/josermbo/ssp.
69. Union Carbide's process for converting ethylene oxide to ethylene glycol via the carbonate is described in five British patents: 2,011400; 2,011401; 2,011402; 2,010685, 2,010694.
70. The conversion with a vanadate or molybdate catalyst is described in International Patent Application WO85/04393 (10 October 1985) to Union Carbide.
71. http://www.managers.org.cn/mag/doc/ucman201001/ucman20100104.pdf,A. S. Abdul Rahim, M. A. Zariyawati, and H. O. Mohd Shahwahid, Short run and long run effects of the world crude oil prices on the Malaysian natural rubber and palm oil export prices, Journal of US-China Public Administration, 7, 34-41, 2010.
72. The Dowapproach for making styrene via butadiene cyclodimerization is described in U.S. Patent 5,276,257 (4 January 1994) to Dow Chemical.
73. http://www.icis.com/Articles/2011/01/10/9424069/c1-based-advancesboost-f eedstocks.html.
74. The BP ethyl acetate process is described in ECN, 10-16 December 2001, p. 27.
75. http://www.pjoes.com/pdf/17.5/727-731.pdf.
76. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DABCO.
77. N. Cherry, H. Moore, R. McNamee, A. Pacey, G. Burgess, J.-A. Clyma, M. Dippnall, H. Baillie, and A. Povey, Occupation and male infertility: glycol ethers and other exposures, Occup. Environ. Med., 65 (10), 708, 2008. Their results are challenged in a letter to the same journal from P. J. Boogaard and G. M. H. Swaen, 11 July 2008.
78. http://www.sriconsulting.com/CEH/Public/Reports/663.5000/.
79. The Nippon Shokubai process is mentioned in European Chemical News, 9-15 April 2001, p. 43.
80. Chlorinated solvent sales data are taken from Chem. Brit. March 2003, p. 14. The ICI-Linde joint project is described in Chem. Eng. News, 2 September 2002, p. 12.
81. http://www.washpoint.com/.
82. B. G. Reuben, An industry under threat? Chem. Ind., 547-552, 1999.
83. J. Mark Houdek and J. Andersen, "On-Purpose" Propylene -Technology Developments, UOP LLC, 25 East Algonquin Road, Des Plaines, Illinois, USA. See also Nexant ChemSystems PERP report 97/98S3, Routes to Propylene (July 2000).
84. Catalysts and operating conditions for deep catalytic cracking process is described in European Patent 0 305 720 B1 (13 April 1994) assigned to RIPP and Sinopec.
85. A. H. Tullo, Chem. Eng. News, 18 October 2010, pp. 10-16.
86. For example, U.S. Patent 6,043,184 (28 March 2000) to Sunoco and Rohm and Haas.
87. Johnathan E. Holladay, Michael A. Lilga, and Todd A. Werpy, iic.pnl.gov/abstracts/nacs/o_109.pdf).
88. World Patent 2009/045637 (9 April 2009) to Genomatica, Inc.
89. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grubbs'_catalyst.
90. Chem. Eng. News, 22 December 2008.
91. U.S. Patent Application 2008/0183013 A1 (31 July, 2008) to Arkema.
92. Chem. Ind., 2 September 2002, p. 12, and www.celanese.com/celanese_in_depth_2001_chemical_intermediates.pdf .
93. Patents with promising results are U.S. Patent 5,895,635 (20 April 1999) to Standard Oil Company and Japanese Patent 10-028862 (3 February 1998) to Mitsubishi Chemical Corporation.
94. The ICI route to hexamethylene diamine via acrylonitrile coupling has been described in Chemical Week, 7 March 1990, p. 9.
95. For an overview see Nexant ChemSystems PERP report 01/02-2, Phenol/Acetone/Cumene (September 2002). Also H. Wittcoff, J. Chem. Ed. 56, 810, 1979.
96. The Sumitomo technology is described in WO 03027087A1 (3 April 2003) to Sumitomo Chemical Company Limited.
97. Nexant ChemSystems PERP report 99/00-2, Methyl Methacrylate (September 2001) assesses the myriad approaches. See also M. Morgan, Eur. Chem. News, 11-17 February 2002, pp. 20-23.
98. U.S. Patent 6,042,472 (21 March 2000) to Asahi Kasei Kogyo Kabushiki Kaishsa.
99. ICI/INEOS methyl propionate/condensation reaction is described in WO 99/52628 (21 October 1999) to Imperial Chemical Industries, PLC.
100. Nexant ChemSystems PERP report 08/09-7, Methyl Methacrylate , March 2010. http://www.icis.com/Articles/2010/10/25/9403882/aveneer-key-toevoniks-fu ture.html.
101. Newroutes to propylene oxide are summarized by S. Robinson, European Chemical News, 5-11 March 2001, pp. 19-20.
102. The use of hydrogen peroxide as an oxidant to make propylene oxide is described in WO 03011845A1 (1 February 2003) to BASF.
103. http://www.solvay.com/EN/NewsPress/Documents/2008/20080930_Investorsday_ E.Mignonat.pdf.
104. http://www.solvay.com/EN/NewsPress/Documents/2008/20080930_Investorsday_ E.Mignonat.pdf.
105. http://www.inchem.org/documents/sids/sids/pges.pdf.
106. Chem. Eng. News, 10 October 1988, p. 270.
107. U.S. Patent 6,008,419; (28 December 1999) to Dow Chemical Company.
108. Chem Week 7/14 February 2011, p. 21.
109. Industrial glycerol is known as glycerin or glycerine. We are reluctant to make this distinction and prefer glycerol, because the "ol" suffix hints at the presence of hydroxyl groups.
110. K. Rock, J. Almering, and S. Swart, Conversion of Acrylonitrile to Acrylamide via Catalytic Distillation, European Petrochemical Technology Conference, June 2001.
111. U.S. Patent 5,698,629 (16 December 1997) to Nitto Chemical.
112. This topic is reviewed in Nexant ChemSystems PERP report 99/00S13, Chemicals from Butadiene (January 2001) and PERP report 01/02-3, Butadiene/Butylenes (February 2003).
113. The difference between the traditional cross-ply and modern radial ply tires is described in H. A. Wittcoff and B. G. Reuben, Industrial Organic Chjemicals in Perspective, Vol. 2, p.138, Hoboken, NJ: Wiley, 1980, and in Wikipedia, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radial_tire.
114. http://www.specialchem4polymers.com/resources/latest/displaynews.aspx?id =3075.
115. N. Eisberg, Chem. Ind., 11 February 2008, pp. 21-23.
116. http://www.iisrp.com/WebPolymers/01FinalPolybutadieneVer2.pdf.
117. H. A. Wittcoff, J. Chem. Ed., 56, 654, 1979.
118. Rhone-Poulenc's work on converting butadiene to adipic acid is described in U.S. Patents 5,625,096 (29 April 1997) and 5,312,979 (17 May 1994). Butadiene-based approaches to adipic acid are described in joint patents to DuPont and DSM, European Patent 0 662 467B1 (6 May 1998) and U.S. Patents 5,710,325 (20 January 1998) and 5,840,959 (24 November 1998).
119. The dimerization of acrylonitrile is described in Chem. Week, 7 March 1990, p. 9, in European Patent Publication 0352007A2 (24 January 1990), and in U.S. Patent 4,958,042 (18 September 1990).
120. Patents describing the coproduction of caprolactam and HMDA include U.S. Patents 5,151,543 (29 September 1992) to DuPont and 5,496,941 (5 March 1996) to BASF and World Patent 96/20931 (11 July 1996) to BASF.
121. U.S. Patents 5,196,621 (23 March 1993) and 5,329,057 (12 July 1994) and World Patent 94/01385 (20 January 1994), all to Dow Chemical Co.
122. U.S. Patents 4,990,717 (5 February 1991), 5,073,670 (17 December 1991), and 5,510,563 (23 April 1996).
123. U.S. Patents 5,362,890 (8 November 1994) and 5,312,981 (17 May 1994) both to Eastman Chemical.
124. http://www.in-pharmatechnologist.com/Materials-Formulation/Biosuccinic-a cid-to-go-commercial; http://www.epa.gov/greenchemistry/pubs/pgcc/winners/sba11.html.
125. 5s (September 1999).
126. R. Teresi, Lost Discoveries, Simon & Schuster, New York, 2002, pp. 337-340.
127. D. Hostler et al., Science, 18 June 1999, pp. 1988-1989.
128. Nexant ChemSystems Process Evaluation/Research Planning (PERP) report 98/99S2, Isoprene (September 1999).
129. Nexant ChemSystems Process Evaluation/Research Planning (PERP) report 97/98S7, Dicyclopentadiene and Derivatives (August 1998).
130. Nexant ChemSystems PERP report 02/03-5, Benzene/Toluene (April 2003).
131. Oxidation of benzene to phenol maintaining a high product ratio is reviewed by J. Plotkin, ECN, 25 59-62, September-October 2000. The Japanese one-step palladium-catalyzed phenol process is described in European Chemical News, 14-20 January 2002, p. 23.
132. Patents describing the Boreskov, Institute of Catalysis' nitrous oxide based oxidation of benzene to phenol include: WO 95/27560 (12 April 1995) and WO 95/27561 (12 April 1995).
133. Solutia patented a fluidized-bed reactor for nitrous oxide oxidation of benzene to phenol; U.S. Patent 5,892, 132 (6 April 1999).
134. http://www.chemsystems.com/reports/search/docs/toc/98-3toc.pdf.
135. The Bayer route to dimethyl carbonate is described in U.S. patents 5,449,9806 (12 September 1995), 5,523,452 (4 June 1996), and 5,334,742 (2 August 1994) all to Bayer. Asahi has a patent that discloses the use of reactive distillation to effect the methanolyis of ethylene carbonate to dimethyl carbonate and ethylene glycol, U.S. Patent 5,847,189 (8 December 1998).
136. U.S. Patent 5,391,692.
137. www.nedo.go.jp/kiban/zairyo/eng/poly/poly005.html.
138. http://www.water-technology.net/projects/israel/; http://www.watertechnology.net/projects/hadera-desalination/.
139. http://www.epa.gov/greenchemistry/pubs/pgcc/winners/grca11.html.
140. Chem Week, 31 March 2010.
141. http://www.senseaboutscience.org.uk/index.php/site/other/515; P. Walter, Chem. Ind. 23 August 2010, p. 7.
142. D. C. MacLaren and M. A. White, J. Mater. Chem. 13, 1695-1700, 2003.
143. http://www.icis.com/v2/chemicals/9075207/cyclohexane/uses.html.
144. http://www.epa.gov/methane/pdfs/fulldocumentofdeveloped.pdf.
145. Japan Chemical Week, 28 September 1998, p. 2.
146. The University of North Carolina process for adipic acid via dimerization of methyl acrylate is disclosed in European Patent 0 475 386 B1 (9 August 1995).
147. http://www.chemsystems.com/reports/search/docs/abstracts/0405-3_abs.pdf.
148. Chem. Eng. News, 19 June 2000, p. 15 and 3 July 2000, p. 8.
149. Chem. Week, 3 August 1994, p 21.
150. Chemical Marketing Reporter, 16 October 2000.
151. 2 as cataloreactant, Chemsuschem 1, 393-396, 2008.
152. World Patent Application 00/09473; European Chemical News, 22-28 May 2000, p. 33.
153. Jeroem Vetter, http://beta.wewi.eldoc.ub.rug.nl/FILES/root/2010/asrtm/Rapport_Beta_2010 -5.pdf.
154. Limin Liu, Fang Li, YangjiWang, and Xinqiang Zhao, Chinese J. Catalysis, 28, 667-669, 2007.
155. Yixia Pei, Huiquan Li, Haiao Liu, and Yi Zhang, Catalysis Today, 148, 373-377, 2009.
156. Chem. Eng. News, 22 December 2008.
157. The consensus that DDT is wholly bad was debated at the Johannesburg negotiations. Some details are given at. www.sciencenews.org/20000701/bob2.asp. A fairly partisan website, www.malaria.org/DDTpage.html, provides an extensive bibliography and www.junkscience.co./ddtfaq.htm questions the evidence that DDT is responsible for the various problems with birds and their eggs. See also a collection of articles at www.malaria.org/DDTpage.html.
158. http://www.epa.gov/oppsrrd1/REDs/para-dichlorobenzene-red-revised.pdf.
159. Chem. Eng. News, 14 December 1992.
160. Mononitroresorcinol plus other fireworks chemistry is described in M. Russell, Rocket fuel, Chem. Brit. 38, 36-39, 2002.
161. J. Evans, Chem. Ind., 9 March 2009.
162. NexantChemSystems PERP report 02/03-5, Benzene/Toluene (April 2003).
163. UOP has issued a series of patents relating to improvements in toluene disproportionation and transalkylation technology: U.S. Patent 6,383,967 (7 May 2002), U.S. Patent 6,359, 185 (19 March 2002), U.S. Patent 6,191,331 (20 February 2001), U.S. Patent 6,355,852 (12 March 2002), U.S. Patent 6,008, 423 (28 December 1999), U.S. Patent 6,239,056 (29 March 2001), and U.S. 6,063,977 (16 May 2000).
164. http://www.icis.com/Articles/2011/01/10/9424069/c1-based-advancesboost-f eedstocks.html.
165. Nexant ChemSystems' PERP report 98/99S8, MDI/TDI.
166. http://www.chemsystems.com/about/cs/news/items/PERP%200708S9_TDI.cfm.
167. The economics of xylenes production is discussed in Nexant ChemSystems PERP report 01/02-7, Xylenes (May 2002).
168. http://www.axens.net/html-gb/offer/offer_services_24.html.php.
169. http://www.axens.net/upload/news/fichier/ptq_spring2004.pdf.
170. Nexant ChemSystems PERP report 94/95S14, meta-Xylene/Isophthalic Acid (February 1997). highlights UOP's MX Sorbex process and Mitsubishi Gas Chemical's HF/BF3 extraction process for separating and purifying m-xylene and production and uses for isophthalic acid.
171. http://www.icis.com/v2/chemicals/9076143/phthalic-anhydride/process.html .
172. Chemical Week, 11/18 April 2011, p. 27.
173. http://www.eng.buffalo.edu/Courses/ce435/2001ZGu/Phthalate_Plasticizers/ PhthalatePlasticizersReport.htm discusses the various points for and against DEHP.
174. H.R. 4040 -110th Congress (2007): Consumer Product Safety Improvement Act of 2008, GovTrack.us (database of federal legislation). Retrieved 14 August 2009.
175. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phthalate#cite_note-endo-0.
176. http://www.cpsc.gov/about/cpsia/chap/holt.pdf.
177. R. Navarro, M. P. Perrino, M.G Tardajos, and H. Reinecke, Macromolecules, 43, 2377-2381, 2010.
178. http://www.epa.gov/greenchemistry/pubs/pgcc/winners/dgca11.html.
179. http://www.ccponline.com/pdfs/GrChemNomination09.pdf;acs.confex.com/acs/ green09/recordingredirect.cgi/id/537.
180. Nexant ChemSystems PERP report 01/02-4, Terephthalic Acid (December 2002).
181. Nexant ChemSystems PERP report 99/00S4, Developments in PET Recycling (July 2000).
182. D. Birkett, Chem. Brit., 38, 28, July 2002.
183. H. Hansler, Chem. Ind., 2000, p. 429, deal especially with beer bottles. See also Nexant ChemSystems PERP report 00/01S1.
184. http://www.petcore.org/content/petcore-publishes-pet-collectionfigures-2 009-european-pet-bottle-collection-increases-more-.
185. http://plasticsnews.com/headlines2.html?id=20462.
186. Nexant ChemSystems PERP report 98/99S6, Polybutylene Terephthalate (July 1999).
187. The World Bank, World Bank, GGFR Partners Unlock Value of Wasted Gas, www.worldbank.org.
188. D. Reay and C. M. Hogan, Greenhouse Gas, eds. H. Hanson, M. L. Pidwirny, and C. J. Cleveland, Encyclopedia of Earth. National Council for Science and the Environment. Washington DC, 2011.
189. G. W. Gribble, The diversity of naturally occurring organobromine compounds, Chem. Soc. Rev., 28, 335-346, 1999.
190. Nexant ChemSystems special report, Chemicals from Acetylene. Back to the Future? July 2007.
191. Nexant ChemSystems PERP report 98/99S1, 1,4-Butanediol/THF (August 1998) provides detailed descriptions of routes and economics of 1,4-butanediol and THF.
192. http://www.epa.gov/greenchemistry/pubs/pgcc/winners/gspa11.html.
193. Chem. Eng. News, 29 November 2010, p. 24.
194. Nexant ChemSystems PERP report 98/99-4, Methanol (May 2000).
195. J. Haggin, Chem. Eng. News, 28, March 1994, p. 29
196. D. Rotman, Chem. Week, 23 March 1994, p. 14.
197. A comparison of the conventional Monsanto acetic acid process with the Celanese acid optimization process is given by M. Gauss et al., Appl. Homogen. Catal. Organ. Compd., 1, 104-138, 1996.
198. For Chiyoda's acetic acid process see U.S. Patents 5,334,755 (2 August 1994) and 5,364,963 (15 November 1994) both to Chiyoda.
199. K. Sano, H. Uchida, and S. Wakabayashi. A new process for acetic acid production by direct oxidation of ethylene. Catalysis Surveys from Asia, 3, 55-60, 1999. doi:10.1023/A:1019003230537.
200. http://media.rice.edu/images/media/Dateline/SpecialtyChemicalsMagazine06 09.pdf. Dr. Malcolm Joslin, BP, Saltend, (01482) 892513, personal communication.
201. Chem. & Eng. News, 22 December 2009.
202. Chem. Week, 17/24 January 2011, p.11.
203. Chem. Market Reporter, 19 May 2003.
204. The Eastman/Halcon process for acetic anhydride is described in West German Patents 2610035 (3 October 1976) and 2610036 (23 September 1976) both to Halcon.
205. http://nzic.org.nz/ChemProcesses/energy/7D.pdf.
206. http://www.exxonmobil.com/Apps/RefiningTechnologies/files/sellsheet_09_m tg_brochure.pdf.
207. For the mechanism of SAPO-34 MTO catalysis, see http://www.fhi-berlin.mpg.de/acnew/department/pages/teaching/pages/teach ing_wintersemester_2007_2008/bare_mto_301107.pdf; you may have to go as far as "department" and navigate from there, but it's worth it.
208. P. Tundo and M. Selva, The chemistry of dimethyl carbonate, Acc. Chem. Res., 35 (9), 706-16, 2002.
209. http://www.inchem.org/documents/sids/sids/malonates.pdf.
210. See Nexant ChemSystems' multiclient report, Stranded Gas Utilization (January 2001).
211. The potential economic impact of low cost stranded gas on various C1-based process technologies is discussed in Nexant ChemSystems PERP report 99/00S9, Extending the Methane Value Chain (October 2000).
212. Syntroleum's GTL technology is described in U.S. Patent 6,172,124 (9 January 2001). Rentech's GTL technology is described in U.S. Patent 6,534,552 (18 March 2003).
213. Japanese patents 189,249-250 (27 November 1981) to I. Masakazu describe the oxidation of methane with nitrous oxide to methanol and formaldehyde.
214. Mitsui Chemical's catalytic oxidation of ammonia to nitrous oxide is described in U.S. Patent 5,849,257 (15 December 1998).
215. Catalytica's mercury-based catalyst is described in U.S. Patent 5,305,855 (26 April 1994) and the platinum-based catalyst is described in World Patent 98/50333 (12 November 1998).
216. M. Ahlquist, R. A. Perianab, and W. A. Goddard III, Chem. Commun., 2373-2375, 2009.
217. E. Davies, Chemistry World, February 2009, pp. 51-54.
218. http://www.nano.org.uk/news/938/.
219. Chem. Week, 5 July 2010, p.15
220. Chem. Eng. News, 17 January 2011, p. 20.
221. EVC'S ethane to VCM process is described in a series of patents: EP 0 667 844B1 (4 February 1998), WO 95/07252 (16 March 1995), WO 95/07251 (16 March 1995), WO 95/07250 (16 March 1995), WO 95/07249 (16 March 1995).
222. http://www.icis.com/v2/chemicals/9076569/vinyl-chloride/process.html; ICIC Chemical Business, 17-23 January 2011.
223. E. E. Stangland, D. A. Hickman, M. E. Jones, M. M. Olken, and S. G. Podkolzin, http://www.nacatsoc.org/20nam/abstracts/O-S3-10.pdf
224. M. M. Olken, D. Hickman, and M. Jones, http://www.nacatsoc.org/20nam/abstracts/P-S2-01A.pdf.
225. http://www.icis.com/Articles/2000/11/14/126388/sabic-develops-newethane- oxidation-acetic-acid-process.html.
226. An early Monsanto patent isWest German Patent 2056,326. Mitsubishi Chemical patents on propane ammoxidation include U.S. Patent 5,750,760 (12 May 1998) andWO98/22421 (28 May 1998). Asahi Kasei patents on this subject include U.S. Patent 5,780,664 (14 July 1998) and U.S. Patent 5,663,113 (2 September 1997).
227. M. Olga Guerrero-Pérez, J. L. G. Fierro, M. A. Vicente, and M. A. Bañares, Chemistry of Materials, 19 (26), 6621-6628, 2007; Journal of Physical Chemistry C, 111 (3), 1315-1322, 2007.
228. Wei Zheng, ZhenxingYu, Ping Zhang,Yuhang Zhang, Hongying Fu, Xiaoli Zhang, Qiquan Sun and Xinguo Hu, J. Natural Gas Chem., 17 (2), 191-194, 2008.
229. U.S. Patent 6,541,664 (1 April 2003).
230. http://www.uop.com/objects/46%20Cyclar.pdf.
231. http://www.sriconsulting.com/CEH/Public/Reports/731.3000/.
232. G. Coyle, The Riches Beneath Our Feet: How Mining Shaped Britain, Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK, 2010.
233. C. O'Driscoll, Chem. Brit., April 2003, pp. 56-57.
234. M. McCoy, Chem. Eng. News, 8 May 2000, pp. 22-23.
235. J. Haggin, Chem. Eng. News, 23 August 1990, p. 27.
236. M. E. Dry, J. Chem. Technol. Biotechnol., 77, 43-50, 2001.
237. Catalysts for the Fischer-Tropsch reaction are discussed by R. D. Srivastava, V. U. S. Rao, G. Cinquegrane, and C. J. Stiegel, Hydrocarbon Processing, February 1990, p. 59. For modern developments, see M. Jacoby, Chem. Week, 27 April 2009, p. 37.
238. a-Olefins: Sasol inaugurates plant, plans major expansion, Chemical Week, 16 November 1994, p. 19.
239. Sasol: Tipping the Scales with On-purpose 1-Octene Production Technology, Presentation given by Sasol at The 7thWorld Congress of Chemical Engineering in Glasgow, July 2005; also http://www.chemsystems.com/about/cs/news/items/PERP%200506S10%20Octene%2 01.cfm).
240. Lummus paper presented at the 4th Asian Olefins Symposium, Phuket Thailand, 6-8 December 2004.
241. European Patent 0561779 B1.
242. http://www.chemsystems.com/about/cs/news/items/PERP%200607_5_AlphaOlefin s.cfm.
243. S. Milmo, Chem. Ind., 9 May 2011, pp. 17-19.
244. http://www.icis.com/Articles/2010/11/08/9407568/coal-to-chemicalsgains-u pper-hand.html.
245. C. Copley, Coal. In A.W. Clarke and J. A. Trinnaman (PDF). Survey of Energy Resources (21 ed.), World Energy Council, 2007, p. 7. Also, Underground Coal Gasification, http:en.wikipedia.en.
246. ChemSystems Special Report -Chemicals from Acetylene: Back to the Future? http://www.chemsystems.com/reports/search/docs/prospectus/MC06_Acetylene -Pros.pdf.
247. http://www.chemsystems.com/reports/search/docs/prospectus/STMC10_Coal_ME G.pdf.
248. http://chemsystems.cmail4.com/t/y/l/fjtlrd/ijyhtdhrh/i.
249. http://kpmg.com/CN/en/IssuesAndInsights/ArticlesPublications/Documents/V ision-sustainable-growth-201009-v3.pdf.
250. P. Walter, Chem. Ind., 28 September 2009, pp. 16-17.
251. For a mass of technical background, see the classic Bailey's Industrial Oil and Fat Products, 6th ed. F. Shahidi, ed. Wiley, Hoboken, NJ, 2005.
252. H. B. Patterson, Bleaching and Purifying Fats and Oils, American Oil Chemists' Society, Chicago, IL, 1993.
253. B. G. Reuben and H. A. Wittcoff, Pharmaceutical Chemicals in Perspective, Wiley, Hoboken, NJ, 1989, p. 325.
254. A. S. Carlsson, http://www.cyberlipid.org/fa/acid0001.htm.
255. http://www.scienceinthebox.com/en_UK/glossary/linalkysulp_en.html.
256. Chemistry World, December 2008, p. 24.
257. http://www.icis.com/blogs/green-chemicals/2010/11/glycerine-basedchems-i nvestme.html .
258. H. A. Wittcoff and B. G. Reuben, Industrial Organic Chemicals in Perspective, Vol. 2, Wiley, Hoboken, NJ, pp. 153-159.
259. S. T. Becket, The Science of Chocolate , RSC, Cambridge; 2008.
260. Marie Zarevucka and Zdenek Wimmer, Int. J. Mol. Sci., 9, 2447-2473, 2008.
261. We are grateful to Leendert Wesdorp of Unilever Foods for much of the story in Section 15.12.1.
262. http://www.harnisch.com/well/files/pdf/209/infant_nutrition.pdf.
263. K. Sundram, T. Karupaiah, and K. Hayes, Stearic acid-rich interesterified fat and trans-rich fat raise the LDL/HDL ratio and plasma glucose relative to palm olein in humans, Nutrition & Metabolism, 4, 3, 15 January 2007.
264. S. E. E. Berry, G. J. Miller, and T. A. B Sanders, The solid fat content of stearic acid-rich fats determines their postprandial effects, Am. J. Clin. Nutr. , 85, 1486-1494, 2007. http://www.ajcn.org/cgi/reprint/85/6/1486.pdf
265. Plant oils as feedstock alternatives to petroleum -A short survey of potential oil crop platforms, Biochimie, 91(6), 665-670, 2009. Epub 2009 April 16.
266. London Times, 1 March 2010, p. 3.
267. London Sunday Times, 11 April 2010, p. 9.
268. E. Johnson and R. Heinen, Chem. Ind., 23 April 2007, pp. 22-23.
269. H. Dillon, Chem. Ind., 11 October 2010, pp. 19-20.
270. http://acs.confex.com/recording/acs/green09/pdf/free/4db77adf5df9fff0d3c af5cafe28f496/session5771_1.pdf.
271. London Times, 21 June 2011, p. 32.
272. Statistics on sugar come from Sugar: World Markets and Trade, US Dept. of Agriculture, Foreign Agricultural Service, Circular Series FS-2-02, Washington DC.
273. We are indebted to Les Chislett, late of BP Chemicals, for details of Span and Tween manufacture.
274. A. Corma, O. de la Torre, M. Renz, and N. Villandier, Angew. Chem. Int. Ed., 50, 2375; 2011.
275. A. Corma, O. de la Torre, M. Renz, and N. Villandier Chem. Ind., 9 May 2011, p. 30.
276. The classic book on starch is Starch: Chemistry and Technology, eds. J. N. BeMiller and R. L. Whistler, Academic, London, 2009.
277. B. C. Saha, Hemicellulose bioconversion, J. Ind Microbiol Biotechnol., 30, 279-291, 2003.
278. Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry, 6th ed., editors, M. Bohnett and F. Ullmann, Wiley-VCH, Weinheim, 2003.
279. Riegel's Handbook of Industrial Chemistry, ed. J. A. Kent, Kluwer/Plenum, New York, 2003.
280. S. Desai, Chem. Ind., 25 January 2010.
281. The biosynthesis of 1,3-propanediol is described in numerous patents including U.S. Patents 6013494 (2000), 6428767 (2002), 6136576 (2000), 6468773 (2002), and U.S. Patent Applications 20020177197A1 (2002) and 20030040091A1 (2003).
282. Chem. Ind., 27 August 2007, p. 25.
283. R. Bud, The Uses of Life: A History of Biotechnology, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK, 1993.
284. J. Reinharz and Chaim Weizmann, The Making of a Statesman, Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK, 1993
285. See also R. Van Noorden, Chemistry World, January 2008, p. 21.
286. S. K. Ritter, Carbohydrate to hydrocarbon, Chem. Eng. News, 17 November 2008.
287. B. G. Reuben and H. A. Wittcoff, Pharmaceutical Chemicals in Perspective, Wiley, Hoboken, NJ, 1989, p. 329.
288. Chem. Eng. News, 14 December 1992.
289. J. S. Marchant, B. G. Reuben, and J. P. Alcock, Bread: A Slice of History, History Press, Stroud, Gloucestershire, 2008.
290. B. G. Reuben, and T. M. Coultate, Chemistry World, Food Special edition, 18-21 October 2009.
291. http://foodrecalls.blogspot.com/2009/04/fda-should-ban-bromatedflour.htm l .
292. http://www.cfsan.fda.gov/lrd/FCF136.html.
293. T. Shiba, K. Takeda, M. Yajima, and M. Tadano, Genes from Pseudomonas sp. strain BS involved in the conversion of L-2-amino-D2-thiazolin-4-carbonic acid to L-cysteine, Appl. Environ. Microbiol., May 2002, pp. 2179-2187.
294. http://www.icis.com/Articles/2010/11/01/9405154/brazilian-ethanolproduce rs-see-sweet-times-on-sustained.html.
295. http://www.chemistryinnovation.co.uk/roadmap/sustainable/files/dox/Techn ology%20Review%20Renewables.pdf; http://www.slideshare.net/guest5dedf5/biomass-program-overview; Top Value Added Chemicals From Biomass Volume I: Results of Screening for Potential Candidates, Sugars and Synthesis Gas, National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) (2004) 76 pages; http://www.chem.uu.nl/brew/BREW_Final_Report_September_2006.pdf (a solid and comprehensive work of 474 pages).
296. D. Pimentel and T. W. Patzek, Ethanol production using corn, switchgrass, and wood; biodiesel production using soybean and sunflower, Natural Resources Res., 14(1), March 2005
297. M. Wang, Agriculture Online, 28 March 2005.
298. H. Shapouri et al., U.S. Department of Agriculture, Economic Research Service, Office of Energy. Agricultural Economic Report No. 721.
299. http://minnesota.publicradio.org/display/web/2008/02/07/biofuelscost/.
300. Timothy Searchinger, Science, 326, 23 October 2009, doi: 10, 1126/Science. 1178797, reviewed by Elisabeth Rosenthal in the New York Times and supported in 2008 by an open letter to President Bush.
301. See M. B. Sticklen, Plant genetic engineering for biofuel production: towards affordable cellulosic ethanol, Nature Rev. Genetics, 9(6), 433-443, 2008
302. S. M. Hick, C. Griebel, and D. T. Restrepo, Mechanocatalysis for biomass-derived chemicals and fuels, Green Chemistry, 12(3), 468-474, 2010.
303. D. Harris and S. DeBolt, Synthesis, regulation and utilization of lignocellulosic biomass, Plant Biotehnol. J., 8(3), 244-262, 1010.
304. Scarcely a magazine is published without an item on this topic. See, for example, C. O'Driscoll, Chem. Ind., 22 June 2009, pp. 22-25 and http://green.autoblog.com/2010/04/12/ethanol-company-poet-says-cellulosi c-biofuel-coming-in-2012/.
305. ICIS Chem Business, 7-20 March 2011, p. 29.
306. Chem Week, 7-14 February 2011, p. 20.
307. E. Davies, Chemistry World, April 2009, pp. 40-43.
308. S. Aldridge, Chem. Ind., 26 July 2010, pp. 25-27.
309. A. Turley, Chem. Ind., 8 June 2009, p. 7.
310. P. G. Blommel and R. D. Cartright gave an account of this process in 2008 accessible from the Virent website, http://www.virent.com.
311. The data in Figure 17.1 are guesstimates based on Guide to the Business of Chemistry and Chem Eng. News, 5 July 2010.
312. http://web.itu.edu.tr/yusuf/photopolymerization.htm.
313. A charming video about comb and brush polymers will be found at http://wn.com/comb_polymers.
314. J. Urquhart, Chemistry World, 7 October 2010.
315. G. G. Hlatky, Olefin Polymerization by Metallocene Catalysts,Wiley, Hoboken, NJ, 2011.
316. G.M. Benedikt and B.L. Goodall, Metallocene Catalyzed Polymers, B.F. Goodrich, Brecksville, 1998
317. G. M. Benedikt, Metallocene Technology in Commercial Applications, Noyes, Geneva, 2000
318. Two-Volume set, Metallocene-Based Polyolefins, eds. J. Scheirs and W. Kaminsky, Wiley, Hoboken, NJ, 2000.
319. A. H. Tullo, Chem. Eng. News, 88, 10-16, (18 October 2010).
320. http://www.finewoodworking.com/pages/w00060.asp.
321. Details of the hyperbranched compound based on 1,3,5-benzenetricarboxylic acid come from www.nedo.go.jp/kiban/zairyo/eng/poly/poly005.html. See also Chem. & Eng. News, 6 September 1999.
322. http://www.pharmainfo.net/reviews/dendrimer-overview.
323. Chem. Eng. News, 20 December 2010, p.15.
324. G. Inzelt, Conducting Polymers, Springer, Berlin, 2008.
325. Handbook of Conducting Polymers, Vols.1,2, eds. T. A. Skotheim, R. L. Elsenbaumer, and J. R. Reynolds, Marcel Dekker, New York, 1998.
326. Semiconducting Polymers, eds. G.Hadziioannou and P. F. v. Hutten,Wiley-VCH,Weinheim, 2007.
327. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polythiophene#Chemical_synthesis.
328. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organic_photovoltaics.
329. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graphene#Transparent_conducting_electrodes.
330. P. Matyba et al., Graphene and mobile ions: The key to all-plastic, solution-processed lightemitting devices, ACS Nano 4, 637, 2010.
331. T. Krazit, http://news.techworld.com/applications/1403/plastic-semiconductor-ink-op ens-door-to-low-cost-rfid/.
332. M. Jacoby, Chem. Eng. News, 27 April 2009, p. 37.
333. A new book seems to cover very hands-on material in a mathematical manner, an unusual combination. It is R. I. Wijngaarden, R. K. Westerterp, and A. Kronberg, Industrial Catalysis: Optimizing Catalysts and Processes, Wiley-VCH, Weinheim, 2011.
334. The spread of A values in the compensation effect is reported by F. S. Feates, P. S. Harris, and B. G. Reuben, JCS Faraday Trans., 70, 2011, 1974.
335. http://www.platinummetalsreview.com/dynamic/article/view/54-1-61-62.
336. http://www.platinum.matthey.com/pgm-prices/price-charts/.
337. G. W. Parshall was DuPont's world expert on homogeneous catalysis. His accumulated wisdom has appeared in book form: G.W. Parshall and S. D. Ittel, Homogeneous Catalysis, Wiley, Hoboken, NJ, 1992.
338. Based on "Catalysts," Chem. Week , September 1999; Chem. Week Associates Custom Publication, 24 July 2002 and
339. Freedonia Group (Cleveland) report #2407 on world catalysts, 2008; Chem. Week, 4 May 2009.
340. C. O'Driscoll, Chem. Ind., 24 November 2008, pp. 19-21.
341. http://www.platinum.matthey.com/publications/market-data-tables/.
342. http://ww w.platin um.matthey.com/u ploaded_files/Int 2010/int 10_compl ete_p ublicati on.pdf.
343. Chem. Week, 4 May 2009.
344. Chem. Eng. News, 22 December 2008.
345. L. C. Gutberlet, R. J. Bertolacini, and S. G. Kukes, Design of a nickel-tungsten hydrocracking catalyst, Energy Fuels, 8 (1), 227-233, 1994.
346. The synthesis of vitamin A is described by H. A. Wittcoff and B. G. Reuben, Industrial Organic Chemicals in Perspective, Part II: Technology, Formulation and Use, Wiley, Hoboken, NJ, 1980, p. 373.
347. H. A. Wittcoff and B. G. Reuben, op. cit. p. 268.
348. V. Sunjic and M. J. Parnham, Organic Synthesis in Action, Springer, Basel, 2011.
349. http://www.scripps.edu/mb/barbas/antibody/updateantibody.html; http://www.documentroot.com/2010/03/catalytic-antibodies-simplyexplained . html.
350. J. M. Thomas et al., Angew. Chem. Int. Ed., 39, 2310 and 2313, 2000.
351. See also Chem. Eng. News, 3 July, 2000, p. 7.
352. J. C. Groen and J. Péres-Ramiréz, in Novel Concepts in Catalysis and Chemical Reactors, eds. A. Cybulski, J. A. Moulijn, and A. Stankiewicz, Wiley-VCH, Weinheim, 2010.
353. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metal-organic_framework.
354. http://www.rsc.org/delivery/_ArticleLinking/DisplayArticleForFree. cfm?doi=b511962f&JournalCode=JM.
355. S. I. Fujita, B. M. Bhanage, Y. Ikushima, M. Shirai, K. Torii, and M. Arai, Catalysis Lett. 79, 95-98, 2002.
356. K. Shu-Lung and L. Chiu-Jung, Water Quality Res. J. Canada, 41, 365-374, 2006.
357. E. V. Dehmlov and S. S. Dehmlov, Phase Transfer Catalysis, 3rd ed., VCH Verlag, Weinheim, 1993.
358. The penicillin esters are discussed in B. G. Reuben and H. A. Wittcoff, Pharmaceutical Chemicals in Perspective, Wiley, New York, 1989, p. 134.
359. Fluorous biphase catalysis has not yet been commercialized but a number of examples and a bibliography are given at www.organik.uni-erlangen.de/gladysz/research/flsuor.html .
360. T. Takei, T. Ishida, and M. Haruta, in Novel Concepts in Catalysis and Chemical Reactors , eds. A. Cybulski, J. A. Moulijn, and A. Stankiewicz, Wiley-VCH, Weinheim, 2010.
361. T. Keel, Chem. Ind., 10 May 2010, pp. 24-26.
362. G. A. Somorjai, H., Frei, and J. Y. Park, Advancing the Frontiers in Nanocatalysis, Biointerfaces, and Renewable Energy Conversion by Innovations of Surface Techniques, http://scale.kaist.ac.kr/pdf/JACS09%20Perspective%20Somorjai%20Frei %20Park%20%5B61%5D.pdf (accessed 4 November 2009).
363. Nat. Chem ., doi:10.1038/nchem.288;
364. H. Lng, R. A. May, B. L. Iverson, and B. D. Chandler, J. Am. Chem. Soc., 125, 14832-14836, 2003.
365. C. Binns, Introduction to Nanoscience and Nanotechnology, Wiley, Hoboken, NJ, 2010.
366. X. Peng, Q. Pan, and G. L. Rempel, Bimetallic dendrimer-encapsulated nanoparticles as catalysts: a review of the research advances, Chem. Soc. Rev., 37, 1619-1628, 2008.
367. T. Keel, Chem. Ind., 10 May 2010, p. 24.
368. Nanoparticles and Catalysis, ed. D. Astruc,Wiley-VCH,Weinheim, 2008 (see particularly Chapter 4 on dendrimers)
369. H. Lang, R. A. May, B. L. Iverson, and B. D. Chandler, Dendrimer-encapsulated nanoparticles precursors to supported platinum catalysts, J. Am. Chem. Soc., 125 (48), 14832-14836, 2003.
370. A pioneering book is E. R. Becker and C. J. Pereira, Computer-Aided Design of Catalysts, Dekker, New York, 1993.
371. Relevant patents on acrylonitrile production are U.S. Patent 5770, 757 (23 June, 1998) to Standard Oil Co; U.S. Patent 5,780,664 (14 July, 1998) to Asahi Kasei Kogyo; and U.S. Patent 5,914,424 (22 Jun, 1997) to Mitsubishin Rayon Co.
372. Haber process catalysts are discussed at www.globaltechnoscan.com/21stMar-27thMar01/energy.htm: and in Chem. Comm ., 2000, p. 1057.
373. Methane conversion is discussed by J. Haggin, Chem. Eng. News, 22 January 1990, pp. 20-26.
374. Methane to acetic acid with a peroxysulfate catalyst is reported by M. Lin and A. Sen, Nature , 368, 613, 1994; and in Chem. Brit., 30, 624, 1994.
375. The cyclohexene based route to adipic acid is described in J. Chem. Ed., 77, 1627, 2000.
376. A nonphosgene route to polycarbonates is described in Kyosuke Komiya et al., in ACS Symposium Series #626, op. cit., pp. 20-33.W. D. McGhee et al. describe the generation of organic diisocyanates in ACS Symposium Series #626, op. cit., pp. 49-58.
377. F. Rivetti, U. Romano, and D. Delledonne, ACS Symposium Series #626, op. cit., pp. 70-80.
378. Chem. Eng. News, 25 November 2002, p. 19.
379. J.W. Tester et al., Supercritical Fluids as Solvent Replacements in Chemical Synthesis, ACS Symposium Series #767, op. cit., pp. 270-291.
380. J. B. Rubin, M. V. C. Taylor, T. Hartmann, and P. Paviet-Hartmann, in Green Chemistry Using Liquid and Supercritical Carbon Dioxide, eds. J. M. DeSimone and W. Tumas, Oxford University Press, New York, 2003, pp. 241-255.
381. The oxidation of di-t-butylphenol is described in J. Am. Chem. Soc., 124, 2513, 2002; and S. K. Ritter, Chem. Eng. News, 30 May 2002, p. 39.
382. http://www.chemj.cn/viewthread.php?tid=3796.
383. http://www.chemistryinnovation.co.uk/roadmap/sustainable/files/390211965 679/Technology%20Area%20ILs.pdf.
384. http://www.epa.gov/greenchemistry/pubs/pgcc/winners/aa05.html.
385. K. A. Axelsson and L J. Dunne, J. Photochem., 44, 205-213, 2001, describe the photocatalytic destruction of dichlorobenzenes.
386. H. Pütter and H. Hannenbaum, www.basf.de.
387. http://www.rsc.org/Education/Teachers/Resources/green/ibuprofen/home.htm .
388. Old synthesis: A. Kleemann, J. Engel, B. Kutscher, and D. Reichert, Pharmaceutical Substances, Syntheses, Patents and Applications, 4th ed., Thieme, Stuttgart, 2001. Green synthesis: Chem. Eng. News, 22 April 2002, p. 30.
389. I. Ojima, I Habus, M. Zhao, M. Zucco, Y. Hoon Park, Chung Ming Sun, and Thierry Brigaud, Newand efficient approaches to the semisynthesis of taxol and its C-13 side chain analogs by means of lactam synthon method, Tetrahedron, 48 (34), 6985-7012, 1992.
390. http://www.gdch.de/strukturen/fg/wirtschaft/vcw_va/habicher.pdf.
391. www.epa.gov/greenchemistry/aspa96.html.
392. A. Azapagic, A. Emsley, and I. Hamerton, Polymers, the Environment and Sustainable Development, Wiley, Chichester, 2003.
393. Currently, there are three ASTM standard specifications that mostly address biodegradable plastics in composting environments, the ASTM D6400-04 Standard Specification for Compostable Plastics, ASTM D6868-03 Standard Specification for Biodegradable Plastics Used as Coatings on Paper and Other Compostable Substrates, and the ASTM D7081-05 Standard Specification for Non-Floating Biodegradable Plastics in the Marine Environment. There are various standard tests for anaerobic environments, some difficult to perform. These include ASTM D5511-02 and ASTM D5526-94(2002).
394. European Bioplastics University of Applied Sciences and Arts, Hanover, reported in ICIS Chemical Business, 2 June-3 July 2011, p. 31.
395. Marcin Mitrus, Agnieszka Wojtowicz, and Leszek Moscicki, Biodegradable polymers and their practical utility. http://www.wiley-vch.de/books/sample/352732528X_c01.pdf in Thermoplastic Starch, eds. Leon P.B.M. Janssen and Leszek Moscickic, Wiley-VCH Verlag, Weinheim, 2009.
396. www.plastic.org.il/nano/bioplastics/EPI_Technology_0308.pdf.
397. S. K. Ritter, Green challenge, Chem. Eng. News, 1 July 2002, pp. 267-270.
398. C. Boswell, Bioplastics aren't the stretch they once seemed, Chem. Marketing Reporter, 20-27 August 2001.
399. Biotech Bioeng., doi: 10.1002/bit 22541, 22548.
400. R. Carson, Silent Spring, Houghton Mifflin, Boston, 1962.
401. D. H. Meadows et al., The Limits to Growth, Potomac Associates for the Club of Rome, Washington DC, 1972.
402. Water vapour feedback or forcing? RealClimate, 6 April 2005. http://www.realclimate.org/index.php?p=142.
403. http://www.sej.org/publications/alaska-and-hawaii/magic-number-asketchy- fact-about-polar-bears-keeps-goingand-going-an.
404. For the scandal see http://wattsupwiththat.com/; http://www.drroyspencer.com/; http://climaterealists.com/ and for a defence see http://www.realclimate.org/.
405. London Sunday Times, 3 July 2011.
406. B. Hileman, Chem. Eng. News, 27 May 2002, pp. 37-41.
407. W. S. Jevons, The Coal Question; An Inquiry Concerning the Progress of the Nation, and the Probable Exhaustion of Our Coal Mines, Macmillan, London, 1865.
408. C. Clover, London Sunday Times, 24 October 2010.
409. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_resources; http://www.worldwater.org/data.html.
410. http://www.data360.org/dsg.aspx?Data_Set_Group_Id=757&count=all
411. See, for example, http://www.edie.net/news/news_story.asp?id=9562.
412. http://www.saiplatform.org/uploads/Library/WG%20Fruit%20-%20ART%20Final% 20Report.pdf.
413. CIA World Factbook, quoted in http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_by_birth_rate.
414. Most of the statistics in this section come from BP Statistical Review of World Energy, published annually and available on the web or in hard copy.
415. S. English, London Times, 21 February 2007.
416. P. Jones, London Times, 22 June 2011.
417. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wave_power#cite_note-56.
418. Earth Policy Institute, 1350 Connecticut Avenue NW, Suite 403, Washington DC 20036.
419. Chem. Eng. News, 3 January 2011, p. 8.
420. M. Grätzel, Dye-sensitized solar cells, J. Photochem. Photobiol. C: Photochem. Rev., 4, 145-153, 2003.
421. N. Stafford, Chemistry World, January 2007.
422. H. Birch, Chemistry World, April 2009.
423. T. Bessho et al, JACS, 2009, doi: 10.1021/ja9002684.
424. Shi et al., J. Phys. Chem. C 112, 17046, 2008.
425. http://photochemistry.wordpress.com/2009/08/17/dye-sensitised-solar-cell s-dssc/.
426. This article reviews the field as does Fan-Tai Kong, Song-Yuan Dai, and Kong-JiaWang, Review of recent progress in dye-sensitized solar cells, Advances in OptoElectronics, (2007), 13 pages, doi: 10.1155/2007/75384. General updates can always be found at http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dye-sensitized_solar_cell.
427. ScienceDaily, 12 April 2010.
428. For a reviewof artificial photosythesis, see Jon Evans, Chem. Ind. 11 May 2009, pp. 17-19.
429. R. Brimblecombe et al., Angew Chem. Int. Ed. 47, 7335, 2008.
430. Chem. World, 31 July 2008.
431. Chem. World, 26 September 2007.
432. ACS Spring Meeting 2011, N. Eisberg.
433. Fire and ice: the problems and promise of gas hydrates, GTI Journal , Summer 2002, pp. 8-13.
434. We are grateful to Mr. Ronald Cascone of Nexant/ChemSystems for his assessment of the hydrogen economy. A vigorous attack on the idea is to be found at www.evworld.com/databases.
435. European Chemical News, 1-7 October 2001, p. 27.
436. For example, http://www.hydrogen.co.uk/renewables/renewables_2.htm
437. See N. Brandon, Encyclopedia of Energy, ed. C. J. Cleveland, Elsevier, Amsterdam, 2004
438. N. Brandon and D. Hart, An Introduction to Fuel Cell Technology and Economics, Imperial College, London, Occasional paper #1.
439. Also J. Owen, Powering the next generation, Chem. Ind., 17 September 2001, 572-576, which also covers batteries and supercapacitators; the Department of Energy website, www.eren.doe.gov/hydrogen/infra.
440. Claire Curran, Fuel cells -alternative energy? Chem. Ind., 3, 767, December 2001
441. Chem. Eng. News, 9 February 2009, p. 7.
442. www.autoalliance.org/fuel_cells.htm.
443. Hydrocarbon Processing, March 2002, p. 15.
444. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_vehicle#Issues_with_batteries.
445. London Times, http://www.thetimes.co.uk/tto/news/uk/article3057267.ece.
446. http://www.epa.gov/tri/tridata/tri09/nationalanalysis/briefingslides/200 9NAbriefingslides.pdf.
447. http://www.epa.gov/tri/tridata/tri09/nationalanalysis/overview/2009TRINA Overviewfinal.pdf.
448. See www.nas.nasa.gov/about/education/ozone/chemistry, from which we have also taken Figure 20.8.
449. www.nas.nasa.gov/about/education/ozone/chemistry, from which we have taken Figure 20.8.
450. 2O and ozone: NOAA report. Science, doi: 10.1126/science.1176985.
451. http://www.epa.gov/ozone/mbr/alts.html.
452. Chemistry World, February 2011, p. 9.
453. Chem. Eng. News , 17 February 2003.
454. Annual International Research Conference on Methyl Bromide Alternatives and Emissions Reductions, http://www.mbao.org/2009/0006-09ConfProgram. See especially J. Butler and S. Montzka, The Ozone Layer and Methyl Bromide: An Update of Data and Findings.
455. Chem. Ind. 6 November 1995, p. 857.
456. I. E. Galbally, J. D. Sekhon, and C. J. Marsden, Clean Air, 25, 100-105 August 1991.
457. B. Selinger and ANUTECH for Environment Australia, HCB Waste: Background and Issues Paper, July 1995.
458. http://www.seattlepi.com/local/309169_pbde28.html.
459. Swan SH, Main KM, Liu F, Stewart SL, Kruse RL, Calafat AM, Mao CS, Redmon JB, Ternand CL, Sullivan S, Teague JL, Decrease in anogenital distance among male infants with prenatal phthalate exposure. Environ. Health Perspect. 113 (8), 1056-1061, 2005.
460. The EPA's action plan is at http://www.epa.gov/oppt/existingchemicals/pubs/actionplans/phthalates.ht ml.
461. C. F. Cranor, Legally Poisoned , Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA, 2011.
462. John Evelyn, Fumifugium, 1661, reprinted by the UK National Society for Clean Air, London, 1961.
463. J. H. Seinfeld and S. N. Pandis, From Air Pollution to Climate Change,Wiley, Chichester, 1998, is authoritative. D. Daescu, A generalized reaction mechanism for photchemical smog, www.ima.umn.edu/~daescu/proj.html.
464. M. Azzi, M. Cope, and P. F. Neso, Photochemical smog modeling using the generalized reaction scheme model, www.dar.csiro.au/publications/manins_2002axx.pdf.
465. P. Viaene, W. Debruyn, F. de Leeuw, and C. Mensink, Evaluation of a compact chemical mechanism for photochemical smog modeling, http://artico.lma.fi.upm.es/gloream/paper10/.
466. Photochemical Smog, http://jan.ucc.nau.edu/doetqp-p/courses/env440/env440_2/lectures/lec40/l ec40.htm. The last of these is particularly good on the large number of nitrogen compounds formed.
467. http://www.epa.gov/air/airpollutants.html.
468. Air pollution technology fact sheet EPA-452/F-03-034, http://www.epa.gov/ttn/catc/dir1/ffdg.pdf.
469. http://volcanoes.usgs.gov/activity/methods/.
470. B. Pawelec, R. M. Navarro, J. M. Campos-Martin, and J. L. G. Fierro, Towards near zerosulfur liquid fuels: a perspective review, Catal. Sci. Technol. , 1, 23-42, 2011.
471. A. Wang, X. Li, M. Egorova, and R. Prins, http://www.nacatsoc.org/20nam/abstracts/O-S7-05-K.pdf.
472. The United States regulations on low sulfur fuels are attractively explained in the China Forum of www.fossil.energy.gov.
473. For an economic analysis of the cost of low sulphur fuels, see www.epa.gov/otaq/regs and Chem. Brit. , 38, 13, 2002.
474. J. Hofmeister, Why We Hate The Oil Companies, Palgrave Macmillan, New York, 2010.
475. Figure 20.10 is taken from I. M. Campbell, Energy and the Atmosphere, Wiley, London, 1977.
476. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Los_Angeles#cite_note-53#cite_note-53 .
477. R. M. E. Diamant, The chemistry of sewage putrefaction, in Environmental Chemistry, ed. J.O'M. Bockris, Plenum, New York, 1977.
478. One of us (BGR) attended a school in Bradford, Yorkshire, England, built in 1939 on a controlled landfill site and watched football at a stadium constructed on a similar site.
479. http://www.epa.gov/epawaste/nonhaz/municipal/index.htm.
480. M. R. Shadras, Solid Waste Disposal in Eastern European Countries, PhD Thesis, South Bank University, London, 1992.
481. http://www.veteranshour.com/agent_orange_updates.htm.
482. P. N. Cheremisinoff and A. C. Moresi, Energy from SolidWastes, Dekker, New York, 1976.
483. Directive 1999/31/EC on landfill of waste.
484. http://europa.eu/legislation_summaries/environment/waste_management/l212 08_en.htm.
485. J. B. Phillips, M. A. Hindawi, A. Phillips, and R. V. Bailey, Thermal Solutions to Petrochemical Waste, www.pollutionengineering.com/archives/2000/pol0801.00/pol0800multi.htm.
486. M. B. Borup, and E. J., Middlebrooks, Pollution Control for the Petrochemicals Industry, Lewis, Chelsea, MI, 1987.
487. D. J. Burton and K Ravishankar, Treatment of Hazardous Petrochemical and Petroleum Wastes: Current, New and Emerging Technologies, Noyes, Park Ridge, NJ, 1989.
488. http://www.aquiziam.com/end_of_the_world_predictions.html .
489. http://mobile.reuters.com/article/article/idUSTRE75M12020110623?irpc=932 .
490. J. Needham, Science and Civilization in China, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 22 volumes.