Epidemiology of Hantavirus infections in humans: A comprehensive, global overview

Critical Reviews in Microbiology

Volumn 40, Issue 3, 2014, Pages 261-272

  Watson, Dionysios Christos ^a   Sargianou, Maria ^a   Papa, Anna ^b   Chra, Paraskevi ^c   Starakis, Ioannis ^a   Panos, George ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY GENERAL HOSPITAL OF PATRAS   (Greece)

^b ARISTOTLE UNIVERSITY OF THESSALONIKI   (Greece)

^c Korgialenio Benakio Hospital   (Greece)

Author keywords

Hantavirus pulmonary syndrome; Hemorrhagic fever with renal syndrome; Prevention; Risk factors; Transmission

Indexed keywords

AFRICA; ASIA; BODY FLUIDS AND SECRETIONS; DISEASE CARRIER; ECOLOGY; EUROPE; GEOGRAPHIC DISTRIBUTION; HANTAVIRUS INFECTION; HANTAVIRUS PULMONARY SYNDROME; HEMORRHAGIC FEVER WITH RENAL SYNDROME; HUMAN; INFECTION PREVENTION; INFECTION RISK; PATHOGENESIS; PREVALENCE; PRIORITY JOURNAL; REVIEW; VIRUS TRANSMISSION;

ANIMALS; COMMUNICABLE DISEASE CONTROL; COMMUNICABLE DISEASES, EMERGING; DISEASE RESERVOIRS; HANTAVIRUS INFECTIONS; HUMANS; INCIDENCE; PREVALENCE; RISK FACTORS; RODENTIA; TOPOGRAPHY, MEDICAL; WORLD HEALTH; ZOONOSES;

EID: 84891118051     PISSN: 1040841X     EISSN: 15497828     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.3109/1040841X.2013.783555     Document Type: Review

References (131)

1. Ahlm C, Thelin A, Elgh F, et al. (1998). Prevalence of antibodies specific to Puumala virus among farmers in Sweden. Scand J Work Environ Health 24:104-8. (Pubitemid 28233862)
2. Ahlm C, Wallin K, Lundkvist A, et al. (2000). Serologic evidence of Puumala virus infection in wild moose in northern Sweden. Am J Trop Med Hyg 62:106-11. (Pubitemid 30180359)
3. Ahn C, Cho JT, Lee JG, et al. (2000). Detection of Hantaan and Seoul viruses by reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) and restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) in renal syndrome patients with hemorrhagic fever. Clin Nephrol 53:79-89. (Pubitemid 30082241)
4. Armien B, Pascale JM, Munoz C, et al. (2011). Incidence rate for hantavirus infections without pulmonary syndrome, Panama. Emerg Infect Dis 17:1936-9.
5. Badger C, Richardson J, Dasilva R, et al. (2011). Development and application of a flow cytometric potency assay for DNA vaccines. Vaccine 29:6728-35.
6. Bi P, Cameron S, Higgins G, Burrell C. (2005). Are humans infected by Hantaviruses in Australia? Intern Med J 35:672-4. (Pubitemid 41711977)
7. Bi Z, Formenty P, Roth C. (2008). Hantavirus infection: a review and global update. J Infect Dev Ctries 2:3-23.
8. Boudreau E, Sellers K, Rusnak J, et al. (2010). Phase 1 clinical study on the safety, tolerability and immunogenicity of Hantaan and Puumala DNA vaccines. Abstracts of the VIII International Conference on HFRS, HPS and Hantavirus; 2010 May 20-22; Athens, Greece, 83.
9. Carroll DS, Mills JN, Montgomery JM, et al. (2005). Hantavirus pulmonary syndrome in Central Bolivia: relationships between reservoir hosts, habitats, and viral genotypes. Am J Trop Med Hyg 72:42-6. (Pubitemid 41270307)
10. Castillo Ore RM, Forshey BM, Huaman A, et al. (2012). Serologic evidence for human hantavirus infection in peru. Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis 12:683-9.
11. Chandy S, Boorugu H, Chrispal A, et al. (2009). Hantavirus infection: a case report from India. Indian J Med Microbiol 27:267-70.
12. Childs J, Krebs J, Ksiazek T, et al. (1995). A household-based, casecontrol study of environmental factors associated with Hantavirus pulmonary syndrome in the southwestern United States. Am J Trop Med Hyg 52:393-7.
13. Christova I, Younan R, Taseva E, et al. (2013). Hemorrhagic fever with renal syndrome and Crimean-Congo hemorrhagic fever as causes of acute undifferentiated febrile illness in Bulgaria. Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis 13:188-92.
14. Coulaud X, Chouaib E, Georges A, et al. (1987). First human case of haemorrhagic fever with renal syndrome in the Central African Republic. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 81:686.
15. Crowcroft N, Infuso A, Ilef D, et al. (1999). Risk factors for human Hantavirus infection: Franco-Belgian collaborative case-control study during 1995-96 epidemic. BMJ 318:1737-8. (Pubitemid 29290471)
16. Custer D, Thompson E, Schmaljohn C, et al. (2003). Active and passive vaccination against Hantavirus pulmonary syndrome with Andes virus M genome segment-based DNA vaccine. J Virol 77: 9894-905. (Pubitemid 37122070)
17. Cvetko L, Markotic A, Plyusnina A, et al. (2005). Puumala virus in Croatia in the 2002 HFRS outbreak. J Med Virol 77:290-4. (Pubitemid 41285800)
18. Dearing M, Dizney L. (2010). Ecology of Hantavirus in a changing world. Ann N Y Acad Sci 1195:99-112.
19. Dixon K, Nang R, Kim D, et al. (1996). A hospital-based, case-control study of risk factors for hemorrhagic fever with renal syndrome in soldiers of the armed forces of the Republic of Korea. Am J Trop Med Hyg 54:284-8. (Pubitemid 26100717)
20. Dizney L, Ruedas L. (2009). Increased host species diversity and decreased prevalence of Sin Nombre virus. Emerg Infect Dis 15: 1012-8.
21. Dobly A, Cochez C, Goossens E, et al. (2012). Sero-epidemiological study of the presence of hantaviruses in domestic dogs and cats from Belgium. Res Vet Sci 92:221-4.
22. Dzagurova TK, Klempa B, Tkachenko EA, et al. (2009). Molecular diagnostics of hemorrhagic fever with renal syndrome during a Dobrava virus infection outbreak in the European part of Russia. J Clin Microbiol 47:4029-36.
23. Dzagurova T, Witkowski P, Tkachenko E, et al. (2011). Isolation of sochi virus from a fatal case of hantavirus disease with fulminant clinical course. Clin Infect Dis 54:e1-4.
24. Ertek M, Buzgan T, Agency RSNPH, Ministry of Health AT. (2009). An outbreak caused by Hantavirus in the Black Sea region of Turkey, January-May 2009. Euro Surveill 14:19214.
25. Essbauer SS, Schmidt-Chanasit J, Madeja EL, et al. (2007). Nephropathia epidemica in metropolitan area, Germany. Emerg Infect Dis 13:1271-3. (Pubitemid 47359190)
26. Evander M, Eriksson I, Pettersson L, et al. (2007). Puumala hantavirus viremia diagnosed by real-time reverse transcriptase PCR using samples from patients with hemorrhagic fever and renal syndrome. J Clin Microbiol 45:2491-7. (Pubitemid 47295479)
27. Ferres M, Vial P, Marco C, et al. (2007). Prospective evaluation of household contacts of persons with Hantavirus cardiopulmonary syndrome in chile. J Infect Dis 195:1563-71. (Pubitemid 46799213)
28. Figueiredo LT, Moreli ML, de-Sousa RL, et al. (2009). Hantavirus pulmonary syndrome, central plateau, southeastern, and southern Brazil. Emerg Infect Dis 15:561-7.
29. Gamage C, Yasuda S, Nishio S, et al. (2011). Serological evidence of Thailand virus-related Hantavirus infection among suspected leptospirosis patients in Kandy, Sri Lanka. Jpn J Infect Dis 64: 72-5.
30. Gardner-Santana L, Norris D, Fornadel C, et al. (2009). Commensal ecology, urban landscapes, and their influence on the genetic characteristics of city-dwelling Norway rats (Rattus norvegicus). Mol Ecol 18:2766-78.
31. Gavrilovskaya IN, Gorbunova EE, Mackow ER. (2010). Pathogenic Hantaviruses direct the adherence of quiescent platelets to infected endothelial cells. J Virol 84:4832-9.
32. Golovljova I, Vasilenko V, Mittzenkov V, et al. (2007). Characterization of hemorrhagic fever with renal syndrome caused by Hantaviruses, Estonia. Emerg Infect Dis 13:1773-6. (Pubitemid 350126212)
33. Gonzalez J, Josse R, Johnson E, et al. (1989). Antibody prevalence against haemorrhagic fever viruses in randomized representative Central African populations. Res Virol 140:319-31. (Pubitemid 19215754)
34. Hao H, Xiu L, Zehua Z, et al. (2008). Genetic immunization with Hantavirus vaccine combining expression of G2 glycoprotein and fused interleukin-2. Genet Vaccines Ther 6:15.
35. Hardestam J, Karlsson M, Falk K, et al. (2008). Puumala Hantavirus excretion kinetics in bank voles (Myodes glareolus). Emerg Infect Dis 14:1209-15.
36. Heyman P, Vaheri A; ENIVD Members. (2008). Situation of hantavirus infections and haemorrhagic fever with renal syndrome in European countries as of December 2006. Euro Surveill 13:18925.
37. Heyman P, Ceianu CS, Christova I, et al. (2011). A five-year perspective on the situation of haemorrhagic fever with renal syndrome and status of the hantavirus reservoirs in Europe, 2005-2010. Euro Surveill 16: 19961.
38. Heyman P, Thoma BR, Marie JL, et al. (2012). In search for factors that drive hantavirus epidemics. Front Physiol 3:237.
39. Hjelle B, Goade D, Torrez-Martinez N, et al. (1996). Hantavirus pulmonary syndrome, renal insufficiency, and myositis associated with infection by Bayou hantavirus. Clin Infect Dis 23: 495-500. (Pubitemid 26304497)
40. Hjelle B, Lee SW, Song W, et al. (1995). Molecular linkage of hantavirus pulmonary syndrome to the white-footed mouse, Peromyscus leucopus: genetic characterization of the M genome of New York virus. J Virol 69:8137-41.
41. Hooper J, Custer D, Thompson E, Schmaljohn C. (2001). DNA vaccination with the Hantaan virus M gene protects Hamsters against three of four HFRS Hantaviruses and elicits a high-titer neutralizing antibody response in Rhesus monkeys. J Virol 75:8469-77. (Pubitemid 32768951)
42. Huang LY, Zhou H, Yin WW, et al. (2012). [The current epidemic situation and surveillance regarding hemorrhagic fever with renal syndrome in China, 2010]. Zhonghua Liu Xing Bing Xue Za Zhi 33: 685-91.
43. Hukic M, Nikolic J, Valjevac A, et al. (2010). A serosurvey reveals Bosnia and Herzegovina as a Europe?s hotspot in hantavirus seroprevalence. Epidemiol Infect 138:1185-93.
44. Huong V, Yoshimatsu K, Luan V, et al. (2010). Hemorrhagic fever with renal syndrome, Vietnam. Emerg Infect Dis 16:363-5.
45. IUCN. (2012). IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2012.1. Available from: www.iucnredlist.org. [last accessed 14 Sept 2012]
46. Jameson LJ, Taori S, Atkinson B, et al. (2013). Pet rats as a source of hantavirus in England and Wales, 2013. Euro Surveill 18:20415.
47. Johnson AM, Bowen MD, Ksiazek TG, et al. (1997). Laguna Negra virus associated with HPS in western Paraguay and Bolivia. Virology 238: 115-27. (Pubitemid 27497268)
48. Johnson AM, de Souza LT, Ferreira IB, et al. (1999). Genetic investigation of novel hantaviruses causing fatal HPS in Brazil. J Med Virol 59:527-35. (Pubitemid 29523154)
49. Kallio ER, Begon M, Henttonen H, et al. (2009). Cyclic hantavirus epidemics in humans - predicted by rodent host dynamics. Epidemics 1:101-7.
50. Kariwa H, Yoshimatsu K, Arikawa J. (2007). Hantavirus infection in East Asia. Comp Immunol Microbiol Infect Dis 30:341-56. (Pubitemid 47450088)
51. Kariwa H, Yoshikawa K, Tanikawa Y, et al. (2012). Isolation and characterization of hantaviruses in Far East Russia and etiology of hemorrhagic fever with renal syndrome in the region. Am J Trop Med Hyg 86:545-53.
52. Kang HJ, Kadjo B, Dubey S, et al. (2011). Molecular evolution of Azagny virus, a newfound hantavirus harbored by the West African pygmy shrew (Crocidura obscurior) in Co?te d?Ivoire. Virol J 8:373.
53. Kasper MR, Blair PJ, Touch S, et al. (2012). Infectious etiologies of acute febrile illness among patients seeking health care in southcentral Cambodia. Am J Trop Med Hyg 86:246-53.
54. Khan AS, Gaviria M, Rollin PE, et al. (1996). Hantavirus pulmonary syndrome in Florida: association with the newly identified Black Creek Canal virus. Am J Med 100:46-8. (Pubitemid 26049325)
55. Klempa B, Fichet-Calvet E, Lecompte E, et al. (2006). Hantavirus in African wood mouse, Guinea. Emerg Infect Dis 12:838-40. (Pubitemid 43726865)
56. Klempa B, Fichet-Calvet E, Lecompte E, et al. (2007). Novel hantavirus sequences in Shrew, Guinea. Emerg Infect Dis 13:520-2. (Pubitemid 46348161)
57. Klempa B, Koivogui L, Sylla O, et al. (2010). Serological evidence of human hantavirus infections in Guinea, West Africa. J Infect Dis 201:1031-4.
58. Klempa B, Schutt M, Auste B, et al. (2004). First molecular identification of human Dobrava virus infection in central Europe. J Clin Microbiol 42:1322-5. (Pubitemid 38332880)
59. Klempa B, Stanko M, Labuda M, et al. (2005). Central European Dobrava Hantavirus isolate from a striped field mouse (Apodemus agrarius). J Clin Microbiol 43:2756-63. (Pubitemid 40827950)
60. Klempa B, Tkachenko E, Dzagurova T, et al. (2008). Hemorrhagic fever with renal syndrome caused by 2 lineages of Dobrava Hantavirus, Russia. Emerg Infect Dis 14:617-25. (Pubitemid 351520864)
61. Klempa B, Witkowski PT, Popugaeva E, et al. (2012). Sangassou virus, the first hantavirus isolate from Africa, displays genetic and functional properties distinct from those of other murinae-associated hantaviruses. J Virol 86:3819-27.
62. Korpela H, La?hdevirta J. (1978). The role of small rodents and patterns of living in the epidemiology of nephropathia epidemica. Scand J Infect Dis 10:303-5. (Pubitemid 9069185)
63. Korva M, Duh D, Saksida A, et al. (2009). The hantaviral load in tissues of naturally infected rodents. Microbes Infect 11:344-51.
64. Kovats RS, Bouma MJ, Hajat S, et al. (2003). El Nino and health. Lancet 362:1481-9.
65. Kuchuloria T, Clark D, Hepburn M, et al. (2009). Hantavirus infection in the Republic of Georgia. Emerg Infect Dis 15:1489-91.
66. Lazaro ME, Cantoni GE, Calanni LM, et al. (2007). Clusters of hantavirus infection, southern Argentina. Emerg Infect Dis 13:104-10. (Pubitemid 46057844)
67. Levis S, Morzunov SP, Rowe JE, et al. (1998). Genetic diversity and epidemiology of hantaviruses in Argentina. J Infect Dis 177: 529-38. (Pubitemid 28099863)
68. Lin XD, Guo WP, Wang W, et al. (2012). Migration of norway rats resulted in the worlwide distribution of seoul hantavirus today. J Virol 86:972-81.
69. Linard C, Lamarque P, Heyman P, et al. (2007). Determinants of the geographic distribution of Puumala virus and Lyme borreliosis infections in Belgium. Int J Health Geogr 6:15.
70. Lopez N, Padula P, Rossi C, et al. (1996). Genetic identification of a new hantavirus causing severe pulmonary syndrome in Argentina. Virology 220:223-6. (Pubitemid 26202353)
71. Mackow ER, Gavrilovskaya IN. (2009). Hantavirus regulation of endothelial cell functions. Thromb Haemost 102:1030-41.
72. MacNeil A, Ksiazek TG, Rollin PE. (2011). Hantavirus pulmonary syndrome, United States, 1993-2009. Emerg Infect Dis 17:1195-201.
73. Malecki T, Jillson G, Thilsted J, et al. (1998). Serologic survey for Hantavirus infection in domestic animals and coyotes from New Mexico and northeastern Arizona. J Am Vet Med Assoc 212: 970-3. (Pubitemid 128473250)
74. Martinez V, Bellomo C, Cacace M, et al. (2010). Hantavirus pulmonary syndrome in Argentina, 1995-2008. Emerg Infect Dis 16:1853-60.
75. Matheus S, Djossou F, Moua D, et al. (2010). Hantavirus pulmonary syndrome, French Guiana. Emerg Infect Dis 16:739-41.
76. Meheretu Y, C?z?kova D, Te?skova J, et al. (2012). High diversity of RNA viruses in rodents, Ethiopia. Emerg Inf Dis 18:2047-50.
77. Mesic S, Almedin H. (2008). Investigation of modes of Hantavirus infection transmission from rodents to humans. Med Arh 62:229-30.
78. Morzunov SP, Feldmann H, Spiropoulou CF, et al. (1995). A newly recognized virus associated with a fatal case of hantavirus pulmonary syndrome in Louisiana. J Virol 69:1980-3.
79. Mulic R, Ropac D. (2002). Epidemiologic characteristics and military implications of hemorrhagic fever with renal syndrome in croatia. Croat Med J 43:581-6. (Pubitemid 35364505)
80. Nichol S, Spiropoulou C, Morzunov S, et al. (1993). Genetic identification of a Hantavirus associated with an outbreak of acute respiratory illness. Science 262:914-7. (Pubitemid 24014083)
81. Nowakowska A, Heyman P, Knap J, et al. (2009). The first established focus of Hantavirus infection in Poland, 2007. Ann Agric Environ Med 16:79-85.
82. Okumura M, Yoshimatsu K, Kumperasart S, et al. (2007). Development of serological assays for Thottapalayam virus, an insectivore-borne Hantavirus. Clin Vaccine Immunol 14:173-81. (Pubitemid 46407070)
83. Olsson G, Dalerum F, Ho?rnfeldt B, et al. (2003). Human Hantavirus infections, Sweden. Emerg Infect Dis 9:1395-401. (Pubitemid 37356211)
84. Padula P, Della Valle MG, Alai MG, et al. (2002). Andes virus and first case report of Bermejo virus causing fatal pulmonary syndrome. Emerg Infect Dis 8:437-9. (Pubitemid 34415210)
85. Pal E, Strle F, Avsic-Zupanc T. (2005). Hemorrhagic fever with renal syndrome in the Pomurje region of Slovenia - an 18-year survey. Wien Klin Wochenschr 117:398-405. (Pubitemid 41158820)
86. Pan-American Health Organisation. (2003). Case development of Hantavirus Pulmonary Syndrome (HPS) (Region of the Americas, by country and year, 1993-2002). [Online] Available at: http:// www.paho.org/common/Display.asp?Lang? E&RecID?6044. [last accessed 9 Feb 2011]
87. Papa A, Bojovic B, Antoniadis A. (2006). Hantaviruses in Serbia and Montenegro. Emerg Infect Dis 12:1015-8. (Pubitemid 43848432)
88. Papa A, Christova I. (2011). Genetic detection of Dobrava/Belgrade virus, Bulgaria. Emerg Infect Dis 17:308-9.
89. Papa A, Zelena H, Barnetova D, Petrousova L. (2010). Genetic detection of Dobrava/Belgrade virus in a Czech patient with Haemorrhagic fever with renal syndrome. Clin Microbiol Infect 16:1187-90.
90. Pattamadilok S, Lee BH, Kumperasart S, et al. (2006). Geographical distribution of hantaviruses in Thailand and potential human health significance of Thailand virus. Am J Trop Med Hyg 75:994-1002. (Pubitemid 351627555)
91. Paul JR, McClure WW. (1958). Epidemic hemorrhagic fever attack rates among United Nations troops during the Korean War. Am J Hyg 68: 126-39.
92. Pedrosa PB, Cardoso TA. (2011). Viral infections in workers in hospital and research laboratory settings: a comparative review of infection modes and respective biosafety aspects. Int J Infect Dis 15: e366-76.
93. Pereira GW, Teixeira AM, Souza MS, et al. (2012). Prevalence of serum antibodies to hantavirus in a rural population from the Southern State of Santa Catarina, Brazil. Rev Soc Bras Med Trop 45:117-9.
94. Pon E, McKee KJ, Diniega B, et al. (1990). Outbreak of hemorrhagic fever with renal syndrome among U.S. Marines in Korea. Am J Trop Med Hyg 42:612-9. (Pubitemid 20237762)
95. Puca E, Pilaca A, Pipero P, et al. (2011). Hemorrhagic fever with renal syndrome complicated by orchitis. Virol Sin 26:285-8.
96. Rasmuson J, Andersson C, Norrman E, et al. (2011a). Time to revise the paradigm of hantavirus syndromes? Hantavirus pulmonary syndrome caused by European hantavirus. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis 30: 685-90.
97. Rasmuson J, Pourazar J, Linderholm M, et al. (2011b). Presence of activated airway T lymphocytes in human puumala hantavirus disease. Chest 140:715-22.
98. Rhodes 3rd LV, Huang C, Sanchez AJ, et al. (2000). Hantavirus pulmonary syndrome associated with Monongahela virus, Pennsylvania. Emerg Infect Dis 6:616-21. (Pubitemid 32110504)
99. Ruedas LA, Salazar-Bravo J, Tinnin DS, et al. (2004). Community ecology of small mammal populations in Panama following an outbreak of Hantavirus pulmonary syndrome. J Vector Ecol 29:177-91. (Pubitemid 39008161)
100. Ruo S, Li Y, Tong Z, et al. (1994). Retrospective and prospective studies of hemorrhagic fever with renal syndrome in rural China. J Infect Dis 170:527-34. (Pubitemid 24262251)
101. Sargianou M, Watson DC, Chra P, et al. (2012a). Hantavirus infections for the clinician: from case presentation to diagnosis and treatment. Crit Rev Microbiol 38:317-29.
102. Sargianou M, Watson DC, Kampiotis D, et al. (2012b). Febrile disease in a Bulgarian emigrant with acute renal failure, thrombocytopenia, bilateral subconjunctival haemorrhage and hypoxemia. J Clin Virol 54:2-5.
103. Schmaljohn C. (2009). Vaccines for Hantaviruses. Vaccine 27: D61-4.
104. Song G, Hang CS, Qui XZ, et al. (1983). Etiologic studies of epidemic hemorrhagic fever (hemorrhagic fever with renal syndrome). J Infect Dis 147:654-9. (Pubitemid 13088238)
105. Sumibcay L, Kadjo B, Gu SH, et al. (2012). Divergent lineage of a novel hantavirus in the banana pipistrelle (Neoromicia nanus) in Co?te d?Ivoire. Virol J 9:34.
106. Suputthamongkol Y, Nitatpattana N, Chayakulkeeree M, et al. (2005). Hantavirus infection in Thailand: first clinical case report. Southeast Asian J Trop Med Public Health 36:217-20. (Pubitemid 40577024)
107. Tersago K, Verhagen R, Servais A, et al. (2009). Hantavirus disease (nephropathia epidemica) in Belgium: effects of tree seed production and climate. Epidemiol Infect 137:250-6.
108. Tkachenko E, Dzagurova T, Bernhtein A, et al. (2010). Hemorrhagic fever with renal syndrome in Russia in 21st century. Abstracts of the VIII International Conference on HFRS, HPS and Hantavirus; 2010 May 20-22; Athens, Greece, 27.
109. Torres-Perez F, Palma RE, Hjelle B, et al. (2010). Andes virus infections in the rodent reservoir and in humans vary across contrasting landscapes in Chile. Infect Genet Evol 10:820-5.
110. Travassos da Rosa ES, Sampaio de Lemos ER, de Almeida Medeiros DB, et al. (2010). Hantaviruses and hantavirus pulmonary syndrome, Maranhao, Brazil. Emerg Infect Dis 16:1952-5.
111. Van Loock F, Thomas I, Clement J, et al. (1999). A case-control study after a Hantavirus infection outbreak in the south of Belgium: who is at risk? Clin Infect Dis 28:834-9. (Pubitemid 29169424)
112. Vapalahti K, Paunio M, Brummer-Korvenkontio M, et al. (1999). Puumala virus infections in Finland: increased occupational risk for farmers. Am J Epidemiol 149:1142-51. (Pubitemid 29270328)
113. Vapalahti K, Virtala A, Vaheri A, Vapalahti O. (2010). Case-control study on Puumala virus infection: smoking is a risk factor. Epidemiol Infect 138:576-84.
114. Vapalahti O, Mustonen J, Lundkvist A, et al. (2003). Hantavirus infections in Europe. Lancet Infect Dis 3:653-61. (Pubitemid 37210229)
115. Vincent MJ, Quiroz E, Gracia F, et al. (2000). Hantavirus pulmonary syndrome in Panama: identification of novel hantaviruses and their likely reservoirs. Virology 10:14-19.
116. Wei L, Qian Q, Wang ZQ, et al. (2011). Using geographic information system-based ecologic niche models to forecast the risk of hantavirus infection in Shandong Province, China. Am J Trop Med Hyg 84: 497-503.
117. Weiss S, Witkowski PT, Auste B, et al. (2012). Hantavirus in bat, Sierra Leone. Emerg Infect Dis 18:159-61.
118. Wells RM, Sosa Estani S, Yadon ZE, et al. (1997). An unusual hantavirus outbreak in southern Argentina: person-to-person transmission? Hantavirus Pulmonary Syndrome Study Group for Patagonia. Emerg Infect Dis 3:171-4. (Pubitemid 127431674)
119. Wesley C, Allen L, Langlais M. (2010). Models for the spread and persistence of Hantavirus infection in rodents with direct and indirect transmission. Math Biosci Eng 7:195-211.
120. Winter C, Brockmann S, Piechotowski I, et al. (2009). Survey and casecontrol study during epidemics of Puumala virus infection. Epidemiol Infect 137:1479-85.
121. Xu Z, Guo C, Wu Y, et al. (1985). Epidemiological studies of hemorrhagic fever with renal syndrome: analysis of risk factors and mode of transmission. J Infect Dis 152:137-44. (Pubitemid 15038845)
122. Xu Z, Tang Y, Kan L, Tsai T. (1987). Cats - source of protection or infection? A case-control study of hemorrhagic fever with renal syndrome. Am J Epidemiol 126:942-8. (Pubitemid 17161318)
123. Yan L, Fang LQ, Huang HG, et al. (2007). Landscape elements and Hantaan virus-related hemorrhagic fever with renal syndrome, People?s Republic of China. Emerg Infect Dis 13:1301-6. (Pubitemid 47510290)
124. Yang Z, Liu Y, Peng Z. (1998). [Epidemiologic and experimental studies on epidemic haemorrhagic fever virus in pigs], article in Chinese. Zhonghua Liu Xing Bing Xue Za Zhi 19: 218-20.
125. Yang Z, Yu S, Nie J, et al. (2004). [Prevalence of hemorrhagic fever with renal syndrome virus in domestic pigs: an epidemiological investigation in Shandong province], article in Chinese. Di Yi Jun Yi Da Xue Xue Bao 24:1283-6.
126. Yates TL, Mills JN, Parmenter CA, et al. (2002). Evolutionary history of an emergent disease: hantavirus pulmonary syndrome. Bioscience 52: 989-98. (Pubitemid 35307241)
127. Zeitz P, Butler J, Cheek J, et al. (1995). A case-control study of Hantavirus pulmonary syndrome during an outbreak in the southwestern United States. J Infect Dis 171:864-70.
128. Zhang Y, Li X, Tang J. (1995). [Observational and experimental studies on relationship between domestic pigs and epidemic hemorrhagic fever investigation], article in Chinese. Zhonghua Yu Fang Yi Xue Za Zhi 29:344-7.
129. Zhang YZ, Xiao DL, Wang Y, et al. (2004). [The epidemic characteristics and preventive measures of hemorrhagic fever with syndromes in China], article in Chinese. Zhonghua Liu Xing Bing Xue Za Zhi 25: 466-9.
130. Zhang Y, Zou Y, Fu Z, Plyusnin A. (2010). Hantavirus infections in humans and animals, China. Emerg Infect Dis 16:1195-203.
131. Zhou J, Zhang X, Chen M, et al. (2011). [Epidemiological study on hemorrhagic fever with renal syndrome in flood areas], article in Chinese. Zhong Nan Da Xue Xue Bao Yi Xue Ban 36:223-8.