HDPE geomembranes in geotechnics

HDPE Geomembranes in Geotechnics

Volumn , Issue , 2007, Pages 1-485

  Müller, Werner W ^a  

^a BAM FEDERAL INSTITUTE FOR MATERIALS RESEARCH AND TESTING   (Germany)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 84890989818     PISSN: None     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book    
DOI: 10.1007/978-3-540-37288-2     Document Type: Book

References (472)

1. Available from Laboratory IV.32, Landfill Engineering, BAM/Berlin
2. Available from Laboratory IV.32, Landfill Engineering, BAM/Berlin
3. The efficiency of antioxidants depends on temperature. An antioxidant which is highly effective at normal ambient temperatures may not be effective at the high temperatures used in the OIT procedure. This has been taken into account in the requirements given under points 1.11 and 3.3. Depending on the stabilization formulation used as disclosed to BAM, in certain cases other analytic procedures are required to determine the change in stabilization caused by immersion testing.
4. Test liquids, see Table 3.7 in Chap. 3 of this book. Substances 2, 3, 6, 7, 10 and 11 need not be tested for HDPE geomembranes
5. 4 h (e.g. long-term tensile test).
6. Landscape Research, Development & Construction Society (FLL, www.f-l-l.de). The FLL test procedure is currently being revised by CEN Technical Committee TC 254
7. This time-to-failure requirement characterizes the welding properties of different resins. It is not suitable for evaluation of the quality of a welding seam per se. Welding seams not fabricated in the optimum parameter field which do not show times to failure typical of that resin are substandard even if their times to failure exceed 35 h
8. Required only in the event volumetric batch metering is used
9. In production lines without continuous automatic thickness monitoring, thickness must be measured over the entire production width every 10 m using an ultrasonic gauge
10. Definition of production start-up: restart after machine stoppage or change of resin or thickness
11. A higher test frequency may be specified in individual cases after a production start-up or change of batch lot
12. In production lines without continuous automatic thickness monitoring, thickness must be measured over the entire production width every 10 m using an ultrasonic gauge
13. Definition of production start-up: restart after machine stoppage or change of resin or thickness
14. A higher test frequency may be specified in individual cases after a production start-up or change of batch lot
15. The certification report will specify the sampling procedure for test specimens from textured areas and the criteria to be used in their evaluation
16. Only required when carbon black (batch) is added by the geomembrane manufacturer
17. In general, the requirements specified in the requirement tables must be fulfilled. Additional requirements and tolerances characterizing the particular properties of the specific geomembrane certified are given in Appendix 1 of the certification document.
18. It is hoped that the term "HDPE foil" used previously has meanwhile died out, as foils are planar, very flexible sheets with a thickness of up to 0.5 mm.
19. Zitscher F-F (1971) Kunststoffe für den Wasserbau, Bauingenieur-Praxis, Nr. 125. Verlag Ernst & Sohn, Berlin.
20. (1977) Kunststoffe im Bau 12(4) pp 154-160 and (1979) 14(3) pp 130-134.
21. Stief K (ed) (1979) Müll und Abfall, Beiheft 15, Deponiebasisabdichtung, Erfah-rungen, Stand der Technik, Forschung. Erich Schmidt Verlag, Berlin
22. The Brockhaus Encyklopaedia, 19th Edition, provides the following definition: Geotechnics is an umbrella term for those branches of civil engineering which deal with the construction of underground structures or those on the earth surface in which soils and rocks are key components of the structure.. Environmental protection measures such as containment of landfills and contaminated land are included.
23. Hydraulic Engineering is the construction activity with objectives in the field of water management, for the protection from natural catastrophes, to minimise loss of land, to avoid water shortages, to control soil water management, to reduce or avoid water pollution, to protect land and environment, to generate power, to build/maintain waterways and to serve fishery and recreation. Geosynthetics play a steadily increasing role in this field as well. Obviously there is a considerable overlap between geotechnical and hydraulic engineering
24. Geotechnics is therefore an umbrella term which is somewhat too wide but still best suited to identify the field of application for HDPE geomembranes which are the objectives of our considerations.
25. Second General Administrative Provision to the Waste Avoidance and Waste Management Act (Abfallgesetz (AbfG)), Technical Instructions Hazardous Waste, Part 1 (TI Hazardous Waste).
26. Third General Administrative Provision to the Waste Avoidance and Waste Management Act (Abfallgesetz (AbfG)), Technical Instructions on Recycling, Treatment and Storage of Municipal Waste (TI Municipal Waste).
27. The equipment is called welding machine if it is self-propelled and the pressure is produced by the machine. It is called a welding device or apparatus, if it is moved by hand and the pressure results from the welder's muscular force
28. Of course, stress crack resistance and oxidation stability must be comparable too.
29. Soft PVC: polyvinyl chloride with low-molecular organic mixtures as softeners; ECB: ethylene copolymer bitumen; EPDM: terpolymer from polyethylene, polypropylene and dien-monomers. This terpolymer is a rubber, which can be interlaced with sulphur to an elastomer by the double bonds, brought in over the dien-monomers (vulcanisation)
30. EN 837-1:1996 Pressure Gauges-Part 1: Bourdon Tube Pressure Gauges-Dimensions, Metrology, Requirements and Testing
31. EN 837-1:1996 Pressure Gauges-Part 2: Selection and Installation Recommendations for Pressure Gauges
32. EN 837-1:1996 Pressure Gauges-Part 3: Diaphragm and Capsule Pressure Gauges-Dimensions, Metrology, Requirements and Testing
33. This frequently used formulation is somewhat lax. It is meant that the geomem-branes may not be intended to be used to transfer and absorb permanent loads in a structure. Naturally, tensile stresses that are strictly zero can not be required. A tensile stress below 2 N/mm is considered harmless even for seams (Heitz and Henkhaus 1992). See also Sect. 3.2.10.
34. In addition to thickness reduction, the rheological process obviously is characterized by the size of the squeeze-out of the seam, which is produced during melt flow. Type and form of the squeeze-out at the same time influence the notch effect in the welded area and thus the time-to-failure in the long-term tensile test. Measurements of form and area of the squeeze-out were also used for the description of the quality of dual hot wedge seams, see (Bielefeldt et al. 1991; Corbet and Peters 1996). This quantity alone, however, cannot completely and unambiguously characterise the welding process
35. The definition of this criterion includes certain arbitrariness. The range should not be too far, since the process model then bears too little fruit. The range may not be narrower either than the scattering of the data permits. For practical reasons a too narrow range would limit the work of the welder too much in the conse quence of the process model.
36. th, but in essence proportional to it. None of these quanti ties can be directly measured practically at the welding machine during the weld ing process.
37. 0 is also machine-dependent.
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152. According to DIN 50014:1985 Climates and their Technical Application; Standard Atmospheres the standard atmosphere 50014-23/50-2 comprises an air temperature of 23 °C and a relative humidity of 50 %. The additional requirements for dew point temperature, air pressure and air velocity usually play no role in geomembrane testing. The digit 2 at the end marks an accuracy class (± 2 °C and ± 6 %). The term "room temperature" in this standard refers to the temperature of a room "in that air temperature is within a specified range, without taking into account relative humidity, air pressure and air velocity". Normally, a temperature range of 18 °C-23 °C is assumed. The EN ISO 291:1997 Plastics-Standard Atmospheres for Conditioning and Testing defines a laboratory atmosphere with an air temperature of 23 °C and a relative humidity of 50 % as standard atmosphere 23/50, Class 2.
153. The rule was established by the Dutch chemist Jacobus van't Hoff for the speed of chemical reactions in 1884. It is often also called van't Hoff law or RRT (reaction rate temperature) rule. This rule is based on the fact that the reaction rate depends exponentially on the inverse absolute temperature (see Sect. 5.1) and that the activation energy of many chemical procedures is within the range of approximately 50-100 kJ/mol.
154. According to the comparison curves of the new DIN 8075:1999 Polyethylene (PE) Pipes-PE 63, PE 80, PE 100, PE-HD-General Quality Requirements, Testing even an internal pressure strength of 5.8 N/mmmight be assumed.
155. The test method is not entirely harmless. Grzimek's "Animal Life" (Tierleben) says: "As carrier and transmitter of tularemy, a rodent plague, which can also infect humans, water voles play a role in spreading epidemics. Anyone who catches water voles on cropland or in a cellar should beware of being bitten by animals which are still alive in the trap. In order to exclude every danger of infection, dead water voles should be buried a half metre deep in the earth and a thorough hand wash is highly recommended
156. Grzimek B (1979) Tierleben, Vol. 2, Säugetiere (Mammals). Deutscher Taschenbuchverlag, Munich, p 331.
157. I recall one of the landfill conferences of the State Institute for Trade and Industry (Landesgewerbeanstalt) Nuremberg. A paper was presented about investigations on the landfill body of the central landfill in Hanover. Photographs were shown of decades-old plastic garbage which had been excavated completely unchanged. A little later, another paper dealt with pollutant emissions through composite liners. In the calculations it was assumed that the HDPE geomembrane would completely disappear in 50 years.
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216. vis to the viscous damping device
217. B is Boltzmann's constant
218. B T(& + Sy + Sz) (hr)
219. The entropy of the state of non-equilibrium can be defined as follows. The body should be divided into cells. The cells are chosen in such a way that each individual cell can be considered to be in a local state of equilibrium at any time, for which the entropy is defined as in footnote 2. The entropy of the body in non-equilibrium state is then the sum of the entropies of the cells.
220. The form of the Eq. 4.10 is obtained because relaxation time and, at a specified deformation, velocity at which a certain stress relaxation is achieved, depends on temperature in accordance with Arrhenius' equation, see Sect. 5.1, Eq. 5.3.
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236. The term chain here sometimes refers to a sequence or chain of chemical reactions and sometime to the polymer chain. This difference must be kept in mind in the following discussion.
237. 2 and therefore exactly twice the deformation energy stored in the spring. The constant weight force cannot deform the spring without setting it in motion.
238. Instead of this practice-relevant but somewhat complex consideration, a less practice-relevant, but theoretically more understandable analysis can also be used. It is assumed that the ends of a test sample, at which tensile forces are applied, are fixed in their spatial situation (constant grip condition). The external forces cannot then perform any work. If the crack in the test sample now increases, elastic energy is released, since energy stored in the strain and stress field is reduced under these boundary conditions as a function of crack growth. Only this energy is available for the formation of surfaces. This consideration also leads to the crack formation criterion.
239. This applies only to the plane state of stress. In a state of plane strain, all three main stress components occur and the stress profiles within the plastic deformation zone may be more complicated.
240. Most of the resins used for HDPE geomembranes are ethylene-α- olefin-co-polymers and should therefore rather be classified as linear low density or linear medium density HDPE. Although only the carbon black additive places them formally into the high-density range, the geosynthetic community customarily refers to them as HDPE geomembranes.
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298. Ramsteiner F (1990) Zur Spannungsrißbildung in Thermoplasten durch flüssige Umgebungsmedien. Kunststoffe 80: 695-700
299. Raymond GP and Giroud JP (eds) (1993) Geosynthetic case histories, Thirty five years of experience. BiTech Publishers Ltd, Richmond, British Columbia, Canada
300. Salman A et al. (1998) The Effect of Oxygen Pressure, Temperature and Manufacturing Processes on Laboratory Degradation of Polypropylene Geosynthetics. In: Rowe RK (ed) Conference Proceedings of the Sixth International Conference on Geosynthetics. Industrial Fabrics Association International (IFAI), Atlanta, USA, pp 683-690
301. Sangam HP and Rowe KR (2002) Durability of HDPE geomembranes. Geotex-tiles and Geomembranes 20: 77-95
302. Schröder H et al. (2000) Durability of Polyolefine Geosynthetics under Elevated Oxygen Pressure in Aqueous Liquids. In: Cancelli A et al. (eds) Proceedings of the Second European Geosynthetics Conference. Pàtron Editore, Bologna, pp 459-463
303. Seeger S et al. (2000) Long term testing of geomembranes and geotextiles under shear stress. In: Cancelli A et al. (eds) Proceedings of the Second European Geosynthetics Conference. Pàtron Editore, Bologna, pp 607-610
304. Seeger S and Müller WW (2003) Theoretical approach to designing protection: selecting a geomembrane strain criterion. In: Dixon N et al. (eds) Geosynthetics: Protecting the Environment. Thomas Telford, London, pp 137-152
305. Smith GD et al. (1992) Modeling of Antioxidant Loss From Polyolefins in Hot Water Applications I: Model and Application to Medium Density Polyethylene Pipes. Polymer Engineering and Science 32: 658-667
306. Vink P and Fontijn HFN (2000) Testing the resistance of oxidation of polypropylene geotextiles at enhanced oxygen pressure. Geotextiles and Geomembranes 18: 333-343
307. Westergaard HM (1939) Bearing Pressures and Cracks. Journal of Applied Mech-nics 61: A49-A53
308. Zhou Z and Brown N (1994) The effect of orientation on slow crack growth in high density polyethylene. Polymer 35: 1948-1951
309. Zweifel H (ed) (2001) Plastic Additives Handbook. Carl Hanser Verlag, Munich
310. The "visual or tactile characteristics of a surface" is called texture. Geomem-branes, whose surfaces are treated in some way to increase friction, are called textured geomembranes. Since the surface characteristics is often very marked and of considerable depth the term structure and structured geomembrane are often used synonymously
311. 2. A reliable estimate is obtain for n, if N n.
312. 95\n obtained from your measurement is larger than the specification value.
313. In "sandwich-like" geosynthetics, such as geosynthetic clay liners or geocompo-site drains, the internal shear strength is due to intrinsic plastic structures and it is necessary to demonstrate the stability of these plastic structures over the long term. Therefore the repercussions of creep and aging on internal shear strength must be considered by long-term tests. This issue is considered in detail in (Müller 2004).
314. In more general terms, the sum of the "driving" forces or the "actions" on a mass element on a sliding surface-which is not only the down-hill slope force of a dead weight, but also earth pressures, water flow pressures and possibly dynamic loads due to installation procedures-must be greater than the sum of the achiev able maximum values of reacting forces in the materials just before the "ultimate-limit-state" of failure occurs, i.e. greater than the so called material "resistances" (in addition to friction forces, earth pressures can also contribute to the resistance). There are different concepts as to which structural safety is to be considered. Based on probabilistic concepts, individual fractiles are calculated or determined as design values for the actions and resistances and it is shown that the sum of these design values for the action is greater than the sum of the design values for the resistance.
315. Blümel W and Brummermann K (1995) Standsicherheit von Dichtungssystemen-Grundlagen der Berechnung. In: Knipschild FW (ed) Tagungsband der 11 Fachtagung "Die sichere Deponie". Süddeutsches Kunststoffzentrum (SKZ), Würzburg, pp 307-334
316. DGGt (ed) (1997) GDA-Empfehlungen. Verlag Ernst & Sohn, Berlin
317. Donaldson JJ (1994) Texturing Techniques. In: Hsuan G and Koerner RM (eds) Proceedings of the 8th GRI Conference, Geosynthetics Resins, Formulations and Manufacturing. Industrial Fabrics Association International (IFAI), St. Paul, USA, pp 113-122
318. Driscoll R and Simpson B (2001) EN 1997 Eurocode 7: Geotechnical design. Civil Engineering 144: 49-54
319. Foik G and Günther K (1989) Bemessungsgrundlage für PE-HD Bahnen auf Bö-schungen. In: Knipschild FW (ed) Tagungsband der 5 Fachtagung "Die siche-re Deponie". Süddeutsches Kunststoffzentrum (SKZ), Würzburg, pp 149-183
320. Koerner RM (1994) Designing with Geosynthetics. Prentice Hall International, London
321. Krause R (1990) Profilierte Dichtungsbahnen. In: Knipschild FW (ed) Tagungs-band der 6 Fachtagung "Die sichere Deponie". Süddeutsches Kunststoffzent-rum (SKZ), Würzburg, pp 103-125
322. Müller WW (1996) Scherverhalten zwischen Kunststoffdichtungsbahnen und Bo-den. Geotechnik 19: 35-42
323. Müller WW (1997) Zum Standsicherheitsnachweis bei Abdichtungssystemen. Geotechnik 20: 297-299
324. Müller WW (ed) (2001) Certification Guidelines for Plastic Geomembranes Used to Line Landfills and Contaminated Sites. Laboratory of Landfill Engineering, BAM, Berlin
325. Müller WW et al. (2004) Long-term shear strength of multilayer geosynthetics. In: Floss R et al. (eds) Geotechnical Engineering with Geosynthetics, Proceedings of the Third European Geosynthetics Conference. Deutsche Gesellschaft für Geotechnik (DGGt) und Technische Universität München, Zentrum für Geo-technik (TUM-ZG), München, pp 429-434
326. Seeger S et al. (2000) Long term testing of geomembranes and geotextiles under shear stress. In: Cancelli A et al. (eds) Proceedings of the Second European Geosynthetics Conference. Pàtron Editore, Bologna, pp 607-610
327. Seeger S and Müller WW (2001) Langzeitbeständigkeit strukturierter Dichtungs-bahnen, BAM-Forschungsbericht 256. Wirtschaftsverlag NW, Verlag für neue Wissenschaft GmbH, Bremerhaven
328. Terzaghi K et al. (1996) Soil Mechanics in Engineering Practice. John Wiley & Sons, New York
329. znally, it holds in Cartesian coordinates: divJ =\H H. dx dy dz
330. A temperature gradient always induces a heat flow. Heat flow and material flow are coupled with one another. This aspect will not be dealt with here since it will be assumed that the system considered is in equilibrium with respect to tempera ture.
331. 2 in poly-ethylenes, and not to the mole number of polymer chains themselves
332. In the following,? will no longer stand for Laplace's operator as in Eq. 7.6, but simply for the difference between the concentrations above and beneath the ge-omembrane. The symbol is in italics to indicate the distinction. The context makes clear the respective meaning of the symbol anyway
333. Confusion with the hydraulic conductivity and the associated intrinsic permeability or fluidity of a porous medium should also be avoided here
334. 5 Pa. Before introducing the SI units, the standard pressure was 1 atm. The correction factor is, however, negligible within the accuracy of measured permeability coefficients.
335. Frisch, HL (1957) J Phys Chem, Was. 61:93.
336. bc 1 for bc1 > 6.
337. The intimate contact of the geomembrane and the necessary installation technology is dealt with in Chap. 9 in great detail.
338. PVC: polyvinyl chloride with low-molecular organic admixtures as softeners, ECB: ethylene copolymer bitumen, a mixture of about 50 % ethylene and 50 % bitumen, CPE: chlorinated polyethylene and/or homogeneous mixture from chlorinated polyethylenes and PVC, EPDM: terpolymer from polyethylene, polypropylene and a small amount of diene monomer. A flexible rubber is obtained by vulcanisation.
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349. Giroud JP and Bonaparte R (1989b) Leakage through Liners Constructed with Geomembranes-Part II. Composite Liners. Geotextiles and Geomembranes 8: 71-111
350. Giroud JP et al. (1989) Technical Note, Evaluation of the Rate of Leakage Through Composite Liners. Geotextiles and Geomembranes 8: 337-340
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352. Goydan R et al. (1989) Estimation of the Solubilities of Organic Compounds in Polymers by Group-Contribution Methods. Ind Eng Chem Res 28: 445
353. Jayawickrama PW et al. (1988) Leakage Rate Through Flaws in Membrane Liners. Journal of Environmental Engineering 114: 1401-1421
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359. Müller WW (1999) Stofftransport in Deponieabdichtungssystemen, Teil 3: Aus-wirkungen von Fehlstellen in der Dichtungsbahn, ein Überblick. Bautechnik 76: 757-768
360. Müller WW et al. (1997a) Stofftransport in Deponieabdichtungssystemen, Teil 2: Permeation in der Kombinationsdichtung. Bautechnik 74: 331-344
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362. Müller WW et al. (1998) Solubilities, Diffusion and Partition Coefficients of Organic Pollutants in HDPE Geomembranes: Experimental Results and Calculations. In: Rowe RK (ed) Proceedings of the Sixth International Conference on Geosynthetics. Industrial Fabrics Association International (IFAI), Roseville, MN, USA, pp 239-248
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368. Reid RC et al. (1977) The Properties of Gases and Liquids. McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York
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370. Rowe KR et al. (1995a) Clayey Barrier Systems for Waste Disposal Facilities. E & FN Spon, an imprint of Chapman and Hall, London
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373. Scheidegger AE (1963) Hydrodynamics in Porous Media. In: Flügge S and Trues-dell C (eds) Encyclopedia of Physics Fluid Dynamics II. Springer Verlag, Berlin, pp 625-662
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378. Soong T-Y and Koerner RM (1999) Behavior of waves in high density polyethylene geomembranes: a laboratory study. Geotextiles and Geomembranes 17: 81-104
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383. Geosynthetics are "planar products manufactured from polymeric materials used with soil, rock, earth, or other geotechnical engineering related material as an integral part of a man-made project, structure or system". (Forschungsgesellschaft für Straßen-und Verkehrswesen (FGSV) (ed) (1994) Merkblatt für die Anwen-dung von Geotextilien und Geogittern im Erdbau des Straßenbaus. Forschungsge-sellschaft für Straßen und Verkehrswesen (FGSV), Köln
384. Koerner RM (1990) Designing with Geosynthetics. Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, USA.
385. ASTM D4439-01 Standard Terminology for Geosynthetic is referred to for all the following definitions. Geosynthetics are distinguished as: geotextiles (permeable nonwoven, woven or knitted fabrics) geogrids (a network of connected elements with relatively large apertures).
386. The mass per unit length of a fibre is called titer. Its size characterises the fineness of fibres. The unit used to measure titers is the so-called "tex". The unit is defined as follows: 1 tex corresponds to 1 g fibre measured on a fibre length of 1000 m and 1 dtex corresponds to 1 g fibre measured on a fibre length of 10,000 m.
387. With a critical elongation limit of 3 % a permissible radius of curvature of 40 mm can be calculated for a 2.5 mm thick geomembrane from Eq. 8.4. In practice, when handling the geomembrane in the field (e.g. rolling up the geomem-brane on a spindle) or on the construction site this value is never exceeded
388. The limiting value of 0.25 % for the arch elongation has developed from the consideration that a visual inspection finds only minor indentations, but this criterion has to be able to be quantified by a simple measurement. With 16/32 mm gravel this criterion fits coincidentally with the requirement of plastic technology that even local elongations may not exceed the critical limiting strain. Since it is simple to test and already established, it was maintained as a design criterion within the BAM certification for protective layers. However, 0.25 % still remains a mystery, even for some experts.
389. August H and Lüders G (1995) Untersuchung der Langzeitbestä ndigkeit von Schutzmaterialien für Kunststoffdichtungsbahnen von Deponiebasisab-dichtungen, Bericht zum Teilvorhaben 36 des MBF- Verbundforschungs-vorhabens Weiterentwicklung von Deponieabdichtungssystemen. BAM, Labor Deponietechnik, Berlin
390. August H and Lüders G (1997) Investigation to the long-term integrity of protective materials for geomembranes in landfill basal liners. In: August H et al. (eds) Advanced landfill liner systems. Thomas Telford Publishing, London, pp 261-269
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393. Brummermann K (1997b) Schutzschichten für Kunststoffdichtungsbahnen in De-poniebasisabdichtungen-Prüfung und Bewertung ihrer Wirksamkeit. Institut für Grundbau, Bodenmechanik und Energiewasserbau, Universität Hannover, Hannover
394. Brummermann K et al. (1999) Geotextile Schutzschichten für Kunststoffdich-tungsbahnen im Tunnelbau. In: Sonderheft zur K-Geo. DGGt, Essen
395. Brummermann K and Schlütter A (2004) New German Recommendations for Ge-omembrane Sealing Systems in Tunnel Constructions. In: Floss R et al. (eds) Geotechnical Engineering with Geosynthetics, Proceedings of the Third European Geosynthetics Conference. Deutsche Gesellschaft für Geotechnik (DGGt) und Technische Universität München, Zentrum für Geotechnik (TUM-ZG), München, pp 211-214
396. DGGt (1997) GDA-Empfehlungen. Verlag Ernst & Sohn, Berlin
397. FGSV (1994) Merkblatt für die Anwendung von Geotextilien und Geogittern im Erdbau des Straßenbaus. Forschungsgesellschaft für Straßen und Verkehrswe-sen (FGSV), Köln
398. Gallagher EM et al. (1999) Performance Testing of Landfill Geoprotectors: Background, Critique, Developement, and current U. K. Practice. Geosynthetics International 6: 283-302
399. Hsuan YG and Koerner RM (2002) Durability and lifetime of polymer fibers with respect to reinforced geosynthetic clay barriers; i.e. reinforced GCLs. In: Zan-zinger H et al. (eds) Clay Geosynthetic Barriers. A.A. Balkema Publishers, Lisse, The Netherlands, pp 73-86
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416. Seeger S and Müller WW (2003) Theoretical approach to designing protection: selecting a geomembrane strain criterion. In: Dixon N et al. (eds) Geosynthetics: Protecting the Environment. Thomas Telford, London, pp 137-152
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425. As a reaction to this critic on compacted clay liners it was suggested that the waste should be buried under an enormously thick soil reclamation layer (> 3 m) with an evergreen wood where the trees' crowns are contiguous. This concept represents the belief that leachate generation could be prevented for ever in a "natural" way, even under climate conditions with annual rainfall of > 500 mm. One may speculated whether such design concepts arise from a psychological bias: The deep-rooting desire to bury garbage and let it disappear not only from the eye, but also entirely from the senses. There are, however, various plausible technical and ecological reasons against this idea.
426. 3), which occur however only in negligibly small quantities.
427. Marc 2:22: "And no one pours new wine into old wineskins. If he does, the wine will burst the skins, and both the wine and the wineskins will be ruined. No, he pours new wine into new wineskins, Marc 2:22: "And no one pours new wine into old wineskins. If he does, the wine will burst the skins, and both the wine and the wineskins will be ruined. No, he pours new wine into new wineskins.
428. The document can be viewed at AK GWS's website: www.akgws.de.
429. Concerning experience, the IAGI's "HDPE geomembrane installation specification" requires that the installer "shall have installed at least 10 projects involving a total of 500,000 m of the specified type of geomembrane or similar during the last years". The same requirement holds for the field installation supervisor. The mas ter seamer should have seamed a minimum of 300,000 m of geomembrane
430. The installation manager is the responsible leader of the geomembrane installa tion for the installation contractor within the building project.
431. DIN EN 837-1:1997-02 Pressure gauges-Part 1: Bourdon gauges; Dimensions, Measurement Methods, Requirements and Testing; DIN EN 837-2:1997-05 Pressure gauges-Part 2: Selection and Installation Suggestions for Pressure Gauges; DIN EN 837-3:1997-02 Pressure gauges-Part 3: Diaphragm Gauges and Capsule Manometers; Dimensions, Measurement Method, Requirements and Testing.
432. AK-GWS (1994) Dichtungssysteme mit Geokunststoffen, Zusätzliche technische Vertragsbedingungen für das Gewerk Geokunststoffe bei Kombinations-dichtungssytemen im Deponiebau, Teil 1: Kunststoffdichtungsbahnen. Müll und Abfall 26: 162-170
433. AK-GWS (1995) Dichtungssysteme mit Geokunststoffen, Zusätzliche technische Vertragsbedingungen für das Gewerk Geokunststoffe bei Kombinations-dichtungssytemen im Deponiebau, Teil 2: Geotextilien zum Schützen, Tren-nen, Filtern und Bewehren. Müll und Abfall 27: 702-706
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