Neurologic complications of cardiac surgery and interventional cardiology

Handbook of Clinical Neurology

Volumn 119, Issue , 2014, Pages 193-208

  Hocker, Sara ^a   Wijdicks, Eelco F M ^a   Biller, Jose ^b  

^a MAYO CLINIC   (United States)

^b LOYOLA UNIVERSITY MEDICAL CENTER   (United States)

Author keywords

Cardiac surgery; Encephalopathy; Interventional cardiology; Neurologic complications; Neuromuscular complications; Seizures; Stroke

Indexed keywords

ARTICLE; BRAIN DISEASE; CEREBROVASCULAR ACCIDENT; HEART DISEASE; HEART SURGERY; HUMAN; INTERVENTIONAL CARDIOLOGY; NEUROLOGIC COMPLICATIONS; NEUROMUSCULAR COMPLICATIONS; POSTOPERATIVE COMPLICATION; SEIZURE;

CARDIAC SURGERY; ENCEPHALOPATHY; INTERVENTIONAL CARDIOLOGY; NEUROLOGIC COMPLICATIONS; NEUROMUSCULAR COMPLICATIONS; SEIZURES; STROKE;

BRAIN DISEASES; CARDIAC SURGICAL PROCEDURES; HEART DISEASES; HUMANS; POSTOPERATIVE COMPLICATIONS;

EID: 84890951024     PISSN: 00729752     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book Series    
DOI: 10.1016/B978-0-7020-4086-3.00014-X     Document Type: Chapter

References (126)

1. Abdul Aziz K.A., Meduoye A. Is pH-stat or alpha-stat the best technique to follow in patients undergoing deep hypothermic circulatory arrest?. Interact Cardiovasc Thorac Surg 2010, 10:271-282.
2. Abend N.S., Levine J.M. Hypodense middle cerebral artery with fat embolus. Neurocrit Care 2007, 6:147-148.
3. Addonizio V.P., Smith J.B., Strauss J.F., et al. Thromboxane synthesis and platelet secretion during cardiopulmonary bypass with bubble oxygenator. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 1980, 79:91-96.
4. Aggarwal A., Dai D., Rumsfeld J.S., et al. Incidence and predictors of stroke associated with percutaneous coronary intervention. American College of Cardiology National Cardiovascular Data Registry. Am J Cardiol 2009, 104:349-353.
5. Akins C.W. Results with mechanical cardiac valvular prostheses. Ann Thorac Surg 1995, 60(6):1836-1844.
6. Anderson D.E., Biller J., Schreiber R.R. Spontaneous cerebellar hemorrhage after coronary artery bypass surgery. Eur Neurol 1985, 24:145-148.
7. Aoyagi S., Kosuga T., Fukunaga S., et al. Subdural hematoma after open-heart surgery. J Heart Valve Dis 2007, 16:450-453.
8. Armon C., Deschamps C., Adkinson C., et al. Hyperbaric treatment of cerebral air embolism sustained during an open-heart surgical procedure. Mayo Clin Proc 1991, 66:565-571.
9. Balbi M., Casalino L., Gnecco G., et al. Percutaneous closure of patent foramen ovale in patients with presumed paradoxical embolism: periprocedural results and midterm risk of recurrent neurologic events. Am Heart J 2008, 156:356-360.
10. Bando K., Kobayashi J., Hirata M., et al. Early and late stroke after mitral valve replacement with a mechanical prosthesis: risk factor analysis of a 24-year experience. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 2003, 126:358-364.
11. Bartlett R.H., Gazzaniga A.B., Toomasian J., et al. Extracorporeal membrane oxygenation (ECMO) in neonatal respiratory failure. 100 cases. Ann Surg 1986, 204:236-245.
12. Berger J.S. Platelet-directed therapies and coronary artery bypass grafting. Am J Cardiol 2009, 104(5 Suppl):44C-48C.
13. Bjessmo S., Ivert T. Cardiac myxoma: 40 years' experience in 63 patients. Ann Thorac Surg 1997, 63:697-700.
14. Bloomfield P., Wheatley D.J., Prescott R.J., et al. Twelve-year comparison of a Bjork-Shiley mechanical heart valve with porcine bioprostheses. N Engl J Med 1991, 324:573-579.
15. Brown D.L., Topol E.J. Stroke complicating percutaneous coronary revascularization. Am J Cardiol 1993, 72:1207-1209.
16. Burzotta F., Oppenheim C., Morello R., et al. Silent cerebral infarct after cardiac catheterization as detected by diffusion weighted magnetic resonance imaging: a randomized comparison of radial and femoral arterial approaches 2007, EMBASE Trials 8, article number 15. ClinicalTrials.gov Identifier: NCT00329979.
17. Busch T., Sirbu H., Aleksic I., et al. Anterior ischemic optic neuropathy: a complication after extracorporal circulation. Ann Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 1998, 4:354-358.
18. Busing K.A., Schulte-Sasse C., Flüchter S., et al. Cerebral infarction: incidence and risk factors after diagnostic and interventional cardiac catheterization - prospective evaluation at diffusion-weighted MR imaging. Radiology 2005, 235:177-183.
19. Butchart E.G., Payne N., Li H.H., et al. Better anticoagulation control improves survival after valve replacement. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 2002, 123:715-723.
20. Canbaz S., Turgut N., Halici U., et al. Brachial plexus injury during open heart surgery - controlled prospective study. Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 2005, 53:295-299.
21. Cannegieter S.C., Rosendaal F.R., Wintzen A.R., et al. Optimal oral anticoagulant therapy in patients with mechanical heart valves. N Engl J Med 1995, 333:11-17.
22. Caplan L.R., Weiner H., Weintraub R.M., et al. "Migrainous" neurologic dysfunction in patients with prosthetic cardiac valves. Headache 1976, 16:218-221.
23. Caswell J., O'Brien B., Schneck M. Risk of stroke following valve replacement surgery. Semin Cerebrovasc Dis Stroke 2003, 3:214-218.
24. Cho L. Cerebrovascular complications in interventional cardiology. Semin Cerebrovasc Dis Stroke 2003, 3:228-232.
25. Cline S.L., Kalaria V.G., Von Der Lohe E. Cerebrovascular complications of cardiac catheterization. Semin Cerebrovasc Dis Stroke 2003, 3:194-199.
26. Cooper D.M., Bazaral M.G., Furlan A.L., et al. Pituitary apoplexy: a complication of cardiac surgery. Ann Thorac Surg 1986, 41:547-550.
27. Copeland J.G., Smith R.G., Arabia F.A., et al. Total artificial heart bridge to transplantation: a 9-year experience with 62 patients. J Heart Lung Transplant 2004, 23:823-831.
28. Cruz-Flores S., Diamond A.L., Leira E.C. Cerebral air embolism secondary to intra-aortic balloon pump rupture. Neurocrit Care 2005, 2:49-50.
29. Deklunder G., Roussel M., Lecroart J.L., et al. Microemboli in cerebral circulation and alteration of cognitive abilities in patients with mechanical prosthetic heart valves. Stroke 1998, 29:1821-1826.
30. Dimopoulou I., Daganou M., Dafni U., et al. Phrenic nerve dysfunction after cardiac operations: electrophysiologic evaluation of risk factors. Chest 1998, 113:8-14.
31. Djaiani G., Ali M., Borger M.A., et al. Epiaortic scanning modifies planned intraoperative surgical management but not cerebral embolic load during coronary artery bypass surgery. Anesth Analg 2008, 106:1611-1618.
32. Dorenbeck U., Simon B., Skowasch D., et al. Cerebral embolism with interventional closure of symptomatic patent foramen ovale: an MRI-based study using diffusion-weighted imaging. Eur J Neurol 2007, 14:451-454.
33. Dukkipati S., O'Neill W.W., Harjai K.J., et al. Characteristics of cerebrovascular accidents after percutaneous coronary interventions. J Am Coll Cardiol 2004, 43:1161-1167.
34. Fleck J.D., Biller J. Cerebrovascular complications of cardiovascular interventions: coronary artery bypass graft procedures. Semin Cerebrovasc Dis Stroke 2003, 3:207-213.
35. Fleck J.D., O'Donnell J.A., Biller J. Cardiac evaluation of patient with carotid artery stenosis and treatment strategies for coexisting disease. Carotid Artery Surgery 2000, 121-129. Thieme Medical Publishers, New York. C.M. Loftus, T.F. Kresowik (Eds.).
36. Fligor B.J., Neault M.W., Mullen C.H., et al. Factors associated with sensorineural hearing loss among survivors of extracorporeal membrane oxygenation therapy. Pediatrics 2005, 115:1519-1528.
37. Floyd T.F., Shah P.N., Price C.C., et al. Clinically silent cerebral ischemic events after cardiac surgery: their incidence, regional vascular occurrence, and procedural dependence. Ann Thorac Surg 2006, 81:2160-2166.
38. Frye R.E., Newburger J.W., Nugent A., et al. Focal seizure and cerebral contrast retention after cardiac catheterization. Pediatr Neurol 2005, 32:213-216.
39. Fuchs S., Stabile E., Kinnaird T.D., et al. Stroke complicating percutaneous coronary interventions: incidence, predictors, and prognostic implications. Circulation 2002, 106:86-91.
40. Geyer T.E., Naik M.J., Pillai R. Anterior spinal artery syndrome after elective coronary artery bypass grafting. Ann Thorac Surg 2002, 73:1971-1973.
41. Glass P., Wagner A.E., Papero P.H., et al. Neurodevelopmental status at age five years of neonates treated with extracorporeal membrane oxygenation. J Pediatr 1995, 127:447-457.
42. Goldsmith I., Lip G.Y., Kaukuntla H., et al. Hospital morbidity and mortality and changes in quality of life following mitral valve surgery in the elderly. J Heart Valve Dis 1999, 8:702-707.
43. Gootjes E.C., Wijdicks E.F., McClelland R.L. Postoperative stupor and coma. Mayo Clin Proc 2005, 80:350-354.
44. Guerios E.E., Bueno R., Nercolini D., et al. Mitral stenosis and percutaneous mitral valvuloplasty (part 1). J Invasive Cardiol 2005, 17:382-386.
45. Hammermeister K.E., Sethi G.K., Henderson W.G., et al. A comparison of outcomes in men 11 years after heart-valve replacement with a mechanical valve or bioprosthesis. Veteran Affairs Cooperative Study on Valvular Heart Disease. N Engl J Med 1993, 328:1289-1296.
46. Hazelrigg S.R., Auer J.E., Seifert P.E. Experience in 100 transthoracic balloon pumps. Ann Thorac Surg 1992, 54:528-532.
47. Ho A.C., Hong C.L., Yang M.W., et al. Stroke after intraaortic balloon counterpulsation associated with mobile atheroma in thoracic aorta diagnosed using transesophageal echocardiography. Chang Gung Med J 2002, 25:612-616.
48. Honet J.C., Wajszczuk W.J., Rubenfire M., et al. Neurological abnormalities in the leg(s) after use of intraaortic balloon pump: report of six cases. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 1975, 56:346-352.
49. Horstkotte D., Scharf R.E., Schultheiss H.P. Intracardiac thrombosis: patient-related and device-related factors. J Heart Valve Dis 1995, 4:114-120.
50. Hunter G.R., Young G.B. Seizures after cardiac surgery. J Cardiothorac Vasc Anesth 2011, 25:299-305.
51. Hupperts R., Wetzelaer W., Heuts-van Raak L., et al. Is haemodynamical compromise a specific cause of border zone brain infarcts following cardiac surgery?. Eur Neurol 1995, 35:276-280.
52. Jackson J.L., Meyer G.S., Pettit T. Complications from cardiac catheterization: analysis of a military database. Mil Med 2000, 165:298-301.
53. Jarjour I.T., Ahdab-Barmada M. Cerebrovascular lesions in infants and children dying after extracorporeal membrane oxygenation. Pediatr Neurol 1994, 10:13-19.
54. Kakkar R., Ellis M., Fearon P.V. Compartment syndrome of the thigh as a complication of anticoagulant therapy in a patient with a left ventricular assist device (Berlin Heart). Gen Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 2010, 58:477-479.
55. Karsli B., Cubukcu S. An unusual cause of meralgia paresthetica. Pain Clinic 2005, 17:221-224.
56. Katz M.G., Katz R., Schachner A., et al. Phrenic nerve injury after coronary artery bypass grafting: will it go away?. Ann Thorac Surg 1998, 65:32-35.
57. Kestin A.S., Valeri C.R., Khuri S.F., et al. The platelet function defect of cardiopulmonary bypass. Blood 1993, 82:107-117.
58. Knipp S.C., Matatko N., Schlamann M., et al. Small ischemic brain lesions after cardiac valve replacement detected by diffusion-weighted magnetic resonance imaging: relation to neurocognitive function. Eur J Cardiothorac Surg 2005, 28:88-96.
59. Kuruvilla A., Kuruttukulam G., Francis B. Femoral neuropathy following cardiac catheterization for balloon mitral valvotomy. Int J Cardiol 1999, 71:197-198.
60. Kvidal P., Bergström R., Malm T., et al. Long-term follow-up of morbidity and mortality after aortic valve replacement with a mechanical valve prosthesis. Eur Heart J 2000, 21:1099-1111.
61. Kvitting J.P., Engvall J., Broqvist M., et al. Recurrence of myxoma in the left ventricle with concurrent cerebral fusiform aneurysms after previous atrial myxoma surgery. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 2008, 135:1172-1173.
62. Lazar J.M., Uretsky B.F., Denys B.G., et al. Predisposing risk factors and natural history of acute neurologic complications of left-sided cardiac catheterization. Am J Cardiol 1995, 75:1056-1060.
63. Lee S.Y., Loo J.L., Ang C.L. Ischemic oculopathy as a complication of surgery for an atrial myxoma. Arch Ophthalmol 2004, 122:130-131.
64. Levine G.N., Gomes A.S., Arai A.E., et al. Safety of magnetic resonance imaging in patients with cardiovascular devices. An American Heart Association Scientific statement from the Committee on Diagnostic and Interventional Cardiac Catheterization, Council on Clinical Cardiology, and the Council on Cardiovascular Radiology and Intervention. Endorsed by the American College of Cardiology Foundation, the North American Society for Cardiac Imaging, and the Society for Cardiovascular Magnetic Resonance. Circulation 2007, 116:2878-2891.
65. Libman R.B., Wirkowski E., Neystat M., et al. Stroke associated with cardiac surgery. Determinants, timing, and stroke subtypes. Arch Neurol 1997, 54:83-87.
66. Likosky D.S., Marrin C.A., Caplan L.R., et al. Determination of etiologic mechanisms of stroke secondary to coronary artery bypass graft surgery. Stroke 2003, 34:2830-2834.
67. Liu X.Y., Wong V., Leung M. Neurologic complications due to catheterization. Pediatr Neurol 2001, 24:270-275.
68. Lloyd-Jones D., Adams R.J., Brown T.M., et al. Heart disease and stroke statistics - 2010 update: a report from the American Heart Association. Circulation 2010, 121:e46-e215. American Heart Association Statistics Committee and Stroke Statistics Subcommittee, erratum e260.
69. Luermans J.G., Post M.C., Plokker H.W., et al. Complications and mid-term outcome after percutaneous patent foramen ovale closure in patients with cryptogenic stroke. Neth Heart J 2008, 16:332-336.
70. Lund C., Nes R.B., Ugelstad T.P., et al. Cerebral emboli during left heart catheterization may cause acute brain injury. Eur Heart J 2005, 26:1269-1275.
71. Macdonald R.L., Kowalczuk A., Johns L. Emboli enter penetrating arteries of monkey brain in relation to their size. Stroke 1995, 26:1247-1250. discussion 1250-1251.
72. Mack M.J., Brown P.P., Kugelmass A.D., et al. Current status and outcomes of coronary revascularization 1999 to 2002: 148,396 surgical and percutaneous procedures. Ann Thorac Surg 2004, 77:761-766. discussion 766-768.
73. Mateen F.J., Muralidharan R., Shinohara R.T., Parisi J.E., Schears G.J., Wijdicks E.F. Neurological injury in adults treated with extracorporeal membrane oxygenation. Arch Neurol. 2011, 68(12):1543-1549.
74. McCarthy P.M., Piehler J.M., Schaff H.V., et al. The significance of multiple, recurrent, and "complex" cardiac myxomas. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 1986, 91:389-396.
75. McKhann G.M., Grega M.A., Borowicz L.M., et al. Stroke and encephalopathy after cardiac surgery: an update. Stroke 2006, 37:562-571.
76. Mehta R., Lee K.J., Chaturvedi R., et al. Complications of pediatric cardiac catheterization: a review in the current era. Catheter Cardiovasc Interv 2008, 72:278-285.
77. Mullen M.T., McGarvey M.L., Kasner S.E. Safety and efficacy of thrombolytic therapy in postoperative cerebral infarctions. Neurol Clin 2006, 24:783-793.
78. Nabavi D.G., Georgiadis D., Mumme T., et al. Clinical relevance of microembolic signals in patients with left ventricular assist devices. Stroke 1996, 27:891-896.
79. Nakajima M., Tsuchiya K., Kanemaru K., et al. Subdural hemorrhagic injury after open heart surgery. Ann Thorac Surg 2003, 76:614-615.
80. National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke rt-PA Stroke Study Group Tissue plasminogen activator for acute ischemic stroke. N Engl J Med 1995, 333:1581-1588.
81. Newman M.F., Kirchner J.K., Phillips-Bute B., et al. Longitudinal assessment of neuroocognitive function after coronary-artery bypass surgery. N Engl J Med 2001, 344:395-402.
82. Ng P.P., Higashida R.T., Cullen S.P., et al. Intraarterial thrombolysis trials in acute ischemic stroke. J Vasc Interv Radiol 2004, 15:S77-S85.
83. Nussmeier N.A., Arlund C., Slogoff S. Neuropsychiatric complications after cardiopulmonary bypass: cerebral protection by a barbiturate. Anesthesiology 1986, 64:165-170.
84. Nuttall G.A., Garrity J.A., Dearani J.A., et al. Risk factors for optic neuropathy after cardiopulmonary bypass: a matched case/control study. Anesth Analg 2001, 93:1410-1416.
85. Oka K., Kamota T., Satou M., et al. Subdural hematoma following cardiac surgery. Kyobu Geka 2008, 61:868-872.
86. Onem G., Irak B., Baltalarli A., et al. Intracerebral hemorrhage treated with external ventricular drainage following coronary bypass surgery. J Card Surg 2007, 22:225-227. discussion 227.
87. Ozcakar L., Dinçer F., Atalay A., et al. Compressive injury of the brachial plexus after axillary arteriography and its further consequences. Joint Bone Spine 2004, 71:349-351.
88. Piatt J.H. Massive intracerebral hemorrhage complicating cardiac catheterization with ergonovine administration. Stroke 1984, 15:904-907.
89. Pichon N., Bellec F., Sekkal S., et al. Fatal thrombotic event after infusion of recombinant activated factor VII after cardiac surgery. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 2008, 136:220-221.
90. Price D.L., Harris J.L., New P.F., et al. Cardiac myxoma: a clinicopathologic and angiographic study. Arch Neurol 1970, 23:558-567.
91. Rama B.N., Pagano T.V., DelCore M., et al. Cortical blindness after cardiac catheterization: effect of rechallenge with dye. Cathet Cardiovasc Diagn 1993, 28:149-151.
92. Restrepo L., Quiroga-Chand A., Tornatore C., et al. "Rubral" tremor after cardiac catheterization: report of 2 cases. Tex Heart Inst J 2005, 32:427-429.
93. Roach G.W., Kanchuger M., Mangano C.M., et al. Adverse cerebral outcomes after coronary bypass surgery. Multicenter Study of Perioperative Ischemia Research Group and the Ischemia Research and Education Foundation Investigators. N Engl J Med 1996, 335:1857-1863.
94. Roeltgen D.P., Weimer G.R., Patterson L.F. Delayed neurologic complications of left atrial myxoma. Neurology 1981, 31:8-13.
95. Ruel M., Masters R.G., Rubens F.D., et al. Late incidence and determinants of stroke after aortic and mitral valve replacement. Ann Thorac Surg 2004, 78:77-83.
96. Sadek M.M., Ravindran A., Marcuzzi D.W., et al. Complete occlusion of the proximal subclavian artery post-CABG: presentation and treatment. Can J Cardiol 2008, 24:591-592.
97. Sankaranarayanan R., Msairi A., Davis G.K. Stroke complicating cardiac catheterization - a preventable and treatable complication. J Invasive Cardiol 2007, 19:40-45.
98. Sansone V., Piazza L., Butera G., et al. Contrast-induced seizures after cardiac catheterization in a 6-year-old child. Pediatr Neurol 2007, 36:268-270.
99. Schmid C., Weyand M., Nabavi D.G., et al. Cerebral and systemic embolization during left ventricular support with the Novacor N100 device. Ann Thorac Surg 1998, 65:1703-1710.
100. Scrofani R., Carro C., Villa L., et al. Cardiac myxoma: surgical results and 15-year clinical follow-up. Ital Heart J Suppl 2002, 3:753-758.
101. Segal A.Z., Abernethy W.B., Palacios I.F., et al. Stroke as a complication of cardiac catheterization: risk factors and clinical features. Neurology 2001, 56:975-977.
102. Selnes O.A., Grega M.A., Bailey M.M., et al. Do management strategies for coronary artery disease influence 6-year cognitive outcomes?. Ann Thorac Surg 2009, 88:445-454.
103. Shachar G.B., Vlodaver Z., Joyce L.D., et al. Mural thrombosis of the left atrium following replacement of the mitral valve. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 1981, 82:595-600.
104. Sharma A.D., Parmley C.L., Sreeram G., et al. Peripheral nerve injuries during cardiac surgery: risk factors, diagnosis, prognosis, and prevention. Anesth Analg 2000, 91:1358-1369.
105. Slater J.P., Rose E.A., Levin H.R., et al. Low thromboembolic risk without anticoagulation using advanced-design left ventricular assist devices. Ann Thorac Surg 1996, 62:1321-1328.
106. Smith W.S., Sung G., Starkman S., et al. Safety and efficacy of mechanical embolectomy in acute ischemic stroke: results of the MERCI trial. Stroke 2005, 36:1432-1438. MERCI Trial Investigators.
107. Stamou S.C. Stroke and encephalopathy after cardiac surgery: the search for the holy grail. Stroke 2006, 37:284-285.
108. Sticherling C., Berkefeld J., Auch-Schwelk W., et al. Transient bilateral cortical blindness after coronary angiography. Lancet 1998, 351:570.
109. Thomas T.D., Troost B.T. Permanent cerebral blindness after cardiac catheterization. Cathet Cardiovasc Diagn 1989, 17:228-230.
110. Thomas C.E., Jichici D., Petrucci R., et al. Neurologic complications of the Novacor left ventricular assist device. Ann Thorac Surg 2001, 72:1311-1315.
111. Thourani V.S., Weintraub W.S., Guyton R.A., et al. Outcomes and long-term survival for patients undergoing mitral valve repair versus replacement: effect of age and concomitant coronary artery bypass grafting. Circulation 2003, 108:298-304.
112. van Dijk D., Nierich A.P., Jansen E.D., et al. Early outcome after off-pump versus on-pump coronary bypass surgery: results from a randomized study. Circulation 2001, 104:1761-1766. Octopus Study Group.
113. Vasquez-Jimenez J.F., Krebs G., Schiefer J., et al. Injury of the common peroneal nerve after cardiothoracic operations. Ann Thorac Surg 2002, 73:119-122.
114. Vik-Mo H., Todnem K., Folling M., et al. Transient visual disturbance during cardiac catheterization with angiography. Cathet Cardiovasc Diagn 1986, 12:1-4.
115. Walker M.T., Kilani R.K., Toye L.R., et al. Central and peripheral fusiform aneurysms six years after left atrial myxoma resection. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 2003, 74:281-282.
116. Weissman B.M., Aram D.M., Levinsohn M.W., et al. Neurologic sequelae of cardiac catheterization. Cathet Cardiovasc Diagn 1985, 11:577-583.
117. Wijdicks E.F.M. Neurologic complications of cardiac surgery. Neurologic Complications of Critical Illness 2002, 267-268. Oxford University Press, New York. E.F.M. Wijdicks (Ed.).
118. Wijman C.A.C., Kase C.S., Jacobs A.K., et al. Cerebral air embolism as a cause of stroke during cardiac catheterization. Neurology 1998, 51:318-319.
119. Wolman R.L., Nussmeier N., Aggarwal A., et al. Cerebral injury after cardiac surgery: identification of a group at extraordinary risk. Multicenter Study of Perioperative Ischemia Research Group (McSPI) and the Ischemia Research Education Foundation (IREF) Investigators. Stroke 1999, 30:514-522.
120. Yakupoglu H., Onal M.B., Civelek E. Pituitary apoplexy after cardiac surgery in a patient with subclinical pituitary adenoma: case report with review of literature. Neurol Neurochir Pol 2010, 44:520-525.
121. Yazici M., Ozhan H., Kinay O., et al. Transient cortical blindness after cardiac catheterization with iobitridol. Tex Heart Inst J 2007, 34:373-375.
122. Zaidan J.R., Klochany A., Martin W.M., et al. Effectof thiopental on neurologic outcome following coronary artery bypass grafting. Anesthesiology 1991, 74:406-411.
123. Zaidat O.O., Slivka A.P., Yousef M., et al. Intra-arterial thrombolytic therapy in pericoronary angiography ischemic stroke. Stroke 2005, 36:1089-1090.
124. Zanatta P., Forti A., Bosco E., et al. Microembolic signals and strategy to prevent gas embolism during extracorporeal membrane oxygenation. J Cardiothorac Surg 2010, 5:5.
125. Zimpfer D., Kilo J., Czerny M., et al. Neurocognitive deficit following aortic valve replacement with biological/mechanical prosthesis. Eur J Cardiothorac Surg 2003, 23:544-551.
126. Zwischenberger J.B., Nguyen T.T., Upp J.R., et al. Complications of neonatal extracorporeal membrane oxygenation. Collective experience from the Extracorporeal Life Support Organization. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 1994, 107:838-848. discussion 848-849.