Clinical microbiology of coxiella burnetii and relevant aspects for the diagnosis and control of the zoonotic disease Q fever

Veterinary Quarterly

Volumn 33, Issue 3, 2013, Pages 148-160

  Roest, Hendrik I J ^a   Bossers, Alex ^a   van Zijderveld, Fred G ^a   Rebel, Johanna M L ^a  

^a WAGENINGEN UNIVERSITY   (Netherlands)

Author keywords

Control; Coxiella burnetii; Diagnosis; Immunology; Microbiology; Pathogenesis; Q Fever; Zoonosis

Indexed keywords

BACTERIUM LIPOPOLYSACCHARIDE;

BACTERIAL STRAIN; BACTERIAL TRANSMISSION; BACTERIUM ISOLATION; BIRTH; COXIELLA BURNETII; DISEASE ASSOCIATION; DISEASE CONTROL; ENZYME LINKED IMMUNOSORBENT ASSAY; GENE SEQUENCE; GENETIC HETEROGENEITY; GENOTYPE; HEALTH HAZARD; HUMAN; NONHUMAN; PHAGOCYTOSIS; PHAGOSOME; POLYMERASE CHAIN REACTION; PUBLIC HEALTH; Q FEVER; QUALITY CONTROL; REVIEW; VACCINATION;

ANIMALIA; BACTERIA (MICROORGANISMS); COXIELLA BURNETII;

ANIMALS; COXIELLA BURNETII; DISEASE OUTBREAKS; FEMALE; HUMANS; LIVESTOCK; PREGNANCY; Q FEVER; ZOONOSES;

EID: 84890213398     PISSN: 01652176     EISSN: 18755941     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/01652176.2013.843809     Document Type: Review

References (134)

1. Amano K., Williams JC, Missler SR, Reinhold VN. 1987. Structure and biological relationships of Coxiella burnetii lipopolysaccharides. J Biol Chem. 262:4740-4747.
2. Andoh M., Zhang G, Russell-Lodrigue KE, Shive HR, Weeks BR, Samuel JE. 2007. T cells are essential for bacterial clearance, and gamma interferon, tumor necrosis factor alpha, and B cells are crucial for disease development in Coxiella burnetii infection in mice. Infect Immunol. 75:3245-3255.
3. Angen O., Stahl M, Agerholm JS, Christoffersen AB, Agger JF. 2011. Dynamics of relationship between the presence of Coxiella burnetii DNA, antibodies, and intrinsic variables in cow milk and bulk tank milk from Danish dairy cattle. J Dairy Sci. 94:5750-5759.
4. Arricau-Bouvery N., Hauck Y, Bejaoui A, Frangoulidis D, Bodier CC, Souriau A, Meyer H, Neubauer H, Rodolakis A, Vergnaud G. 2006. Molecular characterization of Coxiella burnetii isolates by infrequent restriction site-PCR and MLVA typing. BMC Microbiol. 6:38.
5. Arricau-Bouvery N., Rodolakis A. 2005. Is Q fever an emerging or re-emerging zoonosis? Vet Res. 36:327-349.
6. Arricau-Bouvery N., Souriau A, Bodier C, Dufour P, Rousset E, Rodolakis A. 2005. Effect of vaccination with phase I and phase II Coxiella burnetii vaccines in pregnant goats. Vaccine. 23:4392-4402.
7. Arricau-Bouvery N., Souriau A, Lechopier P, Rodolakis A. 2003. Experimental Coxiella burnetii infection in pregnant goats: excretion routes. Vet Res. 34:423-433.
8. Astobiza I., Barral M, Ruiz-Fons F, Barandika JF, Gerrikagoitia X, Hurtado A, Garcia-Perez AL. 2011. Molecular investigation of the occurrence of Coxiella burnetii in wildlife and ticks in an endemic area. Vet Microbiol. 147:190-194.
9. Astobiza I., Ruiz-Fons F, Pinero A, Barandika JF, Hurtado A, Garcia-Perez A.L. 2012. Estimation of Coxiella burnetii prevalence in dairy cattle in intensive systems by serological and molecular analyses of bulk-tank milk samples. J Dairy Sci. 95:1632-1638.
10. Babudieri B., Moscovici C. 1952. Experimental and natural infection of birds by Coxiella burnetii. Nature. 169:195-196.
11. Baumgartner W., Bachmann S. 1992. Histological and immunocytochemical characterization of Coxiella burnetii-associated lesions in the murine uterus and placenta. Infect Immunol. 60:5232-5241.
12. Benenson A.S., Tigertt WD. 1956. Studies on Q fever in man. Trans Assoc Am Physicians. 69:98-104.
13. Benson W.W., Brock DW, Mather J. 1963. Serologic analysis of a penitentiary group using raw milk from a Q fever infected herd. Public Health Rep. 78:707-710.
14. Berri M., Crochet D, Santiago S, Rodolakis A. 2005a. Spread of Coxiella burnetii infection in a flock of sheep after an episode of Q fever. Vet Rec. 157:737-740.
15. Berri M., Rousset E, Champion JL, Russo P, Rodolakis A. 2007. Goats may experience reproductive failures and shed Coxiella burnetii at two successive parturitions after a Q fever infection. Res Vet Sci. 83:47-52.
16. Berri M., Rousset E, Hechard C, Champion JL, Dufour P, Russo P, Rodolakis A. 2005b. Progression of Q fever and Coxiella burnetii shedding in milk after an outbreak of enzootic abortion in a goat herd. Vet Rec. 156:548-549.
17. Berri M., Souriau A, Crosby M, Crochet D, Lechopier P, Rodolakis A. 2001. Relationships between the shedding of Coxiella burnetii, clinical signs and serological responses of 34 sheep. Vet Rec. 148:502-505.
18. Berri M., Souriau A, Crosby M, Rodolakis A. 2002. Shedding of Coxiella burnetii in ewes in two pregnancies following an episode of Coxiella abortion in a sheep flock. Vet Microbiol. 85:55-60.
19. Boni M., Davoust B, Tissot-Dupont H, Raoult D. 1998. Survey of seroprevalence of Q fever in dogs in the southeast of France, French Guyana, Martinique, Senegal and the Ivory Coast. Vet Microbiol. 64:1-5.
20. Buhariwalla F., Cann B, Marrie TJ. 1996. A dog-related outbreak of Q fever. Clin Infect Dis. 23:753-755.
21. Burnet F.M., Freeman M. 1983. Experimental studies on the virus of 'Q' fever. Rev Infect Dis. 5:800-808.
22. Capo C., Lindberg FP, Meconi S, Zaffran Y, Tardei G, Brown EJ, Raoult D., Mege JL. 1999. Subversion of monocyte functions by Coxiella burnetii: impairment of the cross-talk between alphavbeta3 integrin and CR3. J Immunol. 163:6078-6085.
23. Chmielewski T., Sidi-Boumedine K, Duquesne V, Podsiadly E, Thiery R., Tylewska-Wierzbanowska S. 2009. Molecular epidemiology of Q fever in Poland. Pol J Microbiol. 58:9-13.
24. Coleman S.A., Fischer ER, Cockrell DC, Voth DE, Howe D, Mead D.J., Samuel JE, Heinzen RA. 2007. Proteome and antigen profiling of Coxiella burnetii developmental forms. Infect Immunol. 75:290-298.
25. Coleman S.A., Fischer ER, Howe D, Mead DJ, Heinzen RA. 2004. Temporal analysis of Coxiella burnetii morphological differentiation. J Bacteriol. 186:7344-7352.
26. Cox HR. 1938. A filter-passing infectious agent isolated from ticks III. Description of organism and cultivation experiments. Public Health Rep. 53:7.
27. Davis G.E., Cox HR. 1938. A filter-passing infectious agent isolated from ticks I. Isolation from Dermacentor andersoni, reactions in animals, and filtration experiments. Public Health Rep. 53:9.
28. Denison A.M., Thompson HA, Massung RF. 2007. IS1111 insertion sequences of Coxiella burnetii: characterization and use for repetitive element PCR-based differentiation of Coxiella burnetii isolates. BMC Microbiol. 7:91.
29. Derrick EH. 1983. 'Q' fever, a new fever entity: clinical features, diagnosis and laboratory investigation. Rev Infect Dis. 5:790-800.
30. Drancourt M., Raoult D. 2005. Family Coxiellaceae. In: Garrity GM, editor. Bergey's manual of systematic bacteriology 2nd ed., Part B: the gammaproteobacteria. New York: Springer; p. 237-247.
31. Duncan C., Kersh GJ, Spraker T, Patyk KA, Fitzpatrick KA, Massung R.F., Gelatt T. 2012. Coxiella burnetii in northern fur seal (Callorhinus ursinus) placentas from St. Paul Island, Alaska. Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis. 12:192-195.
32. Dupuis G., Peter O, Peacock M, Burgdorfer W, Haller E. 1985. Immunoglobulin responses in acute Q fever. J Clin Microbiol. 22:484-487.
33. Dyer RE. 1938. A filter-passing infectious agent isolated from ticks IV. Human infection. Public Health Rep. 53:6.
34. [AHAW] EFSA Panel on Animal Health and Welfare. 2010. Scientific opinion on Q fever. EFSA J. 8 (5):1595. Available from: www.efsa.europa.eu/.
35. Ghigo E., Capo C, Tung CH, Raoult D, Gorvel JP, Mege JL. 2002. Coxiella burnetii survival in THP-1 monocytes involves the impairment of phagosome maturation: IFNgamma mediates its restoration and bacterial killing. J Immunol. 169:4488-4495.
36. Gilsdorf A., Kroh C, Grimm S, Jensen E, Wagner-Wiening C, Alpers K. 2008. Large Q fever outbreak due to sheep farming near residential areas, Germany, 2005. Epidemiol Infect. 136:1084-1087.
37. Glazunova O., Roux V, Freylikman O, Sekeyova Z, Fournous G, Tyczka J., Tokarevich N, Kovacava E, Marrie TJ, Raoult D. 2005. Coxiella burnetii genotyping. Emerg Infect Dis. 11:1211-1217.
38. Guatteo R., Beaudeau F, Berri M, Rodolakis A, Joly A, Seegers H. 2006. Shedding routes of Coxiella burnetii in dairy cows: implications for detection and control. Vet Res. 37:827-833.
39. Guatteo R., Beaudeau F, Joly A, Seegers H. 2007. Coxiella burnetii shedding by dairy cows. Vet Res. 38:849-860.
40. Guatteo R., Seegers H, Joly A, Beaudeau F. 2008. Prevention of Coxiella burnetii shedding in infected dairy herds using a phase I C. burnetii inactivated vaccine. Vaccine. 26:4320-4328.
41. Guatteo R., Seegers H, Taurel AF, Joly A, Beaudeau F. 2011. Prevalence of Coxiella burnetii infection in domestic ruminants: a critical review. Vet Microbiol. 149:1-16.
42. Hackstadt T. 1988. Steric hindrance of antibody binding to surface proteins of Coxiella burnetti by phase I lipopolysaccharide. Infect Immunol. 56:802-807.
43. Hatchette T., Campbell N, Hudson R, Raoult D, Marrie TJ. 2003. Natural history of Q fever in goats. Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis. 3:11-15.
44. Heinzen R., Stiegler GL, Whiting LL, Schmitt SA, Mallavia LP, Frazier ME. 1990. Use of pulsed field gel electrophoresis to differentiate Coxiella burnetti strains. Ann N Y Acad Sci. 590:504-513.
45. Hendrix L.R., Samuel JE, Mallavia LP. 1991. Differentiation of Coxiella burnetti isolates by analysis of restriction-endonuclease-digested DNA separated by SDS-PAGE. J Gen Microbiol. 137:269-276.
46. Higgins D., Marrie TJ. 1990. Seroepidemiology of Q fever among cats in New Brunswick and Prince Edward Island. Ann N Y Acad Sci. 590:271-274.
47. Hogerwerf L., van den Brom R, Roest HI, Bouma A, Vellema P, Pieterse M., Dercksen D, Nielen M. 2011. Reduction of Coxiella burnetti prevalence by vaccination of goats and sheep, The Netherlands. Emerg Infect Dis. 17:379-386.
48. Honstettre A., Ghigo E, Moynault A, Capo C, Toman R, Akira S, Takeuchi O., Lepidi H, Raoult D, Mege JL. 2004. Lipopolysaccharide from Coxiella burnetii is involved in bacterial phagocytosis, filamentous actin reorganization, and inflammatory responses through Toll-like receptor 4. J Immunol. 172:3695-3703.
49. Hoover T.A., Culp DW, Vodkin MH, Williams JC, Thompson HA. 2002. Chromosomal DNA deletions explain phenotypic characteristics of two antigenic variants, phase II and RSA 514 (crazy), of the Coxiella burnetii Nine Mile strain. Infect Immunol. 70:6726-6733.
50. Horigan M.W., Bell MM, Pollard TR, Sayers AR, Pritchard GC. 2011. Q fever diagnosis in domestic ruminants: comparison between complement fixation and commercial enzymelinked immunosorbent assays. J Vet Diagn Invest. 23:924-931.
51. Hotta A., Kawamura M, To H, Andoh M, Yamaguchi T, Fukushi H, Hirai K. 2002. Phase variation analysis of Coxiella burnetii during serial passage in cell culture by use of monoclonal antibodies. Infect Immunol. 70:4747-4749.
52. Huijsmans C.J., Schellekens JJ, Wever PC, Toman R, Savelkoul PH, Janse I, Hermans MH. 2011. SNP-genotyping of a Coxiella burnetii outbreak in the Netherlands. Appl Environ Microbiol. 77(6):2051-2057.
53. Hunter P.R., Gaston MA. 1988. Numerical index of the discriminatory ability of typing systems: an application of Simpson's index of diversity. J Clin Microbiol. 26:2465-2466.
54. Jager C., Willems H, Thiele D, Baljer G. 1998. Molecular characterization of Coxiella burnetii isolates. Epidemiol Infect. 120:157-164.
55. Janse I., Bossers A, Roest HIJ, Rotterdam B. 2011. Hoge Resolutie Typering van Coxiella burnetii. Bilthoven: RIVM (RIVM briefrapport / Rijksinstituut voor Volksgezondheid en Milieu 330302001/2011); p. 38.
56. Jones R.M., Nicas M, Hubbard AE, Reingold AL. 2006. The infectious dose of Coxiella burnetii (Q fever). Appl Biosafety. 11:10.
57. Kampschreur L.M., Wegdam-Blans MC, Thijsen SF, Groot CA, Schneeberger P.M., Hollander AA, Schijen JH, Arents NL, Oosterheert J.J., Wever PC. 2010. Acute Q fever related inhospital mortality in the Netherlands. Neth J Med. 68: 408-413.
58. Kersh G.J., Lambourn DM, Raverty SA, Fitzpatrick KA, Self JS, Akmajian A.M., Jeffries SJ, Huggins J, Drew CP, Zaki SR, Massung RF. 2012. Coxiella burnetii infection of marine mammals in the Pacific Northwest, 1997-2010. J Wildl Dis. 48:201-206.
59. Kersh G.J., Lambourn DM, Self JS, Akmajian AM, Stanton JB, Baszler T.V., Raverty SA, Massung RF. 2010. Coxiella burnetii infection of a Steller sea lion (Eumetopias jubatus) found in Washington State. J Clin Microbiol. 48:3428-3431.
60. Kim S.G., Kim EH, Lafferty CJ, Dubovi E. 2005. Coxiella burnetii in bulk tank milk samples, United States. Emerg Infect Dis. 11:619-621.
61. Kishimoto R.A., Rozmiarek H, Larson EW. 1978. Experimental Q fever infection in congenitally athymic nude mice. Infect Immunol. 22:69-71.
62. Klee S.R., Tyczka J, Ellerbrok H, Franz T, Linke S, Baljer G, Appel B. 2006. Highly sensitive real-time PCR for specific detection and quantification of Coxiella burnetii. BMC Microbiol. 6:2.
63. Komiya T., Sadamasu K, Kang MI, Tsuboshima S, Fukushi H, Hirai K. 2003a. Seroprevalence of Coxiella burnetii infections among cats in different living environments. J Vet Med Sci. 65:1047-1048.
64. Komiya T., Sadamasu K, Toriniwa H, Kato K, Arashima Y, Fukushi H., Hirai K, Arakawa Y. 2003b. Epidemiological survey on the route of Coxiella burnetii infection in an animal hospital. J Infect Chemother. 9:151-155.
65. Lang GH. 1990. Coxiellosis (Q fever) in animals. In: Marrie TJ, editor. Q fever, volume I: the disease. Boca Raton (FL): CRC Press; p. 23-48.
66. Lapointe J.M., Gulland FM, Haines DM, Barr BC, Duignan PJ. 1999. Placentitis due to Coxiella burnetii in a Pacific harbor seal (Phoca vitulina richardsi). J Vet Diagn Invest. 11:541-543.
67. McCaul T.F., Williams JC. 1981. Developmental cycle of Coxiella burnetii: structure and morphogenesis of vegetative and sporogenic differentiations. J Bacteriol. 147: 1063-1076.
68. McDade J.E. 1990. Historical aspects of Q fever. In: Marrie TJ, editor. Q fever Volume I: the disease. Boca Raton (FL): CRC Press; p. 5-21.
69. Marrie T.J., Durant H, Williams JC, Mintz E, Waag DM. 1988a. Exposure to parturient cats: a risk factor for acquisition of Q fever in Maritime Canada. J Infect Dis. 158:101-108.
70. Marrie T.J., MacDonald A, Durant H, Yates L, McCormick L. 1988b. An outbreak of Q fever probably due to contact with a parturient cat. Chest. 93:98-103.
71. Marrie T.J., Raoult D. 1997. Q fever-a review and issues for the next century. Int J Antimicrob Agents. 8:145-161.
72. Marrie T.J., Stein A, Janigan D, Raoult D. 1996. Route of infection determines the clinical manifestations of acute Q fever. J Infect Dis. 173:484-487.
73. Martinov S.P., Neikov P, Popov GV. 1989. Experimental Q fever in sheep. Eur J Epidemiol. 5:428-431.
74. Maurin M., Raoult D. 1999. Q fever. Clin Microbiol Rev. 12:518-553.
75. Moos A., Hackstadt T. 1987. Comparative virulence of intra-and inter-strain lipopolysaccharide variants of Coxiella burnetii in the guinea pig model. Infect Immunol. 55:1144-1150.
76. Morroy G., Peters JB, van Nieuwenhof M, Bor HH, Hautvast JL, van der Hoek W, Wijkmans CJ, Vercoulen JH. 2011. The health status of Q-fever patients after long-term follow-up. BMC Infect Dis. 11:97.
77. Muskens J., Mars MH, Franken P. 2007. [Q fever: an overview]. Tijdschr Diergeneeskd. 132:912-917.
78. Omsland A. 2012. Axenic growth of Coxiella burnetii. Adv Exp Med Biol. 984:215-229.
79. Omsland A., Cockrell DC, Howe D, Fischer ER, Virtaneva K, Sturdevant D.E., Porcella SF, Heinzen RA. 2009. Host cell-free growth of the Q fever bacterium Coxiella burnetii. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 106:4430-4434.
80. Oyston P.C., Davies C. 2011. Q fever: the neglected biothreat agent. J Med Microbiol. 60:9-21.
81. Parker R.R., Davis GE. 1938. A filter passing infectious agent isolated from ticks II. Transmission by Dermacentor andersoni. Public Health Rep. 53:4.
82. Philip CB. 1948. Comments on the name of the Q fever organism. Public Health Rep. 63:1.
83. Pinsky R.L., Fishbein DB, Greene CR, Gensheimer KF. 1991. An outbreak of cat-associated Q fever in the United States. J Infect Dis. 164:202-204.
84. Raoult D., Marrie TJ, Mege JL. 2005. Natural history and pathophysiology of Q fever. Lancet Infect Dis. 5:219-226.
85. Reusken C., van der Plaats R, Opsteegh M, de Bruin A, Swart A. 2011. Coxiella burnetii (Q fever) in Rattus norvegicus and Rattus rattus at livestock farms and urban locations in the Netherlands: could Rattus spp. represent reservoirs for (re) introduction? Prev Vet Med. 101:124-130.
86. Rijks J.M., Roest HI, van Tulden PW, Kik MJ, Ijzer J, Grone A. 2011. Coxiella burnetii infection in roe deer during Q fever epidemic, the Netherlands. Emerg Infect Dis. 17:2369-2371.
87. Roest H.I., Post J, van Gelderen B, van Zijderveld FG, Rebel JM. 2013. Q fever in pregnant goats: humoral and cellular immune responses. Vet Res. 44:67.
88. Roest H.I., Ruuls RC, Tilburg JJ, Nabuurs-Franssen MH, Klaassen CH, Vellema P, van den Brom R, Dercksen D, Wouda W, Spierenburg MA. et al. 2011a. Molecular epidemiology of Coxiella burnetii from ruminants in Q fever outbreak, the Netherlands. Emerg Infect Dis. 17:668-675.
89. Roest H.I.J., Dinkla A, Frangoulidis D, Wouda W, Vellema P, Horrevorts A., Nabuurs-Franssen MH, Sturm P, Klaassen CHW, van Zijderveld FG. 2010. Isolation of Coxiella burnetii strains from clinical material from humans and small ruminants originating from the Netherlands. Poster session presented at: Voorjaarsvergadering van de NVMM, 2010 April 20-21; Papendal, Arnhem, the Netherlands.
90. Roest H.I.J., Hogerwerf L, van der Brom R, Oomen T, van Steenbergen JE, Nielen M, Vellema P. 2011b. [Q fever in the Netherlands: current status, results from veterinary research and expectations of the coming years]. Tijdschr Diergeneeskd. 136:340-343.
91. Roest H.I.J., Tilburg JJ, van der Hoek W, Vellema P, van Zijderveld FG, Klaassen CH, Raoult D. 2011c. The Q fever epidemic in The Netherlands: history, onset, response and reflection. Epidemiol Infect. 139:1-12.
92. Roest H.I.J., van Gelderen B, Dinkla A, Frangoulidis D, van Zijderveld F.G., Rebel J, van Keulen L. 2012. Q fever in pregnant goats: pathogenesis and excretion of Coxiella burnetii. PLoS ONE. 7:14.
93. Roest H.I.J., van Steenbergen J, Wijkmans C, van Duijnhoven Y, Stenvers O., Oomen T, Vellema P. 2009. [Q fever in 2008 in the Netherlands and the expectations of 2009]. Tijdschr Diergeneeskd. 134:300-303.
94. Rousset E., Berri M, Durand B, Dufour P, Prigent M, Delcroix T, Touratier A., Rodolakis A. 2009a. Coxiella burnetii shedding routes and antibody response after outbreaks of Q feverinduced abortion in dairy goat herds. Appl Environ Microbiol. 75:428-433.
95. Rousset E., Durand B, Berri M, Dufour P, Prigent M, Russo P, Delcroix T., Touratier A, Rodolakis A, Aubert M. 2007. Comparative diagnostic potential of three serological tests for abortive Q fever in goat herds. Vet Microbiol. 124:286-297.
96. Rousset E., Durand B, Champion JL, Prigent M, Dufour P, Forfait C, Marois M, Gasnier T, Duquesne V, Thiery R, Aubert MF. 2009b. Efficiency of a phase 1 vaccine for the reduction of vaginal Coxiella burnetii shedding in a clinically affected goat herd. Clin Microbiol Infect. 15(2):188-189.
97. Russell-Lodrigue K.E., Andoh M, Poels MW, Shive HR, Weeks BR, Zhang GQ, Tersteeg C, Masegi T, Hotta A, Yamaguchi T, et al. 2009. Coxiella burnetii isolates cause genogroup-specific virulence in mouse and guinea pig models of acute Q fever. Infect Immunol. 77:5640-5650.
98. Russell-Lodrigue K.E., Zhang GQ, McMurray DN, Samuel JE. 2006. Clinical and pathologic changes in a guinea pig aerosol challenge model of acute Q fever. Infect Immunol. 74:6085-6091.
99. Salmon M.M., Howells B, Glencross EJ, Evans AD, Palmer SR. 1982. Q fever in an urban area. Lancet. 1:1002-1004.
100. Sanchez J., Souriau A, Buendia AJ, Arricau-Bouvery N, Martinez CM, Salinas J, Rodolakis A, Navarro JA. 2006. Experimental Coxiella burnetii infection in pregnant goats: a histopathological and immunohistochemical study. J Comp Pathol. 135:108-115.
101. Schimmer B., Ter Schegget R, WegdamM, Zuchner L, de Bruin A, Schneeberger P.M., Veenstra T, Vellema P, van der Hoek W. 2010. The use of a geographic information system to identify a dairy goat farm as the most likely source of an urban Q-fever outbreak. BMC Infect Dis. 10:69.
102. Schmatz H.D., Busche R, Krauss H, Thiel N. 1977b. [The behavior of the Q-fever agent, Coxiella burnetii, in birds. 3. Experimental infection of quail]. Dtsch Tierarztl Wochenschr. 84:375-376.
103. Schmatz H.D., Busche R, Thiel N, Sailer J. 1977a. [Behavior of the Q fever vector Coxiella burnetii in birds. 2. Experimental infection of pigeons]. Dtsch Tierarztl Wochenschr. 84:60-63.
104. Scott G.H., Williams JC, Stephenson EH. 1987. Animal models in Q fever: pathological responses of inbred mice to phase I Coxiella burnetii. J Gen Microbiol. 133:691-700.
105. Sekeyova Z., Roux V, Raoult D. 1999. Intraspecies diversity of Coxiella burnetii as revealed by com1 and mucZ sequence comparison. FEMS Microbiol Lett. 180:7.
106. Seshadri R., Paulsen IT, Eisen JA, Read TD, Nelson KE, Nelson WC, Ward NL, Tettelin H, Davidsen TM, Beanan MJ, et al. 2003. Complete genome sequence of the Q-fever pathogen Coxiella burnetii. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 100:5455-5460.
107. Sethi M.S., Singh B, Yadav MP. 1978. Experimental infection of Coxiella burnetii in chicken: clinical symptoms, serologic response, and transmission through egg. Avian Dis. 22:391-395.
108. Shannon J.G., Heinzen RA. 2009. Adaptive immunity to the obligate intracellular pathogen Coxiella burnetii. Immunol Res. 43:138-148.
109. Sidi-Boumedine K., Duquesne V, Fernandes I, Marro S, Thiery R. 2009. Evaluation of randomly amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD) for discrimination of Coxiella burnetii ruminant strains isolated in France. Clin Microbiol Infect. 2 (Suppl.):194-195.
110. Sidi-Boumedine K., Rousset E, Henning K, Ziller M, Niemczuck K, Roest HIJ, Thiery R. 2010. Development of harmonised schemes for the monitoring and reporting of Q fever in animals in the European Union. 2010. Parma: EFSA.
111. Sprong H., Tijsse-Klasen E, Langelaar M, De Bruin A, Fonville M, Gassner F., Takken W, van Wieren S, Nijhof A, Jongejan F, et al. 2012. Prevalence of Coxiella burnetii in ticks after a large outbreak of Q fever. Zoonoses Public Health. 59:69-75.
112. Svraka S., Toman R, Skultety L, Slaba K, Homan WL. 2006. Establishment of a genotyping scheme for Coxiella burnetii. FEMS Microbiol Lett. 254:268-274.
113. Taurel A.F., Guatteo R, Joly A, Beaudeau F. 2012. Effectiveness of vaccination and antibiotics to control Coxiella burnetii shedding around calving in dairy cows. Vet Microbiol. 159:432-437.
114. Thiele D., Willems H. 1994. Is plasmid based differentiation of Coxiella burnetii in 'acute' and 'chronic' isolates still valid? Eur J Epidemiol. 10:427-434.
115. Thompson M., Mykytczuk N, Gooderham K, Schulte-Hostedde A. 2012. Prevalence of the bacterium Coxiella burnetii in wild rodents from a Canadian Natural Environment Park. Zoonoses Public Health. 59(8):553-560.
116. Tigertt W.D., Benenson AS, Gochenour WS. 1961. Airborne Q fever. Bacteriol Rev. 25:285-293.
117. Tissot-Dupont H., Amadei MA, Nezri M, Raoult D. 2004. Wind in November, Q fever in December. Emerg Infect Dis. 10:1264-1269.
118. Tissot-Dupont H., Torres S, Nezri M, Raoult D. 1999. Hyperendemic focus of Q fever related to sheep and wind. Am J Epidemiol. 150:67-74.
119. To H., Sakai R, Shirota K, Kano C, Abe S, Sugimoto T, Takehara K, Morita C, Takashima I, Maruyama T, et al. 1998. Coxiellosis in domestic and wild birds from Japan. J Wildl Dis. 34:310-316.
120. Toman R., Skultety L, Ihnatko R. 2009. Coxiella burnetii glycomics and proteomics-tools for linking structure to function. Ann N Y Acad Sci. 1166:67-78.
121. van den Brom R, Moll L, van Schaik G, Vellema P. 2012a. Demography of Q fever seroprevalence in sheep and goats in The Netherlands in 2008. Prev Vet Med. 109(1-2):76-82.
122. van den Brom R, van Engelen E, Luttikholt S, Moll L, van Maanen K., Vellema P. 2012b. Coxiella burnetii in bulk tank milk samples from dairy goat and dairy sheep farms in The Netherlands in 2008. Vet Rec. 170:310.
123. van der Hoek W. 2012. The 2007-2010 Q fever epidemic in the Netherlands: risk factors and risk groups. Utrecht: University of Utrecht.
124. van der Hoek W, Hunink J, Vellema P, Droogers P. 2011a. Q fever in The Netherlands: the role of local environmental conditions. Int J Environ Health Res. 21:441-451.
125. van der Hoek W, Meekelenkamp JC, Leenders AC, Wijers N, Notermans D.W., Hukkelhoven CW. 2011b. Antibodies against Coxiella burnetii and pregnancy outcome during the 2007-2008 Q fever outbreaks in the Netherlands. BMC Infect Dis. 11:44.
126. van Moll P, Baumgartner W, Eskens U, Hanichen T. 1993. Immunocytochemical demonstration of Coxiella burnetii antigen in the fetal placenta of naturally infected sheep and cattle. J Comp Pathol. 109:295-301.
127. van Steenbergen JE, Morroy G, Groot CA, Ruikes FG, Marcelis JH, Speelman P. 2007. [An outbreak of Q fever in The Netherlands-possible link to goats]. Ned Tijdschr Geneeskd. 151:1998-2003.
128. Voth D.E., Heinzen RA. 2007. Lounging in a lysosome: the intracellular lifestyle of Coxiella burnetii. Cell Microbiol. 9:829-840.
129. Wegdam-Blans M.C., Kampschreur LM, Delsing CE, Bleeker-Rovers C.P., Sprong T, van Kasteren ME, Notermans DW, Renders N.H., Bijlmer HA, Lestrade PJ, et al. 2012. Chronic Q fever: review of the literature and a proposal of new diagnostic criteria. J Infect. 64:247-259.
130. Wegdam-Blans M.C., Nabuurs-Franssen MN, Horrevorts AM, Peeters M.F., Schneeberger PM, Bijlmer HA. 2010. [Laboratory diagnosis of acute Q fever]. Ned Tijdschr Geneeskd. 154: A2388.
131. Welsh H.H., Lennette EH, Abinanti FR, Winn JF. 1958. Air-borne transmission of Q fever: the role of parturition in the generation of infective aerosols. Ann N Y Acad Sci. 70:528-540.
132. Willems H., Ritter M, Jager C, Thiele D. 1997. Plasmid-homologous sequences in the chromosome of plasmidless Coxiella burnetii Scurry Q217. J Bacteriol. 179:3293-3297.
133. Wouda W., Dercksen DP. 2007. [Abortion and stillbirth among dairy goats as a consequence of Coxiella burnetii]. Tijdschr Diergeneeskd. 132:908-911.
134. Zhang G.Q., To H, Yamaguchi T, Fukushi H, Hirai K. 1997. Differentiation of Coxiella burnetii by sequence analysis of the gene (com1) encoding a 27-kDa outer membrane protein. Microbiol Immunol. 41:871-877.