Review article: Gastrointestinal angiodysplasia-pathogenesis, diagnosis and management

Alimentary Pharmacology and Therapeutics

Volumn 39, Issue 1, 2014, Pages 15-34

  Sami, S S ^a   Al Araji, S A ^b   Ragunath, K ^a  

^a QUEEN S MEDICAL CENTRE   (United Kingdom)

^b UNIVERSITY HOSPITAL OF NORTH STAFFORDSHIRE   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

CONJUGATED ESTROGEN; ETHANOLAMINE; ETHINYLESTRADIOL; ETHINYLESTRADIOL PLUS NORETHISTERONE; FERROUS SUCCINATE; LYNESTRENOL; MESTRANOL; NORETHISTERONE; NORETYNODREL; OCTREOTIDE; PLACEBO; THALIDOMIDE; VASCULOTROPIN; VASOPRESSIN;

ABDOMINAL DISTENSION; ABSENCE OF SIDE EFFECTS; ANGIODYSPLASIA; ANGIOGRAPHY; ARGON PLASMA COAGULATION; ARTERIOVENOUS MALFORMATION; ARTICLE; ARTIFICIAL EMBOLISM; ASCENDING COLON; BLOOD VESSEL CLIP; BLURRED VISION; CECUM; CHRONIC DISEASE; CLINICAL TRIAL (TOPIC); CONGENITAL BLOOD VESSEL MALFORMATION; CONSTIPATION; DISEASE SEVERITY; DIZZINESS; DRUG DOSE INCREASE; DRY EYE; ELECTROCOAGULATION; EVIDENCE BASED MEDICINE; FATIGUE; GASTROINTESTINAL ANGIODYSPLASIA; GASTROINTESTINAL DISEASE; GASTROINTESTINAL OBSTRUCTION; HEADACHE; HERPES ZOSTER; HORMONAL THERAPY; HUMAN; INTESTINE ENDOSCOPY; INTESTINE MUCOSA; IRON THERAPY; LASER COAGULATION; LEUKOPENIA; PATHOGENESIS; PERIPHERAL EDEMA; POLYPECTOMY; PRIORITY JOURNAL; PRURITUS; RASH; SCLEROTHERAPY; SYSTEMATIC REVIEW; THROMBOCYTOPENIA; TINNITUS; TRANSCATHETER ANGIOGRAPHY; TREATMENT CONTRAINDICATION; TREATMENT DURATION; TREATMENT FAILURE; TREATMENT OUTCOME; TREATMENT RESPONSE; VASCULAR LESION; VEIN LIGATION; VEIN OCCLUSION;

ANGIODYSPLASIA; ELECTROCOAGULATION; GASTROINTESTINAL HEMORRHAGE; HUMANS; OCTREOTIDE; THALIDOMIDE;

EID: 84889633073     PISSN: 02692813     EISSN: 13652036     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1111/apt.12527     Document Type: Article

References (206)

1. Gordon FH, Watkinson A, Hodgson H,. Vascular malformations of the gastrointestinal tract. Best Pract Res Clin Gastroenterol 2001; 15: 41-58.
2. Athanasoulis CA, Galdabini JJ, Waltman AC, Novelline RA, Greenfield AJ, Ezpeleta ML,. Angiodysplasia of the colon: a cause of rectal bleeding. Cardiovasc Radiol 1977; 1: 3-13.
3. Poralla T,. Angiodysplasia in the renal patient: how to diagnose and how to treat? Nephrol Dial Transplant 1998; 13: 2188-91.
4. Foutch PG, Rex DK, Lieberman DA,. Prevalence and natural history of colonic angiodysplasia among healthy asymptomatic people. Am J Gastroenterol 1995; 90: 564-7.
5. Dodda G, Trotman BW,. Gastrointestinal angiodysplasia. J Assoc Acad Minor Phys 1997; 8: 16-9.
6. Danesh BJ, Spiliadis C, Williams CB, Zambartas CM,. Angiodysplasia-an uncommon cause of colonic bleeding: colonoscopic evaluation of 1,050 patients with rectal bleeding and anaemia. Int J Colorectal Dis 1987; 2: 218-22.
7. Hochter W, Weingart J, Kuhner W, Frimberger E, Ottenjann R,. Angiodysplasia in the colon and rectum. Endoscopic morphology, localisation and frequency. Endoscopy 1985; 17: 182-5.
8. Heer M, Sulser H, Hany A,. Angiodysplasia of the colon: an expression of occlusive vascular disease. Hepatogastroenterology 1987; 34: 127-31.
9. Jesudason SR, Devasia A, Mathen VI, Bhaktaviziam A, Khanduri P,. The pattern of angiodysplasia of the gastrointestinal tract in a tropical country. Surg Gynecol Obstet 1985; 161: 525-31.
10. Foutch PG,. Angiodysplasia of the gastrointestinal tract. Am J Gastroenterol 1993; 88: 807-18.
11. Cappell MS, Gupta A,. Changing epidemiology of gastrointestinal angiodysplasia with increasing recognition of clinically milder cases: angiodysplasia tend to produce mild chronic gastrointestinal bleeding in a study of 47 consecutive patients admitted from 1980-1989. Am J Gastroenterol 1992; 87: 201-6.
12. Yannam GR, Yu DC, Kelly DR, Chen MK, Beierle EA,. Angiodysplasia (vascular malformations) of the colon presenting as an acute abdomen. J Pediatr Surg 2012; 47: e37-40.
13. Almeida N, Figueiredo P, Lopes S, et al,. Urgent capsule endoscopy is useful in severe obscure-overt gastrointestinal bleeding. Dig Endosc 2009; 21: 87-92.
14. Gunnlaugsson O,. Angiodysplasia of the stomach and duodenum. Gastrointest Endosc 1985; 31: 251-4.
15. Moreto M, Figa M, Ojembarrena E, Zaballa M,. Vascular malformations of the stomach and duodenum: an endoscopic classification. Endoscopy 1986; 18: 227-9.
16. Clouse RE, Costigan DJ, Mills BA, Zuckerman GR,. Angiodysplasia as a cause of upper gastrointestinal bleeding. Arch Intern Med 1985; 145: 458-61.
17. Sidhu R, Sanders DS, Morris AJ, McAlindon ME,. Guidelines on small bowel enteroscopy and capsule endoscopy in adults. Gut 2008; 57: 125-36.
18. Raju GS, Gerson L, Das A, Lewis B,. American Gastroenterological Association (AGA) Institute technical review on obscure gastrointestinal bleeding. Gastroenterology 2007; 133: 1697-717.
19. Liao Z, Gao R, Xu C, Li ZS,. Indications and detection, completion, and retention rates of small-bowel capsule endoscopy: a systematic review. Gastrointest Endosc 2010; 71: 280-6.
20. Lecleire S, Iwanicki-Caron I, Di-Fiore A, et al,. Yield and impact of emergency capsule enteroscopy in severe obscure-overt gastrointestinal bleeding. Endoscopy 2012; 44: 337-42.
21. Ueno S, Nakase H, Kasahara K, et al,. Clinical features of Japanese patients with colonic angiodysplasia. J Gastroenterol Hepatol 2008; 23: e363-6.
22. Duray PH, Marcal JM Jr, LiVolsi VA, Fisher R, Scholhamer C, Brand MH,. Small intestinal angiodysplasia in the elderly. J Clin Gastroenterol 1984; 6: 311-9.
23. Zuckerman GR, Prakash C,. Acute lower intestinal bleeding. Part II: etiology, therapy, and outcomes. Gastrointest Endosc 1999; 49: 228-38.
24. Farrell JJ, Friedman LS,. Review article: the management of lower gastrointestinal bleeding. Aliment Pharmacol Ther 2005; 21: 1281-98.
25. Lasson A, Kilander A, Stotzer PO,. Diagnostic yield of colonoscopy based on symptoms. Scand J Gastroenterol 2008; 43: 356-62.
26. Green BT, Rockey DC, Portwood G, et al,. Urgent colonoscopy for evaluation and management of acute lower gastrointestinal hemorrhage: a randomized controlled trial. Am J Gastroenterol 2005; 100: 2395-402.
27. Parkes BM, Obeid FN, Sorensen VJ, Horst HM, Fath JJ,. The management of massive lower gastrointestinal bleeding. Am Surg 1993; 59: 676-8.
28. Tedesco FJ, Griffin JW Jr, Khan AQ,. Vascular ectasia of the colon: clinical, colonoscopic, and radiographic features. J Clin Gastroenterol 1980; 2: 233-8.
29. Cappell MS,. Spatial clustering of simultaneous nonhereditary gastrointestinal angiodysplasia. Small but significant correlation between nonhereditary colonic and upper gastrointestinal angiodysplasia. Dig Dis Sci 1992; 37: 1072-7.
30. Steger AC, Galland RB, Hemingway A, Wood CB, Spencer J,. Gastrointestinal haemorrhage from a second source in patients with colonic angiodysplasia. Br J Surg 1987; 74: 726-7.
31. Heyde EC,. Gastrointestinal bleeding in aortic stenosis. N Engl J Med 1958; 259: 196.
32. Schwartz BM,. Correspondence. N Engl J Med 1958; 259: 456.
33. Williams RC Jr,. Aortic stenosis and unexplained gastrointestinal bleeding. Arch Intern Med 1961; 108: 859-63.
34. Cody M, O'Donovan TP, Hughes R Jr,. Idiopathic gastrointestinal bleeding and aortic stenosis. Am J Dig Dis 1974; 19: 393-8.
35. Trowbridge M Jr,. Aortic stenosis and gastrointestinal hemorrhage. Report of four cases. J Maine Med Assoc 1965; 56: 276-8.
36. Nordstrom L, Myhre J,. Aortic stenosis and unexplained gastrointestinal bleeding. Minn Med 1967; 50: 1623-5.
37. Shoenfeld Y, Eldar M, Bedazovsky B, Levy MJ, Pinkhas J,. Aortic stenosis associated with gastrointestinal bleeding. A survey of 612 patients. Am Heart J 1980; 100: 179-82.
38. King RM, Pluth JR, Giuliani ER,. The association of unexplained gastrointestinal bleeding with calcific aortic stenosis. Ann Thorac Surg 1987; 44: 514-6.
39. Cappell MS, Lebwohl O,. Cessation of recurrent bleeding from gastrointestinal angiodysplasias after aortic valve replacement. Ann Intern Med 1986; 105: 54-7.
40. Scheffer SM, Leatherman LL,. Resolution of Heyde's syndrome of aortic stenosis and gastrointestinal bleeding after aortic valve replacement. Ann Thorac Surg 1986; 42: 477-80.
41. Vincentelli A, Susen S, Le Tourneau T, et al,. Acquired von Willebrand syndrome in aortic stenosis. N Engl J Med 2003; 349: 343-9.
42. Abi-Akar R, El-Rassi I, Karam N, Jassar Y, Slim R, Jebara V,. Treatment of Heyde's Syndrome by Aortic Valve Replacement. Curr Cardiol Rev 2011; 7: 47-9.
43. Michot JM, Treton X, Brink C, Fabiani JN, Bouhnik Y,. Severe gastro-intestinal angiodysplasia in context of Heyde's syndrome durably cured after aortic valve replacement. Presse Med 2012; 41: 763-6.
44. Boss EG Jr, Rosenbaum JM,. Bleeding from the right colon associated with aortic stenosis. Am J Dig Dis 1971; 16: 269-75.
45. Treweeke MW, Michelbach AP,. Aortic stenosis. Gastrointestinal bleeding. J Kans Med Soc 1975; 76: 100-2.
46. Galloway SJ, Casarella WJ, Shimkin PM,. Vascular malformations of the right colon as a cause of bleeding in patients with aortic stenosis. Radiology 1974; 113: 11-5.
47. Weaver GA, Alpern HD, Davis JS, Ramsey WH, Reichelderfer M,. Gastrointestinal angiodysplasia associated with aortic valve disease: part of a spectrum of angiodysplasia of the gut. Gastroenterology 1979; 77: 1-11.
48. Meyer CT, Troncale FJ, Galloway S, Sheahan DG,. Arteriovenous malformations of the bowel: an analysis of 22 cases and a review of the literature. Medicine 1981; 60: 36-48.
49. Rogers BH,. Endoscopic diagnosis and therapy of mucosal vascular abnormalities of the gastrointestinal tract occurring in elderly patients and associated with cardiac, vascular, and pulmonary disease. Gastrointest Endosc 1980; 26: 134-8.
50. Imperiale TF, Ransohoff DF,. Aortic stenosis, idiopathic gastrointestinal bleeding, and angiodysplasia: is there an association? A methodologic critique of the literature. Gastroenterology 1988; 95: 1670-6.
51. Mehta PM, Heinsimer JA, Bryg RJ, Jaszewski R, Wynne J,. Reassessment of the association between gastrointestinal arteriovenous malformations and aortic stenosis. Am J Med 1989; 86: 275-7.
52. Oneglia C, Sabatini T, Rusconi C, et al,. Prevalence of aortic valve stenosis in patients affected by gastrointestinal angiodysplasia. Eur J Med 1993; 2: 75-8.
53. Bhutani MS, Gupta SC, Markert RJ, Barde CJ, Donese R, Gopalswamy N,. A prospective controlled evaluation of endoscopic detection of angiodysplasia and its association with aortic valve disease. Gastrointest Endosc 1995; 42: 398-402.
54. Batur P, Stewart WJ, Isaacson JH,. Increased prevalence of aortic stenosis in patients with arteriovenous malformations of the gastrointestinal tract in Heyde syndrome. Arch Intern Med 2003; 163: 1821-4.
55. Pate GE, Mulligan A,. An epidemiological study of Heyde's syndrome: an association between aortic stenosis and gastrointestinal bleeding. J Heart Valve Dis 2004; 13: 713-6.
56. Makris M,. Gastrointestinal bleeding in von Willebrand disease. Thromb Res 2006; 118 (Suppl 1): S13-7.
57. Rosborough TK, Swaim WR,. Acquired von Willebrand's disease, platelet-release defect and angiodysplasia. Am J Med 1978; 65: 96-100.
58. Cass AJ, Bliss BP, Bolton RP, Cooper BT,. Gastrointestinal bleeding, angiodysplasia of the colon and acquired von Willebrand's disease. Br J Surg 1980; 67: 639-41.
59. Duray PH, Marcal JM Jr, LiVolsi VA, Fisher R, Scholhamer C, Brand MH,. Gastrointestinal angiodysplasia: a possible component of von Willebrand's disease. Hum Pathol 1984; 15: 539-44.
60. Fressinaud E, Meyer D,. International survey of patients with von Willebrand disease and angiodysplasia. Thromb Haemost 1993; 70: 546.
61. Hirri HM, Green PJ, Lindsay J,. Von Willebrand's disease and angiodysplasia treated with thalidomide. Haemophilia 2006; 12: 285-6.
62. Alhumood SA, Devine DV, Lawson L, Nantel SH, Carter CJ,. Idiopathic immune-mediated acquired von Willebrand's disease in a patient with angiodysplasia: demonstration of an unusual inhibitor causing a functional defect and rapid clearance of von Willebrand factor. Am J Hematol 1999; 60: 151-7.
63. Moake JL, Turner NA, Stathopoulos NA, Nolasco LH, Hellums JD,. Involvement of large plasma von Willebrand factor (vWF) multimers and unusually large vWF forms derived from endothelial cells in shear stress-induced platelet aggregation. J Clin Invest 1986; 78: 1456-61.
64. Warkentin TE, Moore JC, Anand SS, Lonn EM, Morgan DG,. Gastrointestinal bleeding, angiodysplasia, cardiovascular disease, and acquired von Willebrand syndrome. Transfus Med Rev 2003; 17: 272-86.
65. Morishima A, Marui A, Shimamoto T, et al,. Successful aortic valve replacement for Heyde syndrome with confirmed hematologic recovery. Ann Thorac Surg 2007; 83: 287-8.
66. Bourdette D, Greenberg B,. Twelve-year history of gastrointestinal bleeding in a patient with calcific aortic stenosis and hemorrhagic telangiectasia. Dig Dis Sci 1979; 24: 77-9.
67. De Palma GD, Salvatori F, Masone S, et al,. Acute gastrointestinal bleeding following aortic valve replacement in a patient with Heyde's syndrome. Case report. Minerva Gastroenterol Dietol 2007; 53: 291-3.
68. Soran H, Lewis M, Whorwell PJ,. Bleeding angiodysplasia: should we concentrate more on the aortic valve than on the bowel? Int J Clin Pract 2002; 56: 155-6.
69. Veyradier A, Balian A, Wolf M, et al,. Abnormal von Willebrand factor in bleeding angiodysplasias of the digestive tract. Gastroenterology 2001; 120: 346-53.
70. Chey WD, Hasler WL, Bockenstedt PL,. Angiodysplasia and von Willebrand's disease type IIB treated with estrogen/progesterone therapy. Am J Hematol 1992; 41: 276-9.
71. Inbal A, Bank I, Zivelin A, et al,. Acquired von Willebrand disease in a patient with angiodysplasia resulting from immune-mediated clearance of von Willebrand factor. Br J Haematol 1997; 96: 179-82.
72. Chalasani N, Cotsonis G, Wilcox CM,. Upper gastrointestinal bleeding in patients with chronic renal failure: role of vascular ectasia. Am J Gastroenterol 1996; 91: 2329-32.
73. Zuckerman GR, Cornette GL, Clouse RE, Harter HR,. Upper gastrointestinal bleeding in patients with chronic renal failure. Ann Intern Med 1985; 102: 588-92.
74. Karagiannis S, Goulas S, Kosmadakis G, et al,. Wireless capsule endoscopy in the investigation of patients with chronic renal failure and obscure gastrointestinal bleeding (preliminary data). World J Gastroenterol 2006; 12: 5182-5.
75. Escolar G, Cases A, Bastida E, et al,. Uremic platelets have a functional defect affecting the interaction of von Willebrand factor with glycoprotein IIb-IIIa. Blood 1990; 76: 1336-40.
76. Boccardo P, Remuzzi G, Galbusera M,. Platelet dysfunction in renal failure. Semin Thromb Hemost 2004; 30: 579-89.
77. Kringen MK, Narum S, Lygren I, et al,. Reduced platelet function and role of drugs in acute gastrointestinal bleeding. Basic Clin Pharmacol Toxicol 2011; 108: 194-201.
78. Weigert AL, Schafer AI,. Uremic bleeding: pathogenesis and therapy. Am J Med Sci 1998; 316: 94-104.
79. Kaw D, Malhotra D,. Platelet dysfunction and end-stage renal disease. Semin Dial 2006; 19: 317-22.
80. Boley SJ, Sammartano R, Adams A, DiBiase A, Kleinhaus S, Sprayregen S,. On the nature and etiology of vascular ectasias of the colon. Degenerative lesions of aging. Gastroenterology 1977; 72 (4 Pt 1): 650-60.
81. James MA, Saadeh AM, Jones JV,. Wall stress and hypertension. J Cardiovasc Risk 2000; 7: 187-90.
82. White CM, Poxon V, Williams JA, et al,. A study of motility of normal human gastroduodenal region. Dig Dis Sci 1981; 26: 609-17.
83. Greenstein RJ, McElhinney AJ, Reuben D, Greenstein AJ,. Colonic vascular ectasias and aortic stenosis: coincidence or causal relationship? Am J Surg 1986; 151: 347-51.
84. Junquera F, Saperas E, de Torres I, Vidal MT, Malagelada JR,. Increased expression of angiogenic factors in human colonic angiodysplasia. Am J Gastroenterol 1999; 94: 1070-6.
85. Chen HM, Ge ZZ, Liu WZ, et al,. The mechanisms of thalidomide in treatment of angiodysplasia due to hypoxia. Zhonghua Nei Ke Za Zhi 2009; 48: 295-8.
86. Fujita H, Momoi M, Chuganji Y, Tomiyama J,. Increased plasma vascular endothelial growth factor levels in patients with angiodysplasia. J Intern Med 2000; 248: 268-9.
87. Starke RD, Ferraro F, Paschalaki KE, et al,. Endothelial von Willebrand factor regulates angiogenesis. Blood 2011; 117: 1071-80.
88. Tung KT, Millar AB,. Gastric angiodysplasia-a missed cause of gastrointestinal bleeding. Postgrad Med J 1987; 63: 865-6.
89. Marmo R, Rotondano G, Piscopo R, Bianco MA, Cipolletta L,. Meta-analysis: capsule enteroscopy vs. conventional modalities in diagnosis of small bowel diseases. Aliment Pharmacol Ther 2005; 22: 595-604.
90. Triester SL, Leighton JA, Leontiadis GI, et al,. A meta-analysis of the yield of capsule endoscopy compared to other diagnostic modalities in patients with obscure gastrointestinal bleeding. Am J Gastroenterol 2005; 100: 2407-18.
91. Nakamura M, Niwa Y, Ohmiya N, et al,. Preliminary comparison of capsule endoscopy and double-balloon enteroscopy in patients with suspected small-bowel bleeding. Endoscopy 2006; 38: 59-66.
92. Hadithi M, Heine GD, Jacobs MA, van Bodegraven AA, Mulder CJ,. A prospective study comparing video capsule endoscopy with double-balloon enteroscopy in patients with obscure gastrointestinal bleeding. Am J Gastroenterol 2006; 101: 52-7.
93. Jones BH, Fleischer DE, Sharma VK, et al,. Yield of repeat wireless video capsule endoscopy in patients with obscure gastrointestinal bleeding. Am J Gastroenterol 2005; 100: 1058-64.
94. Bar-Meir S, Eliakim R, Nadler M, et al,. Second capsule endoscopy for patients with severe iron deficiency anemia. Gastrointest Endosc 2004; 60: 711-3.
95. Lin TN, Su MY, Hsu CM, Lin WP, Chiu CT, Chen PC,. Combined use of capsule endoscopy and double-balloon enteroscopy in patients with obscure gastrointestinal bleeding. Chang Gung Med J 2008; 31: 450-6.
96. Kamalaporn P, Cho S, Basset N, et al,. Double-balloon enteroscopy following capsule endoscopy in the management of obscure gastrointestinal bleeding: outcome of a combined approach. Can J Gastroenterol 2008; 22: 491-5.
97. Lenz P, Domagk D,. Double-vs. single-balloon vs. spiral enteroscopy. Best Pract Res Clin Gastroenterol 2012; 26: 303-13.
98. Domagk D, Mensink P, Aktas H, et al,. Single-vs. double-balloon enteroscopy in small-bowel diagnostics: a randomized multicenter trial. Endoscopy 2011; 43: 472-6.
99. May A, Farber M, Aschmoneit I, et al,. Prospective multicenter trial comparing push-and-pull enteroscopy with the single-and double-balloon techniques in patients with small-bowel disorders. Am J Gastroenterol 2010; 105: 575-81.
100. Takano N, Yamada A, Watabe H, et al,. Single-balloon versus double-balloon endoscopy for achieving total enteroscopy: a randomized, controlled trial. Gastrointest Endosc 2011; 73: 734-9.
101. Frieling T, Heise J, Sassenrath W, Hulsdonk A, Kreysel C,. Prospective comparison between double-balloon enteroscopy and spiral enteroscopy. Endoscopy 2010; 42: 885-8.
102. May A, Manner H, Aschmoneit I, Ell C,. Prospective, cross-over, single-center trial comparing oral double-balloon enteroscopy and oral spiral enteroscopy in patients with suspected small-bowel vascular malformations. Endoscopy 2011; 43: 477-83.
103. Khashab MA, Lennon AM, Dunbar KB, et al,. A comparative evaluation of single-balloon enteroscopy and spiral enteroscopy for patients with mid-gut disorders. Gastrointest Endosc 2010; 72: 766-72.
104. Matsumoto T, Moriyama T, Esaki M, Nakamura S, Iida M,. Performance of antegrade double-balloon enteroscopy: comparison with push enteroscopy. Gastrointest Endosc 2005; 62: 392-8.
105. Ell C, May A, Nachbar L, et al,. Push-and-pull enteroscopy in the small bowel using the double-balloon technique: results of a prospective European multicenter study. Endoscopy 2005; 37: 613-6.
106. Yamamoto H, Kita H, Sunada K, et al,. Clinical outcomes of double-balloon endoscopy for the diagnosis and treatment of small-intestinal diseases. Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol 2004; 2: 1010-6.
107. Desa LA, Ohri SK, Hutton KA, Lee H, Spencer J,. Role of intraoperative enteroscopy in obscure gastrointestinal bleeding of small bowel origin. Br J Surg 1991; 78: 192-5.
108. Douard R, Wind P, Panis Y, et al,. Intraoperative enteroscopy for diagnosis and management of unexplained gastrointestinal bleeding. Am J Surg 2000; 180: 181-4.
109. Zaman A, Sheppard B, Katon RM,. Total peroral intraoperative enteroscopy for obscure GI bleeding using a dedicated push enteroscope: diagnostic yield and patient outcome. Gastrointest Endosc 1999; 50: 506-10.
110. Lewis BS, Wenger JS, Waye JD,. Small bowel enteroscopy and intraoperative enteroscopy for obscure gastrointestinal bleeding. Am J Gastroenterol 1991; 86: 171-4.
111. Dusold R, Burke K, Carpentier W, Dyck WP,. The accuracy of technetium-99 m-labeled red cell scintigraphy in localizing gastrointestinal bleeding. Am J Gastroenterol 1994; 89: 345-8.
112. Feingold DL, Caliendo FJ, Chinn BT, et al,. Does hemodynamic instability predict positive technetium-labeled red blood cell scintigraphy in patients with acute lower gastrointestinal bleeding? A review of 50 patients. Dis Colon Rectum 2005; 48: 1001-4.
113. Junquera F, Quiroga S, Saperas E, et al,. Accuracy of helical computed tomographic angiography for the diagnosis of colonic angiodysplasia. Gastroenterology 2000; 119: 293-9.
114. Leung WK, Ho SS, Suen BY, et al,. Capsule endoscopy or angiography in patients with acute overt obscure gastrointestinal bleeding: a prospective randomized study with long-term follow-up. Am J Gastroenterol 2012; 107: 1370-6.
115. Vargo JJ,. Clinical applications of the argon plasma coagulator. Gastrointest Endosc 2004; 59: 81-8.
116. Goulet CJ, Disario JA, Emerson L, Hilden K, Holubkov R, Fang JC,. In vivo evaluation of argon plasma coagulation in a porcine model. Gastrointest Endosc 2007; 65: 457-62.
117. Norton ID, Wang L, Levine SA, et al,. In vivo characterization of colonic thermal injury caused by argon plasma coagulation. Gastrointest Endosc 2002; 55: 631-6.
118. Watson JP, Bennett MK, Griffin SM, Matthewson K,. The tissue effect of argon plasma coagulation on esophageal and gastric mucosa. Gastrointest Endosc 2000; 52: 342-5.
119. Godeschalk MF, Mensink PB, van Buuren HR, Kuipers EJ,. Primary balloon-assisted enteroscopy in patients with obscure gastrointestinal bleeding: findings and outcome of therapy. J Clin Gastroenterol 2010; 44: e195-200.
120. Jarbandhan S, van der Veer WM, Mulder CJ,. Double-balloon endoscopy in the diagnosis and treatment of hemorrhage from retrovalvular angiodysplasias. J Gastrointestin Liver Dis 2008; 17: 333-4.
121. Sun B, Rajan E, Cheng S, et al,. Diagnostic yield and therapeutic impact of double-balloon enteroscopy in a large cohort of patients with obscure gastrointestinal bleeding. Am J Gastroenterol 2006; 101: 2011-5.
122. Monkemuller K, Weigt J, Treiber G, et al,. Diagnostic and therapeutic impact of double-balloon enteroscopy. Endoscopy 2006; 38: 67-72.
123. Eickhoff A, Enderle MD, Hartmann D, Eickhoff JC, Riemann JF, Jakobs R,. Effectiveness and Safety of PRECISE APC for the treatment of bleeding gastrointestinal angiodysplasia-a retrospective evaluation. Z Gastroenterol 2011; 49: 195-200.
124. Olmos JA, Marcolongo M, Pogorelsky V, Herrera L, Tobal F, Davolos JR,. Long-term outcome of argon plasma ablation therapy for bleeding in 100 consecutive patients with colonic angiodysplasia. Dis Colon Rectum 2006; 49: 1507-16.
125. Olmos JA, Marcolongo M, Pogorelsky V, Varela E, Davolos JR,. Argon plasma coagulation for prevention of recurrent bleeding from GI angiodysplasias. Gastrointest Endosc 2004; 60: 881-6.
126. Wahab PJ, Mulder CJ, den Hartog G, Thies JE,. Argon plasma coagulation in flexible gastrointestinal endoscopy: pilot experiences. Endoscopy 1997; 29: 176-81.
127. Norton ID, Wang L, Levine SA, et al,. Efficacy of colonic submucosal saline solution injection for the reduction of iatrogenic thermal injury. Gastrointest Endosc 2002; 56: 95-9.
128. Suzuki N, Arebi N, Saunders BP,. A novel method of treating colonic angiodysplasia. Gastrointest Endosc 2006; 64: 424-7.
129. Kwan V, Bourke MJ, Williams SJ, et al,. Argon plasma coagulation in the management of symptomatic gastrointestinal vascular lesions: experience in 100 consecutive patients with long-term follow-up. Am J Gastroenterol 2006; 101: 58-63.
130. Ladas SD, Karamanolis G, Ben-Soussan E,. Colonic gas explosion during therapeutic colonoscopy with electrocautery. World J Gastroenterol 2007; 13: 5295-8.
131. Josemanders DF, Spillenaar Bilgen EJ, van Sorge AA, Wahab PJ, de Vries RA,. Colonic explosion during endoscopic polypectomy: avoidable complication or bad luck? Endoscopy 2006; 38: 943-4.
132. Richter JM, Christensen MR, Colditz GA, Nishioka NS,. Angiodysplasia. Natural history and efficacy of therapeutic interventions. Dig Dis Sci 1989; 34: 1542-6.
133. Howard OM, Buchanan JD, Hunt RH,. Angiodysplasia of the colon. Experience of 26 cases. Lancet 1982; 2: 16-9.
134. Naveau S, Aubert A, Poynard T, Chaput JC,. Long-term results of treatment of vascular malformations of the gastrointestinal tract by neodymium YAG laser photocoagulation. Dig Dis Sci 1990; 35: 821-6.
135. Jensen DM, Machicado GA,. Bleeding colonic angioma: endoscopic coagulation and follow-up. Gastroenterology 1985; 88: 1433
136. Roberts PL, Schoetz DJ, Coller JA,. Vascular ectasia: diagnosis and treatment by colonoscopy. Am J Surg 1988; 54: 56-7.
137. Askin MP, Lewis BS,. Push enteroscopic cauterization: long-term follow-up of 83 patients with bleeding small intestinal angiodysplasia. Gastrointest Endosc 1996; 43: 580-3.
138. Laine L,. Therapeutic endoscopy and bleeding ulcers. Bipolar/multipolar electrocoagulation. Gastrointest Endosc 1990; 36 (5 Suppl): S38-41.
139. The American Society for Gastrointestinal Endoscopy (ASGE) Technology Committee. Endoscopic hemostatic devices. Gastrointest Endosc 2009; 69: 987-96.
140. Selinger RR, McDonald GB, Hockenbery DM, Steinbach G, Kimmey MB,. Efficacy of neodymium:YAG laser therapy for gastric antral vascular ectasia (GAVE) following hematopoietic cell transplant. Bone Marrow Transplant 2006; 37: 191-7.
141. Mathou NG, Lovat LB, Thorpe SM, Bown SG,. Nd:YAG laser induces long-term remission in transfusion-dependent patients with watermelon stomach. Lasers Med Sci 2004; 18: 213-8.
142. Polese L, Angriman I, Pagano D, et al,. Laser therapy and surgical treatment in transfusion-dependent patients with upper-gastrointestinal vascular ectasia. Lasers Med Sci 2006; 21: 140-6.
143. Bown SG, Swain CP, Storey DW, et al,. Endoscopic laser treatment of vascular anomalies of the upper gastrointestinal tract. Gut 1985; 26: 1338-48.
144. Gostout CJ, Bowyer BA, Ahlquist DA, Viggiano TR, Balm RK,. Mucosal vascular malformations of the gastrointestinal tract: clinical observations and results of endoscopic neodymium: yttrium-aluminum-garnet laser therapy. Mayo Clin Proc 1988; 63: 993-1003.
145. Mathus-Vliegen EM,. Laser treatment of intestinal vascular abnormalities. Int J Colorectal Dis 1989; 4: 20-5.
146. Rutgeerts P, Van Gompel F, Geboes K, Vantrappen G, Broeckaert L, Coremans G,. Long term results of treatment of vascular malformations of the gastrointestinal tract by neodymium Yag laser photocoagulation. Gut 1985; 26: 586-93.
147. Cello JP, Grendell JH,. Endoscopic laser treatment for gastrointestinal vascular ectasias. Ann Intern Med 1986; 104: 352-4.
148. Lanthier P, d'Harveng B, Vanheuverzwyn R, et al. Colonic angiodysplasia. Follow-up of patients after endoscopic treatment for bleeding lesions. Dis Colon Rectum 1989; 32: 296-8.
149. Takahashi N, Tanabe K, Yoshitomi H, et al,. Successful endoscopic clipping for bleeding from colonic angiodysplasia in a case of Heyde syndrome. Med Sci Monit 2010; 16: CS107-9.
150. Lee TY, Yeh HZ, Yang SS, Chang CS,. Successful application of haemoclips plus argon plasma coagulation for angioectasia bleeding with underlying arteriovenous malformation in the colon. Colorectal Dis 2009; 12 (7 Online): e180-1.
151. Pishvaian AC, Lewis JH,. Use of endoclips to obliterate a colonic arteriovenous malformation before cauterization. Gastrointest Endosc 2006; 63: 865-6.
152. Moparty B, Raju GS,. Role of hemoclips in a patient with cecal angiodysplasia at high risk of recurrent bleeding from antithrombotic therapy to maintain coronary stent patency: a case report. Gastrointest Endosc 2005; 62: 468-9.
153. Ertekin C, Taviloglu K, Barbaros U, Guloglu R, Dolay K,. Endoscopic band ligation: alternative treatment method in nonvariceal upper gastrointestinal hemorrhage. J Laparoendosc Adv Surg Tech A 2002; 12: 41-5.
154. Matsui S, Kamisako T, Kudo M, Inoue R,. Endoscopic band ligation for control of nonvariceal upper GI hemorrhage: comparison with bipolar electrocoagulation. Gastrointest Endosc 2002; 55: 214-8.
155. Wong RM, Ota S, Katoh A, et al,. Endoscopic ligation for non-esophageal variceal upper gastrointestinal hemorrhage. Endoscopy 1998; 30: 774-7.
156. Weilert F, Smith AC,. Endoscopic band ligation of gastric angiodysplasia. N Z Med J 1998; 111: 320.
157. Ljubicic N,. Endoscopic detachable mini-loop ligation for treatment of gastroduodenal angiodysplasia: case study of 11 patients with long-term follow-up. Gastrointest Endosc 2004; 59: 420-3.
158. Junquera F, Brullet E, Campo R, Calvet X, Puig-Divi V, Vergara M,. Usefulness of endoscopic band ligation for bleeding small bowel vascular lesions. Gastrointest Endosc 2003; 58: 274-9.
159. Chung YW, Jeon YC, Paik CH, et al,. Pedunculated angiodysplasia of the colon treated with endoscopic resection: a case report. Dig Dis Sci 2005; 50: 1550-2.
160. Kobeissy A, Mallat M, Jamali F, et al,. Endoscopic removal of a bleeding colonic polypoid angiodysplasia: case report. Acta Gastroenterol Belg 2010; 73: 406-8.
161. Marwick T, Kerlin P,. Angiodysplasia of the upper gastrointestinal tract. Clinical spectrum in 41 cases. J Clin Gastroenterol 1986; 8: 404-7.
162. Bemvenuti GA, Julich MM,. Ethanolamine injection for sclerotherapy of angiodysplasia of the colon. Endoscopy 1998; 30: 564-9.
163. Millward SF,. ACR appropriateness criteria on treatment of acute nonvariceal gastrointestinal tract bleeding. J Am Coll Radiol 2008; 5: 550-4.
164. Darcy M,. Treatment of lower gastrointestinal bleeding: vasopressin infusion versus embolization. J Vasc Interv Radiol 2003; 14: 535-43.
165. Funaki B,. Endovascular intervention for the treatment of acute arterial gastrointestinal hemorrhage. Gastroenterol Clin North Am 2002; 31: 701-13.
166. Walker TG,. Acute gastrointestinal hemorrhage. Tech Vasc Interv Radiol 2009; 12: 80-91.
167. Kuo WT, Lee DE, Saad WEA, Patel N, Sahler LG, Waldman DL,. Superselective microcoil embolization for the treatment of lower gastrointestinal hemorrhage. J Vasc Interv Radiol 2003; 14: 1503-9.
168. Kuo WT,. Transcatheter treatment for lower gastrointestinal hemorrhage. Tech Vasc Interv Radiol 2004; 7: 143-50.
169. Bandi R, Shetty PC, Sharma RP, Burke TH, Burke MW, Kastan D,. Superselective arterial embolization for the treatment of lower gastrointestinal hemorrhage. J Vasc Interv Radiol 2001; 12: 1399-405.
170. Patel TH, Cordts PR, Abcarian P, Sawyer MA,. Will transcatheter embolotherapy replace surgery in the treatment of gastrointestinal bleeding? Curr Surg 2001; 58: 323-7.
171. Schenker MP, Duszak R Jr, Soulen MC, et al,. Upper gastrointestinal hemorrhage and transcatheter embolotherapy: clinical and technical factors impacting success and survival. J Vasc Interv Radiol 2001; 12: 1263-71.
172. Mirsadraee S, Tirukonda P, Nicholson A, Everett SM, McPherson SJ,. Embolization for non-variceal upper gastrointestinal tract haemorrhage: a systematic review. Clin Radiol 2011; 66: 500-9.
173. Czymek R, Kempf A, Roblick UJ, et al,. Surgical treatment concepts for acute lower gastrointestinal bleeding. J Gastrointest Surg 2008; 12: 2212-20.
174. Gifford SM, Peck MA, Reyes AM, Lundy JB,. Methylene blue enteric mapping for intraoperative localization in obscure small bowel hemorrhage: report of a new technique and literature review: combined intraoperative methylene blue mapping and enterectomy. J Gastrointest Surg 2012; 16: 2177-81.
175. Di Girolamo G, Malavasi A, Cassisa L, Cossu ML, Dettori G, Realdi G,. Chronic bleeding caused by small bowel angiodysplasia: a problem of recognition and diagnosis. Ital J Gastroenterol 1992; 24: 468-9.
176. Junquera F, Feu F, Papo M, et al,. A multicenter, randomized, clinical trial of hormonal therapy in the prevention of rebleeding from gastrointestinal angiodysplasia. Gastroenterology 2001; 121: 1073-9.
177. Junquera F, Santos J, Saperas E, Armengol JR, Malagelada JR,. Estrogen and progestagen treatment in digestive hemorrhage caused by vascular malformations. Gastroenterol Hepatol 1995; 18: 61-5.
178. Lewis BS, Salomon P, Rivera-MacMurray S, Kornbluth AA, Wenger J, Waye JD,. Does hormonal therapy have any benefit for bleeding angiodysplasia? J Clin Gastroenterol 1992; 15: 99-103.
179. van Cutsem E, Rutgeerts P, Vantrappen G,. Treatment of bleeding gastrointestinal vascular malformations with oestrogen-progesterone. Lancet 1990; 335: 953-5.
180. Barkin JS, Ross BS,. Medical therapy for chronic gastrointestinal bleeding of obscure origin. Am J Gastroenterol 1998; 93: 1250-4.
181. Bronner MH, Pate MB, Cunningham JT, Marsh WH,. Estrogen-progesterone therapy for bleeding gastrointestinal telangiectasias in chronic renal failure. An uncontrolled trial. Ann Intern Med 1986; 105: 371-4.
182. Manzanera MJ, Gutierrez E, Dominguez-Gil B, Garcia JA, Gonzalez E, Praga M,. Digestive haemorrhage due to angiodysplasia in dialysis patients. Treatment with conjugated estrogens. Nefrologia 2005; 25: 412-5.
183. Shurafa M, Kamboj G,. Thalidomide for the treatment of bleeding angiodysplasias. Am J Gastroenterol 2003; 98: 221-2.
184. Heidt J, Langers AM, van der Meer FJ, Brouwer RE,. Thalidomide as treatment for digestive tract angiodysplasias. Neth J Med 2006; 64: 425-8.
185. Belard E, Foss CH, Christensen LA, Schmidt P, Nojgaard C,. Thalidomide therapy for gastrointestinal angiodysplasia. Ugeskr Laeger 2009; 171: 3454-5.
186. Almadi M, Ghali PM, Constantin A, Galipeau J, Szilagyi A,. Recurrent obscure gastrointestinal bleeding: dilemmas and success with pharmacological therapies. Case series and review. Can J Gastroenterol 2009; 23: 625-31.
187. de Koning DB, Drenth JP, Friederich P, Nagengast FM,. Thalidomide for the treatment of recurrent gastrointestinal blood loss due to intestinal angiodysplasias. Ned Tijdschr Geneeskd 2006; 150: 1994-7.
188. Bauditz J, Lochs H, Voderholzer W,. Macroscopic appearance of intestinal angiodysplasias under antiangiogenic treatment with thalidomide. Endoscopy 2006; 38: 1036-9.
189. Dabak V, Kuriakose P, Kamboj G, Shurafa M,. A pilot study of thalidomide in recurrent GI bleeding due to angiodysplasias. Dig Dis Sci 2008; 53: 1632-5.
190. Kamalaporn P, Saravanan R, Cirocco M, et al,. Thalidomide for the treatment of chronic gastrointestinal bleeding from angiodysplasias: a case series. Eur J Gastroenterol Hepatol 2009; 21: 1347-50.
191. Garrido A, Sayago M, Lopez J, Leon R, Bellido F, Marquez JL,. Thalidomide in refractory bleeding due to gastrointestinal angiodysplasias. Rev Esp Enferm Dig 2012; 104: 69-71.
192. Ge ZZ, Chen HM, Gao YJ, et al,. Efficacy of thalidomide for refractory gastrointestinal bleeding from vascular malformation. Gastroenterology 2011; 141: 1629-37.
193. Bowcock SJ, Patrick HE,. Lenalidomide to control gastrointestinal bleeding in hereditary haemorrhagic telangiectasia: potential implications for angiodysplasias? Br J Haematol 2009; 146: 220-2.
194. Szilagyi A, Ghali MP,. Pharmacological therapy of vascular malformations of the gastrointestinal tract. Can J Gastroenterol 2006; 20: 171-8.
195. Nardone G, Rocco A, Balzano T, Budillon G,. The efficacy of octreotide therapy in chronic bleeding due to vascular abnormalities of the gastrointestinal tract. Aliment Pharmacol Ther 1999; 13: 1429-36.
196. Blich M, Fruchter O, Edelstein S, Edoute Y,. Somatostatin therapy ameliorates chronic and refractory gastrointestinal bleeding caused by diffuse angiodysplasia in a patient on anticoagulation therapy. Scand J Gastroenterol 2003; 38: 801-3.
197. Bowers M, McNulty O, Mayne E,. Octreotide in the treatment of gastrointestinal bleeding caused by angiodysplasia in two patients with von Willebrand's disease. Br J Haematol 2000; 108: 524-7.
198. Andersen MR, Aaseby J,. Somatostatin in the treatment of gastrointestinal bleeding caused by angiodysplasia. Scand J Gastroenterol 1996; 31: 1037-9.
199. Molina Infante J, Perez Gallardo B, Hernandez Alonso M, Mateos Rodriguez JM, Duenas Sadornil C, Fernandez Bermejo M,. Octreotide long acting release for severe obscure gastrointestinal haemorrhage in elderly patients with serious comorbidities. Med Clin (Barc) 2009; 133: 667-70.
200. Rivera M, Lucero J, Guerrero A, et al,. Octreotide in the treatment of angiodysplasia in patients with advanced chronic renal failure. Nefrologia 2005; 25: 332-5.
201. Orsi P, Guatti-Zuliani C, Okolicsanyi L,. Long-acting octreotide is effective in controlling rebleeding angiodysplasia of the gastrointestinal tract. Dig Liver Dis 2001; 33: 330-4.
202. Rossini FP, Arrigoni A, Pennazio M,. Octreotide in the treatment of bleeding due to angiodysplasia of the small intestine. Am J Gastroenterol 1993; 88: 1424-7.
203. Brown C, Subramanian V, Wilcox CM, Peter S,. Somatostatin analogues in the treatment of recurrent bleeding from gastrointestinal vascular malformations: an overview and systematic review of prospective observational studies. Dig Dis Sci 2010; 55: 2129-34.
204. Scaglione G, Pietrini L, Russo F, Franco MR, Sorrentini I,. Long-acting octreotide as rescue therapy in chronic bleeding from gastrointestinal angiodysplasia. Aliment Pharmacol Ther 2007; 26: 935-42.
205. Junquera F, Saperas E, Videla S, et al,. Long-term efficacy of octreotide in the prevention of recurrent bleeding from gastrointestinal angiodysplasia. Am J Gastroenterol 2007; 102: 254-60.
206. Bon C, Aparicio T, Vincent M, et al,. Long-acting somatostatin analogues decrease blood transfusion requirements in patients with refractory gastrointestinal bleeding associated with angiodysplasia. Aliment Pharmacol Ther 2012; 36: 587-93.