Review article: The management of lower gastrointestinal bleeding

Alimentary Pharmacology and Therapeutics

Volumn 21, Issue 11, 2005, Pages 1281-1298

  Farrell, J J ^a   Friedman, L S ^b,c,d  

^a UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA   (United States)

^b HARVARD MEDICAL SCHOOL   (United States)

^c NEWTON WELLESLEY HOSPITAL   (United States)

^d MASSACHUSETTS GENERAL HOSPITAL   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ADRENALIN; ANTIINFLAMMATORY AGENT; BARIUM; ESTROGEN; FORMALDEHYDE; FRESH FROZEN PLASMA; GOLYTELY; METOCLOPRAMIDE; NALOXONE; NONSTEROID ANTIINFLAMMATORY AGENT; PERTECHNETIC ACID TC 99M; PROKINETIC AGENT; SUCRALFATE; TECHNETIUM SULFUR COLLOID TC 99M; VITAMIN K GROUP; WARFARIN;

ABDOMINAL ANGIOGRAPHY; ABDOMINAL RADIOGRAPHY; ABDOMINAL SCINTISCANNING; ANTICOAGULATION; BARIUM ENEMA; CAUTERIZATION; CLINICAL FEATURE; CLINICAL TRIAL; COLON DIVERTICULOSIS; COLONOSCOPY; DATA BASE; DECISION MAKING; DIAGNOSTIC TEST; DISEASE SEVERITY; ENDOSCOPY; ESTROGEN THERAPY; EVIDENCE BASED MEDICINE; GASTROINTESTINAL HEMORRHAGE; HEMODYNAMICS; HUMAN; MEDICAL LITERATURE; META ANALYSIS; POLYPECTOMY; PRACTICE GUIDELINE; PRIORITY JOURNAL; PROCTITIS; PUBLICATION; RESUSCITATION; REVIEW; SYSTEMATIC REVIEW;

ACUTE DISEASE; COLONOSCOPY; ENDOSCOPY, GASTROINTESTINAL; GASTROINTESTINAL HEMORRHAGE; HUMANS; PHYSICAL EXAMINATION; RECURRENCE; TREATMENT OUTCOME;

EID: 20444439442     PISSN: 02692813     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2036.2005.02485.x     Document Type: Review

References (196)

1. Farrell JJ, Friedman LS. Gastrointestinal bleeding in the elderly. Gastroenterol Clin North Am 2001; 30: 377-407.
2. Boley SJ, DiBiase A, Brandt LJ, Sammartano RJ. Lower intestinal bleeding in the elderly. Am J Surg 1979; 137: 57-64.
3. Jensen DM, Machicado GA. Diagnosis and treatment of severe haematochezia. The role of urgent colonoscopy after purge. Gastroenterology 1988; 95: 1569-74.
4. Jensen DM, Machicado GA. Colonoscopy for diagnosis and treatment of severe lower gastrointestinal bleeding. Routine outcomes and cost analysis. Gastrointest Endosc Clin N Am 1997; 7: 477-98.
5. Leitman IM, Paull DE, Shires GT III. Evaluation and management of massive lower gastrointestinal haemorrhage. Ann Surg 1989; 209: 175-80.
6. Longstreth GF. Epidemiology and outcome of patients hospitalized with acute lower gastrointestinal haemorrhage: a population-based study. Am J Gastroenterol 1997; 92: 419-24.
7. Richter JM, Christensen MR, Kaplan LM, Nishioka NS. Effectiveness of current technology in the diagnosis and management of lower gastrointestinal haemorrhage. Gastrointest Endosc 1995; 41: 93-8.
8. Bramley PN, Masson JW, McKnight G, et al. The role of an open-access bleeding unit in the management of colonic haemorrhage. A 2-year prospective study. Scand J Gastroenterol 1996; 31: 764-9.
9. Longstreth GF. Epidemiology of hospitalization for acute upper gastrointestinal haemorrhage: a population-based study (see comments). Am J Gastroenterol 1995; 90: 206-10.
10. Boley SJ, Sprayregen S, Sammartano RJ, Adams A, Kleinhaus S. The pathophysiologic basis for the angiographic signs of vascular ectasias of the colon. Radiology 1977; 125: 615-21.
11. Foutch PG. Angiodysplasia of the gastrointestinal tract. Am J Gastroenterol 1993; 88: 807-18.
12. McGuire HH Jr. Bleeding colonic diverticula. A reappraisal of natural history and management. Ann Surg 1994; 220: 653-6.
13. Farrell JJ, Friedman LS. Gastrointestinal bleeding in older people. Gastroenterol Clin North Am 2000; 29: 1-36.
14. Cheskin LJ, Bohlman M, Schuster MM. Diverticular disease in the elderly. Gastroenterol Clin North Am 1990; 19: 391-403.
15. Schultheiss TE, Lee WR, Hunt MA, Hanlon AL, Peter RS, Hanks GE. Late GI and GU complications in the treatment of prostate cancer. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 1997; 37: 3-11.
16. Gilinsky NH, Burns DG, Barbezat GO, Levin W, Myers HS, Marks IN. The natural history of radiation-induced proctosigmoiditis: an analysis of 88 patients. Q J Med 1983; 52: 40-53.
17. Lucarotti ME, Mountford RA, Bartolo DC. Surgical management of intestinal radiation injury. Dis Colon Rectum 1991; 34: 865-9.
18. Steer ML, Silen W. Diagnostic procedures in gastrointestinal haemorrhage. N Engl J Med 1983; 309: 646-50.
19. Bronner MH, Pate MB, Cunningham JT, Marsh WH. Estrogen-progesterone therapy for bleeding gastrointestinal telangiectasias in chronic renal failure. An uncontrolled trial. Ann Intern Med 1986; 105: 371-4.
20. Lewis BS, Salomon P, Rivera-MacMurray S, Kornbluth AA, Wenger J, Waye JD. Does hormonal therapy have any benefit for bleeding angiodysplasia? J Clin Gastroenterol 1992; 15: 99-103.
21. Junquera F, Santos J, Saperas E, Armengol JR, Malagelada JR. Estrogen and progestagen treatment in digestive haemorrhage caused by vascular malformations. Gastroenterol Hepatol 1995; 18: 61-5.
22. Junquera F, Feu F, Papo M, et al. A multicenter, randomized, clinical trial of hormonal therapy in the prevention of rebleeding from gastrointestinal angiodysplasia. Gastroenterology 2001; 121: 1073-9.
23. van Cutsem E, Rutgeerts P, Vantrappen G. Treatment of bleeding gastrointestinal vascular malformations with oestrogen-progesterone. Lancet 1990; 335: 953-5.
24. Kochhar R, Patel F, Dhar A, et al. Radiation-induced proctosigmoiditis. Prospective, randomized, double-blind controlled trial of oral sulfasalazine plus rectal steroids versus rectal sucralfate. Dig Dis Sci 1991; 36: 103-7.
25. Kochhar R, Sriram PV, Sharma SC, Goel RC, Patel F. Natural history of late radiation proctosigmoiditis treated with topical sucralfate suspension. Dig Dis Sci 1999; 44: 973-8.
26. Grigsby PW, Pilepich MV, Parsons CL. Preliminary results of a phase I/II study of sodium pentosanpolysulfate in the treatment of chronic radiation-induced proctitis. Am J Clin Oncol 1990; 13: 28-31.
27. Chapuis P, Dent O, Bokey E, et al. The development of a treatment protocol for patients with chronic radiation-induced rectal bleeding. Aust N Z J Surg 1996; 66: 680-5.
28. Yegappan M, Ho YH, Nyam D, Leong A, Eu KW, Seow C. The surgical management of colorectal complications from irradiation for carcinoma of the cervix. Ann Acad Med Singapore 1998; 27: 627-30.
29. Counter SF, Froese DP, Hart MJ. Prospective evaluation of formalin therapy for radiation proctitis. Am J Surg 1999; 177: 396-8.
30. Rubinstein E, Ibsen T, Rasmussen RB, Reimer E, Sorensen BL. Formalin treatment of radiation-induced hemorrhagic proctitis. Am J Gastroenterol 1986; 81: 44-5.
31. Reimer E, Rasmussen RB, Rubinstein BE, Ibsen T, Sorensen BL. Formalin treatment of severe radiation-induced hemorrhagic proctitis. Ugeskr Laeger 1987; 149: 1194-6.
32. Seow-Choen F, Goh HS, Eu KW, Ho YH, Tay SK. A simple and effective treatment for hemorrhagic radiation proctitis using formalin. Dis Colon Rectum 1993; 36: 135-8.
33. Isenberg GA, Goldstein SD, Resnik AM. Formalin therapy for radiation proctitis. Jama 1994; 272: 1822.
34. Mathai V, Seow-Choen F. Endoluminal formalin therapy for haemorrhagic radiation proctitis. Br J Surg 1995; 82: 190.
35. Biswal BM, Lal P, Rath GK, Shukla NK, Mohanti BK, Deo S. Intrarectal formalin application, an effective treatment for grade III haemorrhagic radiation proctitis. Radiother Oncol 1995; 35: 212-5.
36. Saclarides TJ, King DG, Franklin JL, Doolas A. Formalin instillation for refractory radiation-induced hemorrhagic proctitis. Report of 16 patients. Dis Colon Rectum 1996; 39: 196-9.
37. Roche B, Chautems R, Marti MC. Application of formaldehyde for treatment of hemorrhagic radiation-induced proctitis. World J Surg 1996; 20: 1092-4, discussion 4-5.
38. Goldinger M. Radiation-induced hemorrhagic proctitis treated with formalin. A simple and efficient help against adverse effects of radiation. Lakartidningen 1998; 95: 1142-3.
39. Arrowsmith JB, Gerstman BB, Fleischer DE, Benjamin SB. Results from the American Society for Gastrointestinal Endoscopy/U.S. Food and Drug Administration collaborative study on complication rates and drug use during gastrointestinal endoscopy. Gastrointest Endosc 1991; 37: 421-7.
40. Ure T, Dehghan K, Vernava AMD, Longo WE, Andrus CA, Daniel GL. Colonoscopy in the elderly. Low risk, high yield. Surg Endosc 1995; 9: 505-8.
41. Lipper B, Simon D, Cerrone F. Pulmonary aspiration during emergency endoscopy in patients with upper gastrointestinal haemorrhage. Crit Care Med 1991; 19: 330-3.
42. Quine MA, Bell GD, McCloy RF, Charlton JE, Devlin HB, Hopkins A. Prospective audit of upper gastrointestinal endoscopy in two regions of England: safety, staffing, and sedation methods (see comments). Gut 1995; 36: 462-7.
43. Bell GR, Moshiri PA, et al. Intravenous midazolam: a study of the degree of oxygen desaturation during upper gastrointestinal endoscopy. Br J Clin Pharmacol 1987; 23: 703-08.
44. Freeman ML, Hennessy JT, Cass OW, Pheley AM. Carbon dioxide retention and oxygen desaturation during gastrointestinal endoscopy (see comments). Gastroenterology 1993; 105: 331-9.
45. Griffin SM, Chung SC, Leung JW, Li AK. Effect of intranasal oxygen on hypoxia and tachycardia during endoscopic cholangiopancreatography. BMJ 1990; 300: 83-4.
46. Cuellar RE, Gavaler JS, Alexander JA, et al. Gastrointestinal tract haemorrhage. The value of a nasogastric aspirate (see comments). Arch Intern Med 1990; 150: 1381-4.
47. Angtuaco TL, Reddy SK, Drapkin S, Harrell LE, Howden CW. The utility of urgent colonoscopy in the evaluation of acute lower gastrointestinal tract bleeding: a 2-year experience from a single center. Am J Gastroenterol 2001; 96: 1782-5.
48. Rossini FP, Ferrari A, Spandre M, et al. Emergency colonoscopy. World J Surg 1989; 13: 190-2.
49. Peura DA, Lanza FL, Gostout CJ, Foutch PG. The American College of Gastroenterology Bleeding Registry: preliminary findings. Am J Gastroenterol 1997; 92: 924-8.
50. Zuckerman GR, Prakash C. Acute lower intestinal bleeding: part I: clinical presentation and diagnosis. Gastrointest Endosc 1998; 48: 606-17.
51. Meyers MA, Alonso DR, Gray GF, Baer JW. Pathogenesis of bleeding colonic diverticulosis. Gastroenterology 1976; 71 577-83.
52. Meyers MA, Alonso DR, Baer JW. Pathogenesis of massively bleeding colonic diverticulosis: new observations. Am J Roentgenol 1976; 127: 901-8.
53. Gostout CJ, Wang KK, Ahlquist DA, et al. Acute gastrointestinal bleeding. Experience of a specialized management team. J Clin Gastroenterol 1992; 14: 260-7.
54. Richter JM, Hedberg SE, Athanasoulis CA, Schapiro RH. Angiodysplasia. Clinical presentation and colonoscopic diagnosis. Dig Dis Sci 1984; 29: 481-5.
55. Clouse RE, Costigan DJ, Mills BA, Zuckerman GR. Angiodysplasia as a cause of upper gastrointestinal bleeding. Arch Intern Med 1985; 145: 458-61.
56. Moreto M, Figa M, Ojembarrena E, Zaballa M. Vascular malformations of the stomach and duodenum: an endoscopic classification. Endoscopy 1986; 18: 227-9.
57. Hochter W, Weingart J, Kuhner W, Frimberger E, Ottenjann R. Angiodysplasia in the colon and rectum. Endoscopic morphology, localisation and frequency. Endoscopy 1985; 17: 182-5.
58. Brandt LJ, Spinnell MK. Ability of naloxone to enhance the colonoscopic appearance of normal colon vasculature and colon vascular ectasias. Gastrointest Endosc 1999; 49: 79-83.
59. Kaufman HL, Fischer AH, Carroll M, Becker JM. Colonic ulceration associated with nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs. Report of three cases. Dis Colon Rectum 1996; 39: 705-10.
60. Bjarnason I, Hayllar J, MacPherson AJ, Russell AS. Side effects of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs on the small and large intestine in humans. Gastroenterology 1993; 104: 1832-47.
61. Lang J, Price AB, Levi AJ, Burke M, Gumpel JM, Bjarnason I. Diaphragm disease: pathology of disease of the small intestine induced by non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs. J Clin Pathol 1988; 41: 516-26.
62. Huber T, Ruchti C, Halter F. Nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drug-induced colonic strictures: a case report. Gastroenterology 1991; 100: 1119-22.
63. Matsuhashi N, Yamada A, Hiraishi M, et al. Multiple strictures of the small intestine after long-term nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug therapy. Am J Gastroenterol 1992; 87: 1183-6.
64. Chaudhry V, Hyser MJ, Gracias VH, Gau FC. Colonoscopy: the initial test for acute lower gastrointestinal bleeding. Am Surg 1998; 64: 723-8.
65. Jensen DM, Machicado GA, Jutabha R, Kovacs TO. Urgent colonoscopy for the diagnosis and treatment of severe diverticular haemorrhage. N Engl J Med 2000; 342: 78-82.
66. Garcia Sanchez M, Gonzalez Galilea A, Lopez Vallejos P, et al. Role of early colonoscopy in severe acute lower gastrointestinal bleeding. Gastroenterol Hepatol 2001; 24: 327-32.
67. Ohyama T, Sakurai Y, Ito M, Daito K, Sezai S, Sato Y. Analysis of urgent colonoscopy for lower gastrointestinal tract bleeding. Digestion 2000; 61: 189-92.
68. Richter JM, Christensen MR, Kaplan LM, Nishioka NS. Effectiveness of current technology in the diagnosis and management of lower gastrointestinal haemorrhage (see comments). Gastrointest Endosc 1995; 41: 93-8.
69. Strate LL, Syngal S. Timing of colonoscopy: impact on length of hospital stay in patients with acute lower intestinal bleeding. Am J Gastroenterol 2003; 98: 317-22.
70. Schmulewitz N, Fisher DA, Rockey DC. Early colonoscopy for acute lower GI bleeding predicts shorter hospital stay: a retrospective study of experience in a single center. Gastrointest Endosc 2003; 58: 841-6.
71. Caos A, Benner KG, Manier J, et al. Colonoscopy after Golytely preparation in acute rectal bleeding. J Clin Gastroenterol 1986; 8: 46-9.
72. Forde KA. Colonoscopy in acute rectal bleeding. Compr Ther 1985; 11: 26-8.
73. Johnson JJ, DM Auth D. Experimental comparison of endoscopic yttrium-aluminum-garnet laser, electrosurgery, and heater probe for canine gut arterial coagulation. Importance of compression and avoidance of erosion. Gastroenterology 1987; 1987: 1101-8.
74. Jensen DM. Endoscopic diagnosis and treatment of severe haematochezia. Tech Gastrointest Endosc 2001; 3: 178-84.
75. Ramirez FC, Johnson DA, Zierer ST, Walker GJ, Sanowski RA. Successful endoscopic hemostasis of bleeding colonic diverticula with epinephrine injection. Gastrointest Endosc 1996; 43 (2 Pt 1): 167-70.
76. Savides TJ, Jensen DM. Colonoscopic hemostasis for recurrent diverticular haemorrhage associated with a visible vessel: a report of three cases. Gastrointest Endosc 1994; 40: 70-3.
77. Foutch PG, Zimmerman K. Diverticular bleeding and the pigmented protuberance (sentinel clot): clinical implications, histopathological correlation, and results of endoscopic intervention. Am J Gastroenterol 1996; 91: 2589-93.
78. Bloomfeld RS, Rockey DC, Shetzline MA. Endoscopic therapy of acute diverticular haemorrhage. Am J Gastroenterol 2001; 96: 2367-72.
79. Prakash C, Chokshi H, Walden DT, Aliperti G. Endoscopic hemostasis in acute diverticular bleeding. Endoscopy 1999; 31: 460-3.
80. Witte JT. Band ligation for colonic bleeding: modification of multiband ligating devices for use with a colonoscope. Gastrointest Endosc 2000; 52: 762-5.
81. Rino Y, Imada T, Iwasaki H, et al. Hemostasis of colonic diverticular bleeding with hemoclips under endoscopic control: report of a case. Hepatogastroenterology 1999; 46: 1733-5.
82. Farrell JJ, Graeme-Cook F, Kelsey PB. Treatment of bleeding colonic diverticula by endoscopic band ligation: an in-vivo and ex-vivo pilot study. Endoscopy 2003; 35: 823-9.
83. Hokama A, Uehara T, Nakayoshi T, et al. Utility of endoscopic hemoclipping for colonic diverticular bleeding. Am J Gastroenterol 1997; 92: 543-6.
84. Simpson PW, Nguyen MH, Lim JK, Soetikno RM. Use of endoclips in the treatment of massive colonic diverticular bleeding. Gastrointest Endosc 2004; 59: 433-7.
85. Tucker LE. Diverticular bleeding: novel treatment with band ligation. Mo Med 2004; 101: 61-3.
86. Rogers BH. Endoscopic diagnosis and therapy of mucosal vascular abnormalities of the gastrointestinal tract occurring in elderly patients and associated with cardiac, vascular, and pulmonary disease. Gastrointest Endosc 1980; 26: 134-8.
87. Santos JC Jr, Aprilli F, Guimaraes AS, Rocha JJ. Angiodysplasia of the colon: endoscopic diagnosis and treatment. Br J Surg 1988; 75: 256-8.
88. Hutcheon DF, Kabelin J, Bulkley GB, Smith GW. Effect of therapy on bleeding rates in gastrointestinal angiodysplasia. Am Surg 1987; 53: 6-9.
89. Bemvenuti GA, Julich MM. Ethanolamine injection for sclerotherapy of angiodysplasia of the colon. Endoscopy 1998; 30: 564-9.
90. Wahab PJ, Mulder CJ, den Hartog G, Thies JE. Argon plasma coagulation in flexible gastrointestinal endoscopy: pilot experiences. Endoscopy 1997; 29: 176-81.
91. Johanns W, Luis W, Janssen J, Kahl S, Greiner L. Argon plasma coagulation (APC) in gastroenterology: experimental and clinical experiences. Eur J Gastroenterol Hepatol 1997; 9: 581-7.
92. Olmos JA, Marcolongo M, Pogorelsky V, Varela E, Davolos JR. Argon plasma coagulation for prevention of recurrent bleeding from GI angiodysplasias. Gastrointest Endosc 2004; 60: 881-6.
93. Waye JD, Kahn O, Auerbach ME. Complications of colonoscopy and flexible sigmoidoscopy. Gastrointest Endosc Clin North Am 1996; 6: 343-77.
94. Rex DK, Lewis BS, Waye JD. Colonoscopy and endoscopic therapy for delayed post-polypectomy haemorrhage. Gastrointest Endosc 1992; 38: 127-9.
95. Sobrino-Faya M, Martinez S, Gomez Balado M, et al. Clips for the prevention and treatment of postpolypectomy bleeding (hemoclips in polypectomy). Rev Esp Enferm Dig 2002; 94: 457-62.
96. Brooker JC, Saunders BP, Shah SG, Thapar CJ, Suzuki N, Williams CB. Treatment with argon plasma coagulation reduces recurrence after piecemeal resection of large sessile colonic polyps: a randomized trial and recommendations. Gastrointest Endosc 2002; 55: 371-5.
97. Parra-Blanco A, Kaminaga N, Kojima T, et al. Hemoclipping for postpolypectomy and postbiopsy colonic bleeding. Gastrointest Endosc 2000; 51: 37-41.
98. Ardengh JC, Ferrari AP, Ganc AJ, Deutsch C, Libaroni HT. Endoscopic banding ligation and postpolypectomy bleeding. Endoscopy 1999; 31: S61.
99. Dumonceau JM, Deviere J. Early rebleeding after successful hemoclipping of a postpolypectomy rectal ulcer. Endoscopy 1999; 31: S54-5.
100. Uno Y, Satoh K, Tuji K, et al. Endoscopic ligation by means of clip and detachable snare for management of colonic postpolypectomy haemorrhage. Gastrointest Endosc 1999; 49: 113-5.
101. Waye JD. Management of complications of colonoscopic polypectomy. Gastroenterologist 1993; 1: 158-64.
102. Kochhar R, Sharma SC, Gupta BB, Mehta SK. Rectal sucralfate in radiation proctitis. Lancet 1988; 2: 400.
103. Sasai T, Hiraishi H, Suzuki Y, Masuyama H, Ishida M, Terano A. Treatment of chronic post-radiation proctitis with oral administration of sucralfate. Am J Gastroenterol 1998; 93: 1593-5.
104. Stockdale AD, Biswas A. Long-term control of radiation proctitis following treatment with sucralfate enemas. Br J Surg 1997; 84: 379.
105. Fantin AC, Binek J, Suter WR, Meyenberger C. Argon beam coagulation for treatment of symptomatic radiation-induced proctitis. Gastrointest Endosc 1999; 49 (4 Pt 1): 515-8.
106. Silva RA, Correia AJ, Dias LM, Viana HL, Viana RL. Argon plasma coagulation therapy for hemorrhagic radiation proctosigmoiditis. Gastrointest Endosc 1999; 50: 221-4.
107. Tjandra JJ, Sengupta S. Argon plasma coagulation is an effective treatment for refractory hemorrhagic radiation proctitis. Dis Colon Rectum 2001; 44: 1759-65, discussion 71.
108. Taieb S, Rolachon A, Cenni JC, et al. Effective use of argon plasma coagulation in the treatment of severe radiation proctitis. Dis Colon Rectum 2001; 44: 1766-71.
109. Berken CA. Nd:YAG laser therapy for gastrointestinal bleeding due to radiation colitis. Am J Gastroenterol 1985; 80: 730-1.
110. Barbatzas C, Spencer GM, Thorpe SM, Sargeant LR, Bown SG, Carbatzas C. Nd: YAG laser treatment for bleeding from radiation proctitis. Endoscopy 1996; 28: 497-500.
111. Viggiano TR, Zighelboim J, Ahlquist DA, Gostout CJ, Wang KK, Larson MV. Endoscopic Nd: YAG laser coagulation of bleeding from radiation proctopathy. Gastrointest Endosc 1993; 39: 513-7.
112. Taylor JG, Disario JA, Bjorkman DJ. KTP laser therapy for bleeding from chronic radiation proctopathy. Gastrointest Endosc 2000; 52: 353-7.
113. Taylor JG, DiSario JA, Buchi KN. Argon laser therapy for hemorrhagic radiation proctitis: long-term results. Gastrointest Endosc 1993; 39: 641-4.
114. Jensen DM, Machicado GA, Cheng S, Jensen ME, Jutabha R. A randomized prospective study of endoscopic bipolar electrocoagulation and heater probe treatment of chronic rectal bleeding from radiation telangiectasia. Gastrointest Endosc 1997; 45: 20-5.
115. Fuentes D, Monserat R, Isern AM, et al. Colitis due to radiation: endoscopic management with heat probe. GEN 1993; 47: 165-7.
116. Maunoury V, Brunetaud JM, Cortot A. Bipolar electrocoagulation treatment for hemorrhagic radiation injury of the lower digestive tract. Gastrointest Endosc 1991; 37: 492-3.
117. Leuchter RS, Petrilli ES, Dwyer RM, Hacker NF, Castaldo TW, Lagasse LD. Nd: YAG laser therapy of rectosigmoid bleeding due to radiation injury. Obstet Gynecol 1982; 59 (6 Suppl): 65S-7S.
118. Ahlquist DA, Gostout CJ, Viggiano TR, Pemberton JH. Laser therapy for severe radiation-induced rectal bleeding. Mayo Clin Proc 1986; 61: 927-31.
119. Alexander TJ, Dwyer RM. Endoscopic Nd:YAG laser treatment of severe radiation injury of the lower gastrointestinal tract: long-term follow-up. Gastrointest Endosc 1988; 34: 407-11.
120. Jacobs M. YAG laser treatment for radiation proctitis. Gastrointest Endosc 1989; 35: 355-6.
121. Buchi KN, Dixon JA. Argon laser treatment of hemorrhagic radiation proctitis. Gastrointest Endosc 1987; 33: 27-30.
122. O'Connor JJ. Argon laser treatment of radiation proctitis. Arch Surg 1989; 124: 749.
123. Kaassis M, Oberti E, Burtin P, Boyer J. Argon plasma coagulation for the treatment of hemorrhagic radiation proctitis. Endoscopy 2000; 32: 673-6.
124. Tam W, Moore J, Schoeman M. Treatment of radiation proctitis with argon plasma coagulation. Endoscopy 2000; 32: 667-72.
125. Villavicencio RT, Rex DK, Rahmani E. Efficacy and complications of argon plasma coagulation for haematochezia related to radiation proctopathy. Gastrointest Endosc 2002; 55: 70-4.
126. Ben-Soussan E, Antonietti M, Savoye G, Herve S, Ducrotte P, Lerebours E. Argon plasma coagulation in the treatment of hemorrhagic radiation proctitis is efficient but requires a perfect colonic cleansing to be safe. Eur J Gastroenterol Hepatol 2004; 16: 1315-8.
127. Fukumori D, Sasaki T, Sato M, Sakai K, Ohmori H, Yamamoto F. Massive rectal bleeding from a Dieulafoy's ulcer of the rectum. Int Surg 2004; 89: 63-6.
128. Katsinelos P, Pilpilidis I, Paroutoglou G, et al. Dieulafoy-like lesion of the colon presenting with massive lower gastrointestinal bleeding. Surg Endosc 2004; 18: 346.
129. Gimeno-Garcia AZ, Parra-Blanco A, Nicolas-Perez D, Ortega Sanchez JA, Medina C, Quintero E. Management of colonic Dieulafoy lesions with endoscopic mechanical techniques: report of two cases. Dis Colon Rectum 2004; 47: 1539-43.
130. Trowers EA, Ganga U, Rizk R, Ojo E, Hodges D. Endoscopic hemorrhoidal ligation: preliminary clinical experience. Gastrointest Endosc 1998; 48: 49-52.
131. Junquera F, Quiroga S, Saperas E, et al. Accuracy of helical computed tomographic angiography for the diagnosis of colonic angiodysplasia. Gastroenterology 2000; 119: 293-9.
132. Kuhle WG, Sheiman RG. Detection of active colonic haemorrhage with use of helical CT: findings in a swine model. Radiology 2003; 228: 743-52.
133. Ernst O, Bulois P, Saint-Drenant S, Leroy C, Paris JC, Sergent G. Helical CT in acute lower gastrointestinal bleeding. Eur Radiol 2003; 13: 114-7.
134. Tew K, Davies RP, Jadun CK, Kew J. MDCT of acute lower gastrointestinal bleeding. AJR Am J Roentgenol 2004; 182: 427-30.
135. Dusold R, Burke K, Carpentier W, Dyck WP. The accuracy of technetium-99m-labeled red cell scintigraphy in localizing gastrointestinal bleeding. Am J Gastroenterol 1994; 89: 345-8.
136. Imbembo AB RW. Diverticular disease of the colon. In: Sabiston D, ed. Textbook of Surgery, 14th edn. New York: Churchill Livingstone, 1992: 910.
137. Hunter JM, Pezim ME. Limited value of technetium 99m-labeled red cell scintigraphy in localization of lower gastrointestinal bleeding. Am J Surg 1990; 159: 504-6.
138. Voeller GR, Bunch G, Britt LG. Use of technetium-labeled red blood cell scintigraphy in the detection and management of gastrointestinal haemorrhage. Surgery 1991; 110: 799-804.
139. Zuckier LS, Freeman LM. Selective role of nuclear medicine in evaluating the acute abdomen. Radiol Clin North Am 2003; 41: 1275-88.
140. O'Neill BB, Gosnell JE, Lull RJ, et al. Cinematic nuclear scintigraphy reliably directs surgical intervention for patients with gastrointestinal bleeding. Arch Surg 2000; 135: 1076-81, discussion 81-2.
141. Gunderman R, Leef J, Ong K, Reba R, Metz C. Scintigraphic screening prior to visceral arteriography in acute lower gastrointestinal bleeding. J Nucl Med 1998; 39: 1081-3.
142. Funaki B, Kostelic JK, Lorenz J, et al. Superselective microcoil embolization of colonic haemorrhage. AJR Am J Roentgenol 2001; 177: 829-36.
143. Zuckerman DA, Bocchini TP, Birnbaum EH. Massive haemorrhage in the lower gastrointestinal tract in adults: diagnostic imaging and intervention. AJR Am J Roentgenol 1993; 161: 703-11.
144. Koval G, Benner KG, Rosch J, Kozak BE. Aggressive angiographic diagnosis in acute lower gastrointestinal haemorrhage. Dig Dis Sci 1987; 32: 248-53.
145. Browder W, Cerise EJ, Litwin MS. Impact of emergency angiography in massive lower gastrointestinal bleeding. Ann Surg 1986; 204: 530-6.
146. Britt LG, Warren L, Moore OF III Selective management of lower gastrointestinal bleeding. Am Surg 1983; 49: 121-5.
147. Gomes AS, Lois JF, McCoy RD. Angiographic treatment of gastrointestinal haemorrhage: comparison of vasopressin infusion and embolization. AJR Am J Roentgenol 1986; 146: 1031-7.
148. Reinus JF, Brandt LJ. Vascular ectasias and diverticulosis. Common causes of lower intestinal bleeding. Gastroenterol Clin North Am 1994; 23: 1-20.
149. Fiorito JJ, Brandt LJ, Kozicky O, Grosman IM, Sprayragen S. The diagnostic yield of superior mesenteric angiography: correlation with the pattern of gastrointestinal bleeding. Am J Gastroenterol 1989; 84: 878-81.
150. Sherman LM, Shenoy SS, Cerra FB. Selective intra-arterial vasopressin: clinical efficacy and complications. Ann Surg 1979; 189: 298-302.
151. Athanasoulis CA, Baum S, Rosch J, et al. Mesenteric arterial infusions of vasopressin for haemorrhage from colonic diverticulosis. Am J Surg 1975; 129: 212-6.
152. Favalli NM, De Franceschi L, Bassetto AM, Bambara LM, Mansueto G, Corrocher R. Selective intra-arterial terlipressin infusion stops acute lower gastrointestinal bleeding: a case report and review of the literature. Eur J Gastroenterol Hepatol 2004; 16: 1059-61.
153. Bookstein JJ, Chlosta EM, Foley D, Walter JF. Transcatheter hemostasis of gastrointestinal bleeding using modified autogenous clot. Radiology 1974; 113: 277-85.
154. Rosch J, Dotter CT, Brown MJ. Selective arterial embolization. A new method for control of acute gastrointestinal bleeding. Radiology 1972; 102: 303-6.
155. Guy GE, Shetty PC, Sharma RP, Burke MW, Burke TH. Acute lower gastrointestinal haemorrhage: treatment by superselective embolization with polyvinyl alcohol particles. AJR Am J Roentgenol 1992; 159: 521-6.
156. Gordon RL, Ahl KL, Kerlan RK, et al. Selective arterial embolization for the control of lower gastrointestinal bleeding. Am J Surg 1997; 174: 24-8.
157. Peck DJ, McLoughlin RF, Hughson MN, Rankin RN. Percutaneous embolotherapy of lower gastrointestinal haemorrhage. J Vasc Interv Radiol 1998; 9: 747-51.
158. Ledermann HP, Schoch E, Jost R, Decurtins M, Zollikofer CL. Superselective coil embolization in acute gastrointestinal haemorrhage: personal experience in 10 patients and review of the literature. J Vasc Interv Radiol 1998; 9: 753-60.
159. Nicholson AA, Ettles DF, Hartley JE, et al. Transcatheter coil embolotherapy: a safe and effective option for major colonic haemorrhage. Gut 1998; 43: 79-84.
160. Evangelista PT, Hallisey MJ. Transcatheter embolization for acute lower gastrointestinal haemorrhage. J Vasc Interv Radiol 2000; 11: 601-6.
161. Luchtefeld MA, Senagore AJ, Szomstein M, Fedeson B, Van Erp J, Rupp S. Evaluation of transarterial embolization for lower gastrointestinal bleeding. Dis Colon Rectum 2000; 43: 532-4.
162. Kramer SC, Gorich J, Rilinger N, et al. Embolization for gastrointestinal haemorrhages. Eur Radiol 2000; 10: 802-5.
163. Bandi R, Shetty PC, Sharma RP, Burke TH, Burke MW, Kastan D. Superselective arterial embolization for the treatment of lower gastrointestinal haemorrhage. J Vasc Interv Radiol 2001; 12: 1399-405.
164. Patel TH, Cordts PR, Abcarian P, Sawyer MA. Will transcatheter embolotherapy replace surgery in the treatment of gastrointestinal bleeding?(2)(2). Curr Surg 2001; 58: 323-7.
165. Defreyne L, Vanlangenhove P, De Vos M, et al. Embolization as a first approach with endoscopically unmanageable acute nonvariceal gastrointestinal haemorrhage. Radiology 2001; 218: 739-48.
166. Kuo WT, Lee DE, Saad WE, Patel N, Sahler LG, Waldman DL. Superselective microcoil embolization for the treatment of lower gastrointestinal haemorrhage. J Vasc Interv Radiol 2003; 14: 1503-9.
167. Burgess AN, Evans PM. Lower gastrointestinal haemorrhage and superselective angiographic embolization. ANZ J Surg 2004; 74: 635-8.
168. Gady JS, Reynolds H, Blum A. Selective arterial embolization for control of lower gastrointestinal bleeding: recommendations for a clinical management pathway. Curr Surg 2003; 60: 344-7.
169. Ell C, Remke S, May A, Helou L, Henrich R, Mayer G. The first prospective controlled trial comparing wireless capsule endoscopy with push enteroscopy in chronic gastrointestinal bleeding. Endoscopy 2002; 34: 685-9.
170. Lewis BS, Swain P. Capsule endoscopy in the evaluation of patients with suspected small intestinal bleeding: Results of a pilot study. Gastrointest Endosc 2002; 56: 349-53.
171. Zuccaro G Jr. Management of the adult patient with acute lower gastrointestinal bleeding. American College of Gastroenterology. Practice Parameters Committee. Am J Gastroenterol 1998; 93: 1202-8.
172. Newhall SC, Lucas CE, Ledgerwood AM. Diagnostic and therapeutic approach to colonic bleeding. Am Surg 1981; 47: 136-42.
173. Field RJ Sr, Field RJ Jr, Shackleford S. Total abdominal colectomy for control of massive lower gastrointestinal bleeding. J Miss State Med Assoc 1994; 35: 29-33.
174. Milewski PJ, Schofield PF. Massive colonic haemorrhage - the case for right hemicolectomy. Ann R Coll Surg Engl 1989; 71: 253-9.
175. McGuire HH Jr, Haynes BW Jr. Massive haemorrhage for diverticulosis of the colon: guidelines for therapy based on bleeding patterns observed in fifty cases. Ann Surg 1972; 175: 847-55.
176. Bokhari M, Vernava AM, Ure T, Longo WE. Diverticular haemorrhage in the elderly - is it well tolerated? Dis Colon Rectum 1996; 39: 191-5.
177. Scharff LW Jr, Vartanian SM, Jacobs DL, Bahadursingh AN, Kaminski DL. Ischaemic colitis: spectrum of disease and outcome. Surgery 2003; 134: 624-9.
178. Wagner HE, Stain SC, Gilg M, Gertsch P. Systematic assessment of massive bleeding of the lower part of the gastrointestinal tract. Surg Gynecol Obstet 1992; 175: 445-9.
179. Damhuis RA, Wereldsma JC, Wiggers T. The influence of age on resection rates and postoperative mortality in 6457 patients with colorectal cancer. Int J Colorectal Dis 1996; 11: 45-8.
180. Zuckerman GR, Prakash C. Acute lower intestinal bleeding. Part II: etiology, therapy, and outcomes. Gastrointest Endosc 1999; 49: 228-38.
181. Farner R, Lichliter W, Kuhn J, Fisher T. Total colectomy versus limited colonic resection for acute lower gastrointestinal bleeding. Am J Surg 1999; 178: 587-91.
182. Renzulli P, Maurer CA, Netzer P, Dinkel HP, Buchler MW. Subtotal colectomy with primary ileorectostomy is effective for unlocalized, diverticular haemorrhage. Langenbecks Arch Surg 2002; 387: 67-71.
183. Baker R, Senagore A. Abdominal colectomy offers safe management for massive lower GI bleed (discussion 82). Am Surg 1994; 60: 578-81.
184. Drapanas T, Pennington DG, Kappelman M, Lindsey ES. Emergency subtotal colectomy: preferred approach to management of massively bleeding diverticular disease. Ann Surg 1973; 177: 519-26.
185. Eaton AC. Emergency surgery for acute colonic haemorrhage - a retrospective study. Br J Surg 1981; 68: 109-12.
186. Klas JM RD. Surgical options in lower gastrointestinal bleeding. Semin Colon Rectal Surg 1997; 141: 478-81.
187. Bender JS, Wiencek RG, Bouwman DL. Morbidity and mortality following total abdominal colectomy for massive lower gastrointestinal bleeding. Am Surg 1991; 57: 536-40, discussion 40-1.
188. Setya V, Singer JA, Minken SL. Subtotal colectomy as a last resort for unrelenting, unlocalized, lower gastrointestinal haemorrhage: experience with 12 cases. Am Surg 1992; 58: 295-9.
189. Parkes BM, Obeid FN, Sorensen VJ, Horst HM, Path JJ. The management of massive lower gastrointestinal bleeding. Am Surg 1993; 59: 676-8.
190. Nath RL, Sequeira JC, Weitzman AF, Birkett DH, Williams LF Jr. Lower gastrointestinal bleeding. Diagnostic approach and management conclusions. Am J Surg 1981; 141: 478-81.
191. Kollef MH, O'Brien JD, Zuckerman GR, Shannon W. BLEED: a classification tool to predict outcomes in patients with acute upper and lower gastrointestinal haemorrhage. Crit Care Med 1997; 25: 1125-32.
192. Kollef MH, Canfield DA, Zuckerman GR. Triage considerations for patients with acute gastrointestinal haemorrhage admitted to a medical intensive care unit. Crit Care Med 1995; 23: 1048-54.
193. Velayos FS, Williamson A, Sousa KH, et al. Early predictors of severe lower gastrointestinal bleeding and adverse outcomes: a prospective study. Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol 2004; 2: 485-90.
194. Strate LL, Orav EJ, Syngal S. Early predictors of severity in acute lower intestinal tract bleeding. Arch Intern Med 2003; 163: 838-43.
195. Das A, Ben-Menachem T, Cooper GS, et al. Prediction of outcome in acute lower-gastrointestinal haemorrhage based on an artificial neural network: internal and external validation of a predictive model. Lancet 2003; 362: 1261-6.
196. Foutch PG. Diverticular bleeding: are nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs risk factors for haemorrhage and can colonoscopy predict outcome for patients? Am J Gastroenterol 1995; 90: 1779-84.