Socially Responsible Engineering: Justice in Risk Management

Socially Responsible Engineering: Justice in Risk Management

Volumn , Issue , 2007, Pages 1-365

  Vallero, Daniel A ^a   Vesilind, P Aarne ^a  

^a NONE

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 84889458657     PISSN: None     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book    
DOI: 10.1002/9780470121436     Document Type: Book

References (245)

1. R. Nieburhr, The Children of Light and the Children of Darkness, Charles Scribner's Sons, New York, 1944, foreword.
2. Martin Luther King, Letter from Birmingham Jail, in Why We Can't Wait, HarperCollins, New York, 1963.
3. Presidential Executive Order 12898, Federal Actions to Address Environmental Justice in Minority Populations and Low-Income Populations, February 11, 1994.
4. For example, this is the fourth canon of the American Society of Civil Engineers' Code of Ethics, ASCE, Washington, DC, adopted in 1914 and most recently amended November 10, 1996. This canon reads: ''Engineers shall act in professional matters for each employer or client as faithful agents or trustees, and shall avoid conflicts of interest.''
5. Even this is a challenge for environmental justice communities, since certain sectors of society are less likely to visit hospitals or otherwise receive early health care attention. This is not only a problem of assessment but can lead to more serious, long-term problems compared to those of the general population.
6. W. Burke, W. D. Atkins, M. Gwinn, A. Guttmacher, J. Haddow, J. Lau, G. Palomaki, N. Press, C. S. Richards, L. Wideroff, and G. L. Wiesner, Genetic Test Evaluation: Information Needs of Clinicians, Policy Makers, and the Public, American Journal of Epidemiology, 156:311-318, 2002.
7. Institute of Medicine, Toward Environmental Justice: Research, Education, and Health Policy Needs, National Academies Press, Washington, DC, 1999.
8. The principal source for the facts and timelines associated with the Warren County PCB landfill is the North Carolina Department of Environment and Natural Resources, Warren County PCB Landfill Fact Sheet, http://www.wastenotnc.org/WarrenCoFactSheet.htm, accessed June 28, 2005.
9. Both Ward and Burns were convicted and did jail time for their crime.
10. B. B. Marriott, Land Use and Development, in Environmental Impact Assessment: A Practical Guide, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1997.
11. See M. Ritzdorf, Locked Out of Paradise: Contemporary Exclusionary Zoning, the Supreme Court, and African Americans, 1970 to the Present, in Urban Planning and the African American Community: In the Shadows, J. M. Thomas and M. Ritzdorf (Eds.), SaGE Publications, Thousand Oaks, CA, 1997.
12. From K. Shrader-Frechette, Environmental Justice: Creating Equality, Reclaiming Democracy, Oxford University Press, New York, 2002.
13. From D. E. Newton, Environmental Justice, Oxford University Press, New York, 1996.
14. Commission for Racial Justice, United Church of Christ, Toxic Wastes and Race in the United States, UCC, Cleveland, OH, 1987.
15. Presidential Executive Order 12898, note 3.
16. Much of the materials for the next two sections can be found in Not in My Backyard: Executive Order 12898 and Title VI as Tools for Achieving Environmental Justice, U.S. Commission on Civil Rights, Washington DC, October 2003.
17. http://www.great-lakes.net/lists/enviro-mich/1998-09/msg00016.html, accessed June 29, 2005.
18. Around the Nation: Congressman and 120 Arrested at PCB Protest The New York Times, September 27, 1982, p. A16.
19. Shrader-Frechette, note 13.
20. R. Rosen, Who Gets Polluted? The Movement for Environmental Justice, in Taking Sides, T. D. Goldfarb (Ed.), McGraw-Hill, New York, 1997.
21. This case is based on the report by S. Azar, The Proposed Eubanks Road Landfill: The Ramifications of a Broken Promise, Duke University, Durham, NC, 1998.
22. R. K. Vosburgh, Economics, Change, and the Law of Unintended Consequences, Pace Law School, New York, February 19, 2003.
23. E. Coakley, ''Landfill Transfer Station Opposed,'' The Herald-Sun, Durham, NC, March 19, 2006.
24. Shrader-Frechette, note 13.
25. B. Bryant, (Ed.), Environmental Justice: Issues, Policies, and Solutions, Island Press, Washington, DC, 1995.
26. Section 102 of NEPA, 42 U.S.C. §4321 et seq., Public Law 91-190, 83 Stat. 852.
27. Although we have been unable to locate the citation, this is very close to a mid-1970s quote heard by Vallero from Timothy Kubiak, who at the time was an EIS reviewer for the U.S. EPA and who had studied NEPA under Lynton K. Caldwell, a strong advocate for a national environmental policy, at the University of Indiana.
28. National Academy of Engineering, Educating the Engineer of 2020: Adapting Engineering Education to the New Century, National Academies Press, Washington, DC, 2005.
29. Similar protective approaches have frequently been used in emergency response and remedial efforts, such as those that followed the attacks on the World Trade Center towers. For example, the risk assessments assumed long-term exposures (e.g., 30 years) to contaminants released by the fire and fugitive dust emissions, even though the exposures were significantly shorter.
30. J. Rawls, A Theory of Justice (1971), Belknap Press Reprint, Cambridge, MA, 1999.
31. N. Rescher, Fairness: Theory and Practice of Distributive Justice, Transaction Publishers, New Brunswick, CT, 2002.
32. Rescher, note 6.
33. C. B. Fleddermann, Engineering Ethics, Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, NJ, 1999.
34. Fleddermann, note 13.
35. S. A. Lowe, Omission of Critical Reynolds Number for Open Channel Flow in Many Textbooks, Journal of Professional Issues in Engineering Education and Practice, 129:58-59, 2003.
36. Lowe, note 15.
37. J. Piaget, The Moral Judgment of the Child, Free Press, New York, 1965.
38. S. Vaknin, Malignant Self Love: Narcissism Revisited, Lidija Rangelovska Narcissus Publications, Shopje, Macedonia, 2005.
39. C. G. Morris, Psychology: An Introduction, 9th ed., Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, NJ, 1996.
40. Vaknin, note 18.
41. The concept may be innate and extended to other animals, such as elephants' sensing ''awe'' for their ancestral graveyards.
42. Plutarch, The Life of Marcellus, in Plutarch's Lives, A. K. Wardman, Elek, London, 1974.
43. W. Wisely, The American Civil Engineer, ASCE, New York, 1974.
44. Wisely, note 2.
45. G. Bowman, John Smeaton: Consulting Engineer, in Engineering Heritage, Vol. II, Dover Publications, New York, 1966.
46. H. Straub, A History of Civil Engineering, MIT Press, Cambridge, MA, 1952.
47. L. Graham, The Ghost of the Executed Engineer, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA, 1993.
48. P. Eddy, E. Potter, and B. Page, Destination Disaster: From the Trimotor to the DC-10, Times Books/Random House, New York, 1976.
49. J. H. Fielder, Floors, Doors, Latches, and Locks, in The DC-10 Case: A Study in Applied Ethics, Technology, and Society, J. H. Fielder and D. Birsch (Eds.) SUNY Press, Albany, NY, 1992.
50. Eddy et al., note 7.
51. French Government Report on the 1974 Paris Crash, in The DC-10 Case: A Study in Applied Ethics, Technology, and Society, J. H. Fielder and D. Birsch (Eds.), SUNY Press, Albany, NY, 1992.
52. G. G. James, In Defense of Whistleblowing, in Ethical Issues in Professional Life, J. Callahan (Ed.), Oxford University Press, New York, 1988, pp. 315-321.
53. H. Cross, Engineers and Ivory Towers, Ayer Company Publishing, Manchester, NH, 1952.
54. A. Leopold, A Sand County Almanac (1949), Oxford University Press, New York, 1987.
55. A. von Hoffman, Why They Built Pruitt-Igoe, Taubman Centre Publications, A. Alfred Taubman Centre for State and Local Government, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA, 2002.
56. J. Bailey, A Case History of Failure, Architectural Forum, 122(9), 1965.
57. Bailey, note 17.
58. D. A. Vallero, Teachable Moments and the Tyranny of the Syllabus: September 11 Case, Journal of Professional Issues in Engineering Education and Practice, 129(2): 100-105, 2002.
59. A. Fausto-Sterling, Myths of Gender: Biological Theories About Women and Men, Basic Books, New York, 1985, pp. 207-208.
60. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Guidance on Data Verification and Validation: QA/G8, EPA/240/R-02/004, U.S. EPA, Washington, DC, 2002.
61. Testimony of R. A. Goyer before the U.S. House of Representatives, Science Committee, October 4, 2001.
62. National Research Council, Arsenic in Drinking Water, National Academies Press,Washington, DC, 1999.
63. The interview occurred on the Cable News Network (CNN), but the names of the engineer and reporter are not known.
64. World Health Organization, Press Release WHO/55, Researchers Warn of Impending Disaster from Mass Arsenic Poisoning, WHO, Geneva, 2000.
65. B. Allenby, presentation of this collection as well as the later discussions regarding macroand microethics, Emerging Technologies and Ethical Issues, National Academy of Engineering Workshop, Washington, DC, October 14-15, 2003.
66. Environmental engineering is a subdiscipline of civil engineering in the United States.
67. American Society of Civil Engineers, Code of Ethics, ASCE, Washington, DC, adopted in 1914, amended November 10, 1996.
68. Biomedical Engineering Society, Code of Ethics, BES, Landover, MD, approved February 2004.
69. We ask the following question in our classes: Is DDT bad or good? By and large, the initial response of liberal arts and engineering students alike is that it is bad. This makes for an energetic discussion, as some of the facts in this box are shared.
70. R. Carson, Silent Spring, Houghton Mifflin, Boston, 1962.
71. P. H. Müller, Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane and Newer Insecticides, Nobel Lecture, Stockholm, Sweden, December 11, 1948.
72. F. Graham, The Mississippi River Kill, in Environmental Problems, W. Mason and G. Fokerts, Eds., William C. Brown, 1973.
73. J. D. Graham and J. B. Wiener, Confronting Risk Tradeoffs, in Risk Versus Risk: Tradeoffs in Protecting Health and the Environment, J. D. Graham and J. B. Wiener, Eds., Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA, 1995.
74. Environmental Protection Agency Pollution Prevention Directive, May 13, 1990, quoted in H. Freeman et al., Industrial Pollution Prevention: A Critical Review, presented at the Air and Waste Management Association Meeting, Kansas City, MO, 1992.
75. S. Richardson, Pollution Prevention in Textile Wet Processing: An Approach and Case Studies, Proceedings: Environmental Challenges of the 1990's, EPA/66/9-90/039, U.S. EPA, Washington, DC, September 1990.
76. U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, Civilian Labor Force, 1980-98, U.S. Department of Labor, Washington, DC, 1999.
77. National Science Foundation, Women, Minorities, and Persons with Disabilities in Science and Engineering: 2000, NSF 00-327, NSF, Arlington, VA, 2000.
78. L. J. Morse, J. A. Bryan, J. P. Hurley, J. F. Murphy, T. F. O'Brien, and T. F. Wacker, The Holy Cross Football Team Hepatitis Outbreak, Journal of the American Medical Association, 219:706-708, 1972.
79. Aviation Safety Network, http://aviation-safety.net/database/index.html, 2002.
80. S. Pfatteicher, Learning from Failure: Terrorism and Ethics in Engineering Education, Technology and Society, 21(2):8-12, 21, 2002.
81. Z. Bazant, Why Did the World Trade Center Collapse?-Simple Analysis, Journal of Engineering Mechanics, 128(1):2-6, 2002.
82. L. Robertson, Reflections on the World Trade Center, The Bridge, 32, 2002.
83. American Society for Engineering Education, Prism, 11(6), 2002.
84. B. Franklin, Historical Review of Pennsylvania, 1759.
85. S. C. Florman, The Existential Pleasures of Engineering, St Martin's Press, New York, 1976.
86. W. H. G. Armytage, A Social History of Engineering, Westview Press, Boulder, CO, 1961.
87. E. Garrison, A History of Engineering and Technology, CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, 1991.
88. D. Hill, A History of Engineering in Classical and Medieval Times, Open Court Publishing Company, LaSalle, IL, 1984.
89. J. Bradbury, The Medieval Siege, The Boydell Press, Woodbridge, UK, 1992.
90. J. E. Watkins, ''The Beginnings of Engineering'' ASCE Transactions, vol. 24, 1891, reproduced in The Civil Engineer: His Origins ASCE Committee on History and Heritage of American Civil Engineering, Historical Publication No. 1, 1970.
91. Martel, W. C. (2001) The Technological Arsenal: Emerging Defense Capabilities Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington.
92. This quote is an extension of Pope Paul VI's statement to the United Nations for the celebration of the ''Day of Peace'' on January 1, 1972: ''If you want peace, work for justice.''
93. C. L. Pettit and C. Johnson, The Impact on Property Values of Solid Waste Facilities, Waste Age, 18(4):97-102, 1987;
94. J. R. Price, The Impact of Waste Facilities on Real Estate Values, Waste Management and Research, 6(4):393-400, 1988.
95. S. Hirshfeld, P. A. Vesilind, and E. I. Pas, Assessing the True Cost of Landfills, Waste Management and Research, 10:471-484, 1992.
96. See M. O'Hare, Not in My Block You Don't, Public Policy, 25(4):407-458, 1997;
97. C. Zeiss and J. Atwater, Waste Facilities in Residential Communities: Impacts and Acceptance, Journal of Urban Planning and Development, 113(1):19-34, 1987;
98. and R. Lang, Equity in Siting Solid Waste Management Facilities, Plan Canada, 30(2):5-13, 1990.
99. Solid Wastes Association of North America, Training Course Manual: Managing Sanitary Landfill Operations, SWANA, Silver Spring, MD, 1989.
100. The segregation of risk assessment (science) from risk management (feasibility) is a recent approach. In fact, one of its advocates was William Ruckelshaus (see his biographical sketch later in this chapter).
101. C. Mitcham and R. S. Duval, Responsibility in Engineering, in Engineering Ethics, Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, NJ, 2000.
102. T. M. Apostol, Calculus, Vol. II, 2nd ed., Wiley, New York, 1969.
103. This discussion and examples are based on United Nations Environmental Program, International Labor Organisation, International Programme on Chemical Safety, Environmental Health Criteria 214, Human Exposure Assessment, UNEP Geneva, 2000.
104. C. B. Fleddermann, Safety and Risk, Engineering Ethics, Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, NJ, 1999.
105. R. Beyth-Marom, B. Fischhoff, M. Jacobs-Quadrel, and L. Furby, Teaching Decision Making in Adolescents: A Critical Review, in Teaching Decision Making to Adolescents, J. Baron and R. V. Brown (Eds.), Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Hillsdale, NJ, 1991, pp. 19-60.
106. K. Smith, Hazards in the Environment, in Environmental Hazards: Assessing Risk and Reducing Disaster, Routledge, London, 1992.
107. See, for example, D. Dockery, Epidemiologic Evidence of Cardiovascular Effects of Particulate Air Pollution, Environmental Health Perspectives, 109(Supplement), 2001, pp. 483-486.
108. State University of New York-Stony Brook, http://www.matscieng.sunysb.edu/disaster/, accessed November 6, 2004.
109. P. Sandman's advice is found in S. Rampton and J. Stauber, Trust Us, We're Experts: How Industry Manipulates Science and Gambles with Your Future, Jeffrey B. Tarcher/Putnam, New York, 2001.
110. According to the Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy (http://www.iep.utm.edu/): ''A red herring is a smelly fish that would distract even a bloodhound. It is also a digression that leads the reasoner off the track of considering only relevant information.''
111. American Council on Science and Health, America's War on ''Carcinogens'': Reassessing the Use of Animal Tests to Predict Human Cancer Risk, ACSH, New York, 2005.
112. H. W. Lewis, The Assessment of Risk, in Technological Risk, W.W. Norton, New York, 1990.
113. The need for this section grew from discussions between Vallero and John Ahearne, a renowned risk assessment expert.
114. C. E. Wormuth, ''Homeland Security Risk Assessments: Key Issues and Challenges,'' Testimony before the Subcommittee on Intelligence, Information Sharing and Terrorism Risk Assessment Committee on Homeland Security, United States House of Representatives, November 17, 2005.
115. E. Cameron and G. G. Peloso, Risk Management and the Precautionary Principle: A Fuzzy Logic Model, Risk Analysis, Vol. 25, No. 4, 2005.
116. National Research Council, Improving Risk Communication, National Academy Press, Washington, DC, 1989, pp. 53 and 321.
117. National Research Council, P. C. Stern and H. V. Fineberg (eds.), Understanding Risk: Informing Decisions in a Democratic Society, National Academy Press, Washington, DC, 1996, pp. 215-216.
118. N. C. Rasmussen, The Application of Probabilistic Risk Assessment Techniques, Annual Review of Energy, Vol. 6, pp. 123-138, 1981.
119. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Exposure Factors Handbook, EPA/600/8-89/043, U.S. EPA, Washington, DC, 1990.
120. C. Tesar, POPs: What They Are; How They Are Used; How They Are Transported, Northern Perspectives, 26(1):2-5, 2000.
121. J. D. Graham and J. B. Wiener, Confronting Risk Tradeoffs, in Risk Versus Risk: Tradeoffs in Protecting Health and the Environment, J. D. Graham and J. B. Wiener, Eds., Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA, 1995.
122. Typically, researchers withheld treatment to observe the course of the disease (an excruciatingly painful process).
123. J. K. Hammitt, E. S. Belsky, J. I. Levy, and J. D. Graham, Residential Building Codes, Affordability, and Health Protection: A Risk-Tradeoff Approach, Risk Analysis, 19(6):1037-1058, 1999.
124. For an excellent summary of the theory and practical applications of the Ames test, see K. Mortelmans and E. Zeiger, The Ames Salmonella/Microsome Mutagenicity Assay, Mutation Research, 455:29-60, 2000.
125. The source for much of the technical information in the rest of the chapter is D. A. Vallero, Paradigms Lost: Learning from Environmental Mistakes, Mishaps, and Misdeeds, Butterworth-Heinemann, Burlington, MA, 2006.
126. The two principal isomers of DDD are p,p'-2,2-bis(4-chlorophenyl)-1,1-dichloroethane and o,p'-1-(2-chlorophenyl)-1-(4-chlorophenyl)-2,2-dichloroethane. The principal isomer of DDE is p,p'-1,1'-(2,2-dichloroethenylidene)-bis[4-chlorobenzene].
127. The source for the first part of this discussion is the U.S. Commission on Civil Rights report, Not in My Backyard.
128. Chatham College, Leaders of Cancer Alley, http://www.chatham.edu/rci/well/women21-30/canceralley.html, accessed April 10, 2003.
129. Elizabeth Teel, deputy director, Environmental Law Clinic, Tulane Law School, testimony before the U.S. Commission on Civil Rights, hearing, Washington, DC, January 11, 2002, official transcript, p. 117.
130. German Federal Ministry for Economic Cooperation and Development, Environmental Handbook: Documentation on Monitoring and Evaluating Environmental Impacts, Vol. III, Compendium of Environmental Standards, http://www.gtz.de/uvp/publika/English/vol369.htm, accessed November 29, 2004.
131. Mossville Environmental Action Network, Breathing Poison: The Toxic Costs of Industries in Calcasieu Parish, Louisiana, http://www.mapCruzin.com/mossville/reportondioxin.htm, 2000.
132. State of Georgia, Watershed Protection Plan Development Guidebook, The State, Atlanta, GA, 2003.
133. National Research Council, Biologic Markers in Reproductive Toxicology, National Academies Press, Washington, DC, 1989.
134. Associated Press, Jersey to Ship Out Chromium, New York Times, December 15, 1989.
135. A general source of information for this case is NBC-Med, http://www.nbc-med.org/SiteContent/MedRef/OnlineRef/CaseStudies/csGoiania.html, accessed December 3, 2004.
136. M. Sun, Radiation Accident Grips Goiania, Science,. 238:1028-1031, 1987.
137. A. G. Knudson, Hereditary Cancer, Oncogenes, and Antioncogenes, Cancer Research, 45(4): 1437-1443, 1985.
138. E. E. McConnell, H. A. Solleveld, J. A. Swenberg, and G. A. Boorman, Guidelines for Combining Neoplasms for Evaluation of Rodent Carcinogenesis Studies, Journal of the National Cancer Institute, 76(2):283-289, 1986.
139. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, EPA Approach for Assessing the Risks Associated with Chronic Exposures to Carcinogens: Integrated Risk Information System, Background Document 2, U.S. EPA, Washington, DC, 1992.
140. B. Singer, A Tool to Predict Exposure to Hazardous Air Pollutants, Environmental Energy Technologies Division News, 4(4):5, 2003.
141. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Exposure Factors Handbook, EPA/600/P-95/002Fa, U.S. EPA, Washington, DC, 1997.
142. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Study of Hazardous Air Pollutant Emissions from Electric Steam Generating Units-Final Report to Congress, EPA-453/R-98-004a, U.S. EPA, Washington, DC, 1998
143. G. M. Gray, Forget Chemical Use, Let's Report Risk-Risk in Perspective, 5:277, 1997.
144. L. D. Budnick, D. C. Sokal, H. Falk, J. N. Logue, and J. M. Fox, Cancer and Birth Defects near the Drake Superfund Site, Pennsylvania Archives of Environmental Health, 39:409-413, 1984.
145. California Office of Environmental Health Hazard Assessment, California Cancer Potency Values, 2002, http://www.oehha.ca.gov/risk/chemicalDB/index.asp, accessed November 23, 2004.
146. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Guidelines for Carcinogen Risk Assessment, EPA/630/R-00/004, Federal Register, 51(185):33992-34003, U.S. EPA, Washington, DC, 1986.
147. A. Bradford-Hill, The Environment and Disease: Association or Causation? Proceedings of the Royal Society of Medicine, Occupational Medicine, 58:295, 1965
148. A. Bradford-Hill, The Environment and Disease: Association or Causation? President's Address, Proceedings of the Royal Society of Medicine, 9:295-300, 1965.
149. M. S. Legator and D. L. Morris, What Did Bradford Hill Really Say?, Archives of Environmental Health, 58(11):718-720.
150. Formerly an environmental impact statement reviewer for the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency and presently an environmental policymaker with the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service.
151. T. S. Kuhn, The Structure of Scientific Revolutions, University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 1962.
152. Quoted in J. Schell, Our Fragile Earth, Discover, p. 47, October 1987.
153. C. P. Snow, The Search, Charles Scribner's Sons, New York, 1959.
154. The principal source for this discussion is B. Cooper, J. Hayes, and S. LeRoy, Science Fiction or Science Fact? The Grizzly Biology Behind Parks Canada Management Models, Frasier Institute Critical Issues Bulletin, Frasier Institute, Vancouver, BC, Canada, 2002.
155. Articles included: S. A. Karl and B. W. Bowen, Evolutionary Significant Units versus Geopolitical Taxonomy: Molecular Systematics of an Endangered Sea Turtle (genus Chelonia), pp. 990-999;
156. P. C. H. Pritchard, Comments on Evolutionary Significant Units versus Geopolitical Taxonomy, pp. 1000-1003;
157. J. M. Grady and J. M. Quattro, Using Character Concordance to Define Taxonomic and Conservation Units, pp. 1004-1007;
158. K. Shrader-Frechette and E. D. McCoy, Molecular Systematics, Ethics, and Biological Decision Making Under Uncertainty, pp. 1008-1010;
159. B. W. Bowen and S. A. Karl, In War, Truth Is the First Casualty, pp. 1013-1016;
160. Conservation Biology 13(5), 1999.
161. Bowen and Karl, Note 6, p. 1015.
162. Shrader-Frechette and McCoy, Note 6, p. 1012.
163. Personal communication with John Ahearne, Former Commissioner, Nuclear Regulatory Commission, April 24, 2006.
164. The National Environmental Policy Act of 1969, 42 U.S.C. §4321 et seq.
165. L. A. Canter, Environmental Impact Assessment. McGraw-Hill, New York, 1996.
166. See Code of Federal Regulations, Title 40, Protection of Environment;
167. Chapter I, Environmental Protection Agency, Subchapter A-General, Part 6: Procedures for Implementing the Requirements of the Council on Environmental Quality of the National Environmental Policy Act. This guidance can be accessed at http: //www.epa.gov/compliance/nepa/epacompliance/index.html.
168. For example, the Leopold index is an interaction matrix developed by the U.S. Geological Survey for environmental assessment applications.
169. Environmental Protection Agency, U.S. EPA, Washington, DC.
170. B. C. Levin, A Summary of the NBS Literature Reviews on the Chemical Nature and Toxicity of Pyrolysis and Combustion Products from Seven Plastics: Acrylonitrile-Butadiene-Styrenes; Nylons; Polyesters; Polyethylenes; Polystyrenes; Poly(vinyl chlorides) and Rigid Polyurethane Foams, Fire Materials, 11:143-157, 1987.
171. The major source of information about Rio Grande brickmaking is Environmental Health Perspectives, 104(5), May 1996.
172. S. Mukerjee, Communication Strategy of Transboundary Air Pollution Findings in a US-Mexico Border XXI Program Project, Environmental Management, 29(1):34-56, 2002.
173. The principal source for this section is National Toxicology Program, Eleventh Report on Carcinogens, Coke Oven Emissions, Substance Profile, http: //ntp.niehs.nih.gov/ntp /roc /eleventh /profiles /s049coke.pdf, accessed May 11, 2005.
174. S. S. Schiffman and C. M. Williams, Science of Odor as a Potential Health Issue, Journal of Environmental Quality, 34:129-138, 2005.
175. For a survey of the state of the science in electronic-odor-sensing technologies, see H. T. Nagle, S. S. Schiffman, and R. Gutierrez-Osuna, The How and Why of Electronic Noses, IEEE Spectrum, 35(9):22-34, 1998.
176. G. Hardin, Tragedy of the Commons, Science, 162. 1243-1248, Dec. 13, 1968.
177. The endocrine disruptor discussion is based on D. A. Vallero, Environmental Endocrine Disruptors, McGraw-Hill Yearbook of Science and Technology, McGraw-Hill, New York, 2004.
178. D. G. Wilson, History of Solid Waste Management, in Handbook of Solid Waste Management, Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York, 1997, pp. 1-9.
179. J. G. Landels, Engineering in the Ancient World, Barnes & Noble Books, New York, 1978.
180. H. Tammenagi, The Waste Crisis: Landfills, Incinerators, and the Search for a Sustainable Future, Oxford Univeristy Press, Oxford, 1999, pp. 22-24.
181. The source for this discussion is the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency's brownfield Web site, http: //www.epa.gov/swerosps/bf /success /houston.pdf, accessed June 22, 2005.
182. R. Noss, Indicators for Monitoring Biodiversity: A Hierarchical Approach, Conservation Biology, 4(4):355-364, 1990.
183. This example is based on information from D. A. Vallero, Environmental Contaminants: Assessment and Control, Elsevier Academic Press, Burlington, MA, 2004.
184. World Commission on Environment and Development, United Nations, Our Common Future, Oxford Paperbacks, Oxford, 1987.
185. A. Maslow, Motivation and Personality, 2nd ed., Harper & Row, New York, 1970.
186. American Society of Mechanical Engineers, Professional Practice Curriculum: Sustainability, http: //www.professionalpractice.asme.org/communications/sustainability /index.htm, accessed November 2, 2004.
187. G. Hardin, Tragedy of the Commons, Science, 162:1243-1248, Dec. 13, 1968.
188. This section is based on a paper originally authored by P. A. Vesilind, L. Heine, J. R. Hendry, and S. A. Hamill.
189. The source for this discussion is S. B. Billatos and N. A. Basaly, Green Technology and Design for the Environment, Taylor & Francis, Bristol, PA, 1997.
190. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, What Is Green Engineering? http: //www.epa.gov/oppt/greenengineering /whats ge.html, accessed November 2, 2004.
191. See S. B. Billatos and N. A. Basaly, Green Technology and Design for the Environment, Taylor & Francis, Washington, DC, 1997;
192. V. Allada, Preparing Engineering Students to Meet the Ecological Challenges Through Sustainable Product Design, Proceedings of the 2000 International Conference on Engineering Education, Taipei, Taiwan, 2000.
193. T. J. Woodruff, J. Grillo, and K. C. Schoendorf, 1997, The Relationship Between Selected Causes of Postneonatal Infant Mortality and Particulate Air Pollution in the United States, Environmental Health Perspectives, 105(6), June 1997.
194. Dy-Dee Diaper Service, http: //www.dy-dee.com/, accessed April 22, 2005.
195. M. S. Pritchard, On Being Responsible, University Press of Kansas, Lawrence KS, 1991.
196. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Pollution Prevention Directive, May 13, 1990, quoted in H. Freeman et al., Industrial Pollution Prevention: A Critical Review, presented at the Air and Waste Management Association Meeting, Kansas City, MO 1992.
197. Even without calculating the releases, is probably reasonable to assume that the exposures will be similar since the three compounds have high vapor pressures (more likely to be inhaled): carbon tetrachloride, 115 mmHg; methyl chloride, 4300 mmHg; trichloroethylene, 69 mmHg.
198. S. Richardson, Pollution Prevention in Textile Wet Processing: An Approach and Case Studies, Proceedings: Environmental Challenges of the 1990's, EPA/66/9-90/039, U.S. EPA, Washington, DC, September 1990.
199. Much of this discussion appeared in an earlier paper, ''Ethics of Green Engineering'' by P. A. Vesilind, L. Heine, J. R. Herndry, and S. A. Hamill.
200. C. Lazaroff, U.S. Government Sues Power Plants to Clear Dirty Air, Environment News Service, http: //ens.lycos.com /ens /nov99/1999L-11-03-06.html, 1999.
201. D. Fowler, 2003, Bush Administration, Environmentalists Battle over ''New Source Review'' Air Rules, Group Against Smog and Pollution Hotline, Fall 2003, http: //www.gasp-pgh.org/hotline /fall03 4.html, accessed January 3, 2004.
202. D. L. Barlett and J. B. Steele, The Great Energy Scam, Time, 162(15):60-70, October 13, 2003.
203. M. Friedman, Capitalism and Freedom, University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 1962, p. 133.
204. K. Gibney, Sustainable Development: A New Way of Doing Business, Prism (American Society of Engineering Education), January 2003.
205. Billatos and Basaly, note 6.
206. J. Faust, 2004, Earth Liberation Who? ABCNEWS.com Web site, http: //more.abcnews. go.com/sections /us /DailyNews/elf981022.html, accessed January 3, 2004.
207. National Ski Areas Association, Environmental Charter, http: //www.nsaa.org/nsaa2002/environmental charter.asp, 2002.
208. J. Jesitus, Charter Promotes Environmental Responsibility in Ski Areas, Hotel and Motel Management, 215(19):64, 2000.
209. National Ski Areas Association, Sustainable Slopes Annual Report, http: //www.nsaa.org/nsaa2002/environmental charter.asp?modes, 2002.
210. A. T. Lawrence and D. Morell, Leading-Edge Environmental Management: Motivation, Opportunity, Resources and Processes, in Research in Corporate Social Performance and Policy, J. E. Post, D. Collins, and M. Starik (Eds.), Supplement 1, JAI Press, Greenwich, CT, 1995.
211. Lawrence and Morell, note 28.
212. PriceWaterhouse Cooper, Sustainability Survey Report, PWC, New York, August 2002.
213. S. P. Sethi, Dimensions of Corporate Social Performance: An Analytical Framework, California Management Review, 17(3):58-64, Spring 1975.
214. R. C. Anderson, Mid-Course Correction-Toward a Sustainable Enterprise: The Interface Model, Peregrinzilla Press, Atlanta, GA, 1998.
215. P. Hawken, The Ecology of Commerce: A Declaration of Sustainability, Harper Business, New York, 1994.
216. A. B. Lovins, L. H. Lovins, and P. Hawken, A Road Map for Natural Capitalism, Harvard Business Review, 7(3):145-158, 1999.
217. L. T. Hosmer, Herman Miller and the Protection of the Environment, in The Ethics of Management. McGraw-Hill Irwin, Boston, 2003.
218. An earlier version of this discussion appeared as ''Ethical Motivations for Green Business and Engineering'' by P. A. Vesilind and J. R. Hendry. Clean Technology and Environmental Policy.
219. L. Kohlberg, The Philosophy of Moral Development, Vol. 1, Harper & Row, San Francisco, CA, 1981.
220. J. Piaget, The Moral Judgment of the Child, Free Press, New York, 1965.
221. J. R. Rest, Moral Development: Advances in Research and Theory, Praeger, New York, 1986;
222. J. D. Rest, D. Narvaez, M. J. Bebeau, and S. J. Thoma, Postconventional Moral Thinking: A Neo-Kohlbergian Approach, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Mahwah, NJ, 1999.
223. R. Duska and M. Whelan, Moral Development: A Guide to Piaget and Kohlberg, Paulist Press, New York, 1975.
224. J. A. Rawls, A Theory of Justice. Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA, 1785;
225. I. Kant, Foundations of the Metaphysics of Morals, translated by L. W. Beck (1951), Bobbs-Merrill, Indianapolis, IN, 1959.
226. P. A. Vesilind and A. S. Gunn, Engineering, Ethics, and the Environment, Cambridge University Press, New York, 1998 p. 39.
227. M. Golding, Obligations to Future Generations, Monist, 56:85-99, 1972.
228. National Academy of Engineering, The Engineer of 2020: Visions of Engineering in the New Century, National Academies Press, Washington, DC, 2004.
229. T. Kletz, Lessons from Disaster: How Organizations Have No Money and Accidents Recur, Gulf Publishing Company, Houston, TX, pp. 114-115, 1993.
230. More on William LeMessurier can be found in J. Morganstern, The Fifty-Nine Story Crisis, The New Yorker, May 29, 1995.
231. Quoted by I. Jackson, Honor in Science, Sigma Xi, Research Triangle Park, NC, 1956, p. 7
232. from J. Bronowski, Science and Human Values, Messner, New York, 1894, p. 73.
233. S. Florman, The Existential Pleasure of Engineering, St. Martin's Press, New York, 1972.
234. National Academy of Engineering, Emerging Technologies and Ethical Issues in Engineering, National Academies Press, Washington, DC, 2004.
235. P. A. Vesilind, Closure to ''Why Do Engineers Wear Black Hats?'' Journal of Professional Issues in Engineering Education and Practice, 119(1):331-332, 1994.
236. K. deRobertis, Discussion of ''Why Do Engineers Wear Black Hats?'' Journal of Professional Issues in Engineering Education and Practice, 119(1):330-331, 1994.
237. This discussion is actually a composite of numerous sources, especially the videos Ethics in Engineering, Center for Applied Ethics, Duke University, Durham, NC
238. Incident at Morales, National Institute for Engineering Ethics, Alexandria, VA.
239. The sources for this discussion are A. Blythe, Developer Has Plans for Large Homes, News and Observer, Raleigh, NC, June 29, 2004;
240. Editorials in the Chapel Hill Herald, Chapel Hill, NC, in June 2004.
241. G. Hardin, Tragedy of the Commons, Science, 162, December 13, 1968.
242. Martin Luther King, Letter from Birmingham Jail, Why We Can't Wait, HarperCollins, New York, 1963.
243. P. A. Vesilind, Engineers Working for Peace, Bucknell University, Lewisburg, PA, November 15, 2003.
244. R. Niebuhr, The Children of Light and the Children of Darkness (1844), Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1974.
245. J. Rawls, A Theory of Justice (1971), Belknap Press Reprint, Cambridge, MA, 1999.