Who kills children? Re-examining the evidence

British Journal of Social Work

Volumn 43, Issue 7, 2013, Pages 1403-1438

  Pritchard, Colin ^a   Davey, Jill ^a   Williams, Richard ^a  

^a BOURNEMOUTH UNIVERSITY   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

Child protection; Criminological; Psychiatric; Risk assessment

Indexed keywords

EID: 84888388300     PISSN: 00453102     EISSN: 1468263X     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1093/bjsw/bcs051     Document Type: Article

References (144)

1. APA (2010) Statistical Diagnostic Manual, 4th edn, Washington, American Psychological Association.
2. Anderson, L. and Thomas, B. (2010) 'Inequalities in premature mortality in Britain: Observational study from 1921 to 2007', British Medical Journal, 341, p. c3639.
3. Awofeso, N. (2008) 'Poverty, murder and respect: Unlikely to be linked in the UK', British Medical Journal, 337, p. 911.
4. Baird, C., Wagner, D., Healy, T. and Johnson, K. (1999) 'Risk assessment in child protective services: Consensus and actuarial model reliability', Child Welfare, 78, pp. 723-48.
5. Baron-Cohen, S. (2011) Zero Degrees of Empathy: A New Theory of Human Cruelty, London, Allen Lane.
6. Bennett, M. D., Hall, J., Frazier, L., Jr, Patel, N. and Shaw, K. (2006) 'Homicide of children aged 0-4 years, 2003-04: Results from the National Violent Death Reporting System', Injury Prevention, 12(Suppl. 2), pp. ii39-ii43.
7. Birken, C. S., Parkin, P. C., To, T. and Macarthur, C. (2009) 'Neighbourhood socioeconomic status and homicides among children in urban Canada', Pediatrics, 123, pp. 815-19.
8. Blakely, T., Atkinson, J., Kiro, C., Blakelock, A. and D'Souza, A. (2003) 'Child mortality, socio-economic position and one-parent families: Independent associations and variation by age and cause of death', International Journal of Epidemiology, 32, pp. 410-18. (Pubitemid 36764100)
9. Bland, M. (2000) An Introduction to Medical Statistics, 3rd edn, Oxford, Oxford University Press.
10. Boggess, S. (1998) 'Family structure, economic status and educational attainment', Journal of Population and Economics, 11, pp. 205-22.
11. Brandon, M., Belderson, P., Watson, C., Howe, D. and Black, J. (2008) 'Analysing child deaths and serious injuries through abuse and neglect: What can we learn? A biannual analysis of serious case reviews 2003-2005', Department of Children, Schools and Families, RB023 Research.
12. Brandon, M., Howe, A., Dagley, V., Salter, C., Warren, C. and Black, J. (2006) Evaluating the Common Assessment Framework and Lead Professional Guidance and Implementation 2005-06, London, Department for Education and Skills.
13. Brookman, F. and Nolan, J. (2006) 'The dark figure of infanticide in England and Wales: Complexities of diagnosis', Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 21, pp. 869-89. (Pubitemid 43829952)
14. Burkhauser, R. V., Smeeding, T. M. and Merz, J. (1994) Relative Inequality and Poverty in Germany and the United States Using Alternative Equivalence Scales, Discussion Paper No. 13, Forschungsinstitut Freie Berufe Universitat Luneburg.
15. Campbell, M. J., Hall, D., Stephenson, T. and Madan, J. (2008) 'Recurrence rates for SIDS: The importance of risk stratification', Archives of Childhood Diseases, 93, pp. 936-9.
16. Cavanagh, K., Dobash, R. and Dobash, R. P. (2007) 'The murder of children by fathers in the context of child abuse', Child Abuse and Neglect, 31, pp. 731-46. (Pubitemid 47212445)
17. Collins, R. (2008) Violence: A Micro-Sociological Theory, Princeton, Princeton University Press.
18. Conger, R. D. and Donnellan, M. B. (2007) 'An interactionist perspective on the socioeconomic context of human development', Annual Review of Psychology, 58, pp. 114-27.
19. Conroy, K., Sandel, M. and Zuckerman, B. (2010) 'Poverty grown up: How childhood socioeconomic status impacts adult health', Journal of Development Behavioural Paediatrics, 31, pp. 154-60.
20. Costello, E. J., Compton, S. N., Keeler, G. and Angold, A. (2003) 'Relationships between poverty and psychopathology: A natural experiment', Journal of the American Medical Association, 290, pp. 2023-9. (Pubitemid 37430585)
21. Creighton, J. (1993) 'Children's homicide: An exchange', British Journal of Social Work, 23(4), pp. 643-4.
22. D'Ercole, M. and Förster, M. (2005) Income Distribution and Poverty in OECD Countries in the Second Half of the 1990s, OECD Social, Employment and Migration Working Papers, Paris, OECD.
23. Daly, M. and Wilson, M. (1988) 'Evolutionary social psychology and family homicide', Science, 242, pp. 519-24.
24. Daly, M. and Wilson, M. (2001) 'Income inequality and homicide rates in Canada and the United States', Canadian Journal of Criminology, 4. pp. 219-36.
25. Daly, M. and Wilson, M. (2002) 'Murderous parents', International Journal of Therapy and Compensatory Criminology, April, pp. 123-43.
26. Daly, M. and Wilson, M. (2006) 'Stepfather involvement and adolescent well-being: Do mothers and non-resident fathers matter?', Journal of Family Issues, September, pp. 1191-213.
27. Department of Health (2000) Framework for the Assessment of Children and Need and Their Families, London, The Stationery Office.
28. Department of Health (2011) Trends in Children and Young People's Care: Emergency Admission Statistics 1996/97-2006-07, London, Department of Health.
29. Dil, L. M., Doreleijers, T. A. and Schoevers, R. (2008) 'Filicide, psychiatric disorders in parents who murder their children: A literature review', Tidschirie Psychaitrica, 50, pp. 263-72. (Pubitemid 351790253)
30. Dohrenwend, B. P. and Dohrenwend, B. S. (1969) Social Status and Psychological Disorder: A Causal Inquiry, New York, Wiley.
31. Drakeford, M. and Butler, I. (2010) 'Familial homicide act and social work', British Journal of Social Work, 40, pp. 1419-33.
32. Eaton, W. M., Mutaner, C., Bovasso, G. and Smith, C. (2001) 'The role of inter- and intragenerational mobility, government assistance and work environment', Journal of Health and Social Behaviour, 42, pp. 277-94.
33. Elkin, A., Gilburt, H., Slade, M., Lloyd-Evans, B. and Howard, L. M. (2009) 'A national survey of psychiatric mother and baby units', Psychiatric Services, 60, pp. 629-33.
34. Emery, J. L. (1993) 'Child abuse, sudden infant death syndrome and unexpected infant death', American Journal of Diseases of Childhood, 147, pp. 1097-100. (Pubitemid 23298101)
35. Falkov, A. (1996) Fatal Child Abuse and Parental Psychiatric Disorders, ACPC Series, Report No. 1, London, Department of Health Study of Working Together, Part 8.
36. Farrington, D. P. and Loeber, R. (2000) 'Epidemiology of juvenile violence', Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Clinics of North America, 9, pp. 733-48.
37. Feinstein, L., Hearn, P., Renton, Z. and Abrahams, C. (2007) Reducing Inequalities: Releasing the Talents of All, London, Institute of Education.
38. Feldman, G., Hayes, A., Kumar, S., Greeson, J. and Laurenceau, J. P. (2007) 'Mindfulness and emotion regulation: The development and initial validation of the Cognitive and Affective Mindfulness Scale-Revised (CAMS-R) ', Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioural Assessment, 29, pp. 177-90. (Pubitemid 47063446)
39. Feldman, R., Gordon, I., Schneiderman, I. and Weisman, O. (2010) 'Natural variations in maternal and paternal care are associated with systematic changes on oxytocin following parent-infant contact', Psychoneuro-endrocinology, 35, pp. 1133-41.
40. Fenton, W. S. and Schooler, N. R. (2000) 'Evidence-based psychosocial treatment for schizophrenia', Schizophrenia Bulletin, 26, pp. 1-3.
41. Freemantle, N., Wood, J., Griffin, C., Gill, P., Calvert, M. J. and MacArthur, C. (2009) 'What factors predict differences in infant and perinatal mortality in primary care trusts in England? A prognostic model', British Medical Journal, 339, p. 2892.
42. Friedman, S. H., Hrouda, D. R., Holden, C. and Resnick, P. J. (2005) 'Child murder committed by severely mentally ill mothers: An examination of mothers found not guilty by reason of insanity', Journal of Forensic Science, 50, pp. 1466-71.
43. Gartner, R. (1990) 'The victims of homicide: A temporal and cross-national review', American Sociological Review, 55, pp. 92-106.
44. Gibbon, S., Duggan, C., Stoffers, J., Hubbard, N. and Lieb, K. (2010) 'Psychological interventions for antisocial personality disorders', Cochrane Database Systematic Review, CD007668.
45. Gleeson, J. F., Cotton, S. M., Alvarez-Jimenez, M., Wade, D. and McGorry, P. D. (2010) 'Family outcomes from a randomised control trial of relapse prevention therapy in first-episode psychosis', Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 71, pp. 475-83.
46. Gordon, D., Levitas, R., Pantazis, C., Payne, S. and Townsend, P. (2000) Poverty and Social Exclusion in Britain, York, Joseph Rowntree Foundation.
47. Gordon, I., Zagoory-Sharon, O., Leckman, J. and Feldman, R. (2010) 'Prolactin, oxytocin and the development of paternal behaviour across the first six months of fatherhood', Hormones and Behaviour, 58, pp. 513-18.
48. Greenland, C. (1987) Preventing Child Abuse and Neglect Deaths, London, Tavistock Publications.
49. Grey, P. B., Yang, C. F. and Pope, H. G. (2006) 'Fathers have lower salivary testosterone levels than unmarried men and married non-fathers in Beijing, China', Proceedings of Biological Science, 273, pp. 333-9.
50. Grubin, D. (1994) 'Sexual murder', British Journal of Psychiatry, 165, pp. 624-9. (Pubitemid 24333518)
51. Guildford, J. P. (1978) Fundamental Statistics in Psychology and Education, London, McGraw-Hill.
52. Hansard (2011) Health: Question 'To ask Her Majesty's Government what action will they take in response to Professor Colin Pritchard's study published recently in the British Journal of Cancer?', House of Lords, 733.240 Tuesday 13 December, pp. 1159-62.
53. Hides, L., Samet, S. and Lubman, D. L. (2010) 'Cognitive behaviour therapy (CBT) for the treatment of co-occurring depression and substance abuse: Current evidence and future research', Drug and Alcohol Review, 29, pp. 508-17.
54. HMSO (1995) Child Protection: Messages from Research, London, HMSO.
55. Hochstadt, N. J. (2006) 'Child death review teams: A vital component of child protection', Child Welfare, 85, pp. 653-70. (Pubitemid 44638530)
56. Home Office (2009) Prison Statistics, London, Home Office.
57. Howard, L., Shah, N., Salmon, M. and Appleby, L. (2003) 'Predictors of social services supervision of babies of mothers with mental illness after admission to a psychiatric mother and baby unit', Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology, 38, pp. 450-5. (Pubitemid 37160819)
58. Hudson, CG (2005) Socioeconomic status and mental illness: Test of the social causation and selection hypothesis. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 75, pp. 3-18. (Pubitemid 40261725)
59. ILO (1998) Gina Coefficient Index, Geneva, OECD, International Labour Organisation.
60. Jenkins, B., Bebbington, P., Brugha, D., Farrrell, M., Lewis, G. and Meltzer, H. (1998) 'British psychiatric morbidity surveys', British Journal of Psychiatry, 173, pp. 4-7.
61. Jenny, C. and Isaac, R. (2006) 'The relation between child death and child maltreatment', Archives of Diseases of Childhood, 91, pp. 265-9. (Pubitemid 43325509)
62. Judge, K. and Benzeval, M. (1993) 'Health inequalities: New concern about children of single mothers', British Medical Journal, 306, pp. 677-80. (Pubitemid 23070228)
63. Kahn, R., Wise, P., Kennedy, B. and Kawachi, I. (2000) 'State income in-equality, household income and maternal mental and physical health: Cross sectional national survey', British Medical Journal, 321, pp. 1311-15.
64. Kanji, G. K. (2006) 100 Statistical Tests, 3rd edn, Sage Publications
65. Kempe, C. and Kempe, H. (1978) Child Abuse, Chicago, University of Chicago Press.
66. Kim, J. H., Choi, S. S. and Ha, K. (2008) 'A closer look at depression in mothers who kill their children: Is it unipolar or bipolar depression?', Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 69, pp. 1625-31.
67. Kim, S. W. and Pridemore, W. A. (2005) 'Poverty, socio-economic change, institutional anomie and homicide', Social Science Quarterly, 86, pp. 1377-98. (Pubitemid 43082605)
68. King, W. K., Kiesel, E. and Simon, H. K. (2006) 'Child abuse fatalities: Are we missing opportunities for intervention?', Paediatric Emergency Care, 22, pp. 211-14. (Pubitemid 43772167)
69. Kitsantas, P. (2008) 'Ethnic differences in infant mortality by causes of death', Journal of Perinatology, 28, pp. 573-9.
70. Laderichi, C. R., Saith, R. and Stewart, F. (2003) 'Does it matter that we do not agree on definitions of poverty? A comparison of 4 approaches', Oxford Development Studies, 31, pp. 253-74.
71. Langevin, R. (2003) 'A study of psychosocial characteristics of sex killers: Can we identify them before it is too late?', International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology, 47, pp. 366-82. (Pubitemid 36935023)
72. Liberman, R. P. and Glick, J. D. (2004) 'Drug and psychosocial curricula for psychiatry residents for treatment of schizophrenia: Part 1', Psychiatric Services, 55, pp. 1217-19. (Pubitemid 39441583)
73. Liem, M. and Koenraadt, F. (2008) 'Familicide: A comparison with spousal and child homicide by mentally disordered perpetrators', Criminal Behaviour and Mental Health, 18, pp. 306-18.
74. Liem, M. and Pridemore, W. (2012) Sourcebook of European Homicide Research, New York, Springer.
75. Linsley, K. R., Schaparia, K. and Kelly, T. P. (2001) 'Open verdicts versus suicide: Importance to research', British Journal of Psychiatry, 178, pp. 465-8. (Pubitemid 32436814)
76. Mackenbach, J. P., Bos, V., Andersen, O., Cardano, M., Costa, G. and Kunst, A. E. (2003) 'Widening socio-economic inequalities in mortality in six Western European countries', International Journal of Epidemiology, 32, pp. 838-9.
77. Matturi, I., Mauri, M., Elena-Ferreo, M. and Lavezzi, A. (2008) 'Unexpected peri-natal loss versus SIDS: A common neuropathy entity', Open Neurology, 2, pp. 45-50.
78. Meltzer, H., Gill, B., Pettiigrew, M. and Hinds, K. (1995) The Prevalence of Psychiatric Morbidity among Adults Living in Private Households, London, HMSO.
79. Moore, A. (2005) 'Changing patterns of childhood mortality in Wolverhampton', Archives of Diseases of Childhood, 90, pp. 687-91. (Pubitemid 40922497)
80. Morgan, C. and Bhugra, D. (2010) Principles of Social Psychiatry, 2nd edn, Oxford, Wiley-Blackwell.
81. Mulvaney, C., Kendrick, D., Towner, E., Brussoni, M., Hayes, M. and Ward, H. (2009) 'Fatal and non-fatal injuries in England 1995-2004: Time trends and inequalities by age, sex and area deprivation', Journal of Public Health, 31, pp. 154-61.
82. Munro, E. (2010) 'Learning to reduce risk in child protection', British Journal of Social Work, 40, pp. 1135-51.
83. Musick, K. and Meier, A. (2010) 'Are both parents always better than one? Parental conflict and young adult well-being', Social Science Research, 39, pp. 814-30.
84. Newlands, M., Adamson, E., Ghulam, S., Saleh, M. and Emery, J. L. (1991) 'Differences in post-perinatal infants deaths between North and Southern Derbyshire', Archives Diseases of Childhood, 66, pp. 1421-6.
85. Newlands, M. and Emery, J. L. (1991) 'Child abuse and cot deaths', Child Abuse and Neglect, 15, pp. 275-8.
86. Newton, A. W. and Vandeven, A. M. (2006) 'Unexplained infant and child death: A review of SIDS, sudden unexplained deaths and child maltreatment fatalities including shaken baby syndrome', Current Opinion in Paediatrics, 18, pp. 196-200.
87. NSPCC (2002) Campaigning on Child Abuse Deaths, London, NSPCC.
88. Ofsted (2010) Learning Lessons from Serious Case Reviews 2009-2010, available online at http://www.ofsted.gov. uk/content/download/11643/136464/ file/Learning.pdf.
89. Parslow, R. C., Tasker, R. C., Draper, E. S., Parry, G. J. and Jones, S. (2009) 'Paediatric intensive care network: Epidemiology of critically ill children in England and Wales: Incidence, mortality, deprivation and ethnicity', Archives of Diseases of Childhood, 94, pp. 210-15.
90. Pharaoh, P. O. and Platt, M. J. (2007) 'Sudden infant death syndrome in twins and singletons', Twins Research and Human Genetics, 10, p. 644-8. (Pubitemid 47327027)
91. Pritchard, C. (1992) 'Children's homicide as an indicator of effective child protection: A comparative study of Western European statistics', British Journal of Social Work, 23, pp. 645-52.
92. Pritchard, C. (2002) 'Children's homicide and road deaths in England and Wales and the USA: An international comparison 1974-1997', British Journal Social Work, 32, pp. 495-502. (Pubitemid 37446225)
93. Pritchard, C. (2004) The Child Abusers: Research and Controversy, Buckingham, Open University Press.
94. Pritchard, C. (2006) Mental Health Social Work: An Evidenced-Based Approach, London, Routledge.
95. Pritchard, C. (2010) 'The psychiatric-child protection interface: Research to inform practice', in Morgan, C. and Bhugra, D. (eds), Principles of Social Psychiatry, 2nd edn, Oxford, Wiley-Blackwell, pp. 483-95.
96. Pritchard, C. (2012) Family Violence in Europe: Child Homicide and intimate partner violence, linking the crime and psychiatric interface. In Liem, M. and Pridemore (eds) Sourcebook of European Homicide Research, New York, Springer, 75-93.
97. Pritchard, C. and Bagley, C. (2001) 'Suicide and murder in child murderers and child sexual abusers', Journal of Forensic Psychiatry, 12, pp. 269-86. (Pubitemid 32825520)
98. Pritchard, C. and Hansen, L. (2005) 'Adolescent and youth suicide in England and Wales: An international comparison', International Journal of Adolescent Medicine Health, 17, pp. 239-53.
99. Pritchard, C. and Hickish, T. (2011) 'Comparing cancer mortality and GDP health expenditure in England and Wales with other major developed countries 1979-2006', British Journal of Cancer, 105, pp. 1788-994.
100. Pritchard, C. and King, E. (2004) 'Comparing child-sex-abuse-related and mental-disorder-related suicide in a six year cohort of regional suicides: The importance of the child protection-psychiatric interface', British Journal Social Work, 34, pp. 181-97.
101. Pritchard, C. and Sayers, T. (2008) 'Exploring potential extra-family child homicide assailants in the UK and estimating their homicide rate: Perception of risk and the need for debate', British Journal of Social Work, 38, pp. 290-307.
102. Pritchard, C. and Wallace, M. S. (2011) 'Comparing the USA, UK and 17 Western countries efficiency and effectiveness in reducing mortality', Journal of Royal Society of Medicine Shorts, 2. 60, pp. 1-10.
103. Pritchard, C. and Williams, R. (2009) 'Does social work make a difference? A controlled study of former looked-after-children and excluded-from-school adolescents now men aged 16-24: Subsequent offences, being victims of crime and suicide', Journal of Social Work, 9, pp. 285-307.
104. Pritchard, C. and Williams, R. (2010) 'Comparing possible child-abuse-related-deaths in England and Wales with the major developed countries 1974-2006', British Journal of Social Work, 40, pp. 1700-18.
105. Pritchard, C. and Williams, R. (2011) 'Poverty and child (0-14 years) mortality in the USA and other Western countries as an indicator of "how well a country meets the needs of its children" (UNICEF) ', International Journal of Adolescent Medicine and Health, 23, pp. 251-5.
106. Pritchard, C., Brackstone, J. and MacFie, J. (2010) 'Adverse event and patient safety in the operating theatre: Perspectives of 549 surgeons', Annals of Royal College of Surgeons, (Supplement) 92, pp. 1-4.
107. Pritchard, C., Cox, M., Foulkes, L. and Lindsay, K. (2011a) 'The patient's voice in neurosurgery: Psycho-socio-economic benefits of a patient-designed versus standard service following treatment for a subarachnoid haemorrhage', Social Care and Neuro-Disability, 2, pp. 80-96.
108. Pritchard, C., Lindsay, K., Cox, M. and Foulkes, L. (2011b) 'Re-evaluating the National Subarachnoid Haemorrhage study (2006) from a patient-related-outcome-measure perspective: Comparing fiscal outcomes of treatment-as-usual with an enhanced service', British Journal of Neurosurgery, 25, pp. 376-83.
109. Pritchard, C (2012) Family violence in Europe: Child homicide and intimate partner violence, linking the crime and psychiatric interface. In M. Liem and R. Pridemoer (eds). Source of European Homicide Research, New York, Springer, pp. 75-93.
110. Rettenberger, M., Matthes, A., Boer, D. P. and Eher, R. (2010) 'Prospective actuarial risk assessment: A comparison of five risk assessment instruments in different sexual sub-types', International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology, 54, pp. 169-86.
111. Rossegger, A., Endrass, J., Urbaniok, F., Vetter, S. and Maercker, A. (2011a) 'From victim to offender: Characteristics of sexually abused violent and sexual offenders', Nervenartz, 24, Epub ahead of publication.
112. Rossegger, A., Laubacher, A., Moskvitin, K. and Endrass, J. (2011b) 'Risk assessment instruments in repeat offending: The usefulness of FOTRES', International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology, 11, Epub ahead of publication.
113. Salmon, M. P., Abel, K., Webb, R., Warburton, A. L. and Appleby, L. (2004) 'A national audit of joint mother and baby admissions to UK psychiatric hospitals: An overview of findings', Archives of Women's Mental Health, 7, pp. 65-70. (Pubitemid 38280073)
114. Saraceno, B., Levav, I. and Kohn, R. (2005) 'The public mental health significance of research on socio-economic factors in schizophrenia and major depression', World Psychiatry, 4, pp. 181-5.
115. Schechter, D. S. and Willheim, E. (2009) 'Disturbance of attachment and parental psychopathology in early childhood', Child Adolescent Psychiatry Clinics of North America, 18, pp. 665-86.
116. Seifritz, E., Esposito, F., Neuhoffm, J., Luthi, A. and Di Salle, F. (2003) 'Differential sexindependent amygdala response to infant crying and laughing in parents and nonparents', Biological Psychiatry, 54, pp. 1367-75. (Pubitemid 37522160)
117. Shaw, M., Tunstall, H. and Dorling, D. (2005) 'Increasing inequalities in risk of murder in Britain: Trends in the demographic and spatial distribution of murder 1981-2000', Healthy Places, 11, pp. 45-54. (Pubitemid 39506824)
118. Sidebotham, P. and Golding, J. and the ALSPAC Study (2001) 'Child maltreatment in the "Children of the Nineties": A longitudinal study of parental risk factors', Child Abuse and Neglect, 25, pp. 1177-2000.
119. Sidebotham, P., Bailey, J., Belderson, P. and Brandon, M. (2011) Fatal child maltreatment in England 2005-2009. Child Abuse and Neglect. 35, pp. 299-306.
120. Singh, T. P. and Kogan, M. D. (2007) 'Widening socio-economic disparities in US childhood mortality 1969-2000', American Journal Public Health, 97, pp. 1658-65. (Pubitemid 351182331)
121. South, S. C. and Krueger, R. F. (2011) 'Genetic and environmental influences on internalising psychopathology vary as a function of economic status', Psychological Medicine, 41, p. 107.
122. Stanistreet, D., Taylor, S., Jeffrey, V. and Gabby, M. (2001) 'Accident or suicide? Predictors of coroners decisions in suicide and accident verdicts', Medicine, Science and Law, 41, pp. 111-15. (Pubitemid 33598096)
123. Thornton, D., Mann, R., Webster, S., Blud, L. and Erickson, M. (2003) 'Distinguishing and combing risk for sexual and violent recidivism', Annals of New York Academy of Sciences, 989, pp. 225-46.
124. Toney, L. (1983) 'The effects of holding the newborn at delivery on parental bonding', Nursing Research, 32, pp. 16-19. (Pubitemid 15192324)
125. Turkheimer, E., Haley, A., Waldron, M., D'Onofrio, B. and Gottesman, I. (2003) 'Socioeconomic status modifies heritability of IQ in young children', Psychological Science, 14, pp. 623-8. (Pubitemid 37550867)
126. UNICEF (2001) Child Deaths by Injury in Rich Nations, Florence, Innocenti Research Centre, Report No. 2, United Nations Children Fund.
127. UNICEF (2010) Global Study of Child Poverty and Disparities. New York, UNICEF.
128. UNMDG Task Force (2009) Millennium Development Goals: A Report, New York, United Nations.
129. Urbaniok, F., Rossegger, A. and Endrass, J. (2006) 'Can high-risk offenders be reliably identified? A follow-up study on dangerous offenders in Switzerland released from prison for legal reasons', Swiss Medical Weekly, 136, pp. 761-8.
130. USDHSS (2006) Federal Poverty Level. US Dept of Health & Human Services, Washington DC.
131. Wan, M. W., Warburton, A. L., Appleby, L. and Abel, K. M. (2007) 'Mother and baby unit admissions: Feasibility study examining child outcomes 4-6 years on', Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry, 41, pp. 150-6. (Pubitemid 46705627)
132. Weekes-Shackelford, V. A. and Shackleford, T. K. (2004) 'Methods of filicide: Stepparents and genetic parents kill differently', Violence and Victims, 19, pp. 75-81. (Pubitemid 38669265)
133. Weissman, A. M., Jogerst, G. J. and Dawson, J. D. L. (2003) 'Community characteristics associated with child abuse', Child Abuse and Neglect, 27, pp. 1145-59. (Pubitemid 37346467)
134. West, S. G., Friedman, S. H. and Resnick, P. J. (2009) 'Fathers who kill their children: An analysis of the literature', Journal of Forensic Science, 54, pp. 185-8.
135. White, S., Hall, C. and Peckover, S. (2009) 'The descriptive tyranny of the Common Assessment Framework: Technologies of categorisation and professional practice in child welfare', British Journal of Social Work, 39, pp. 1197-217.
136. WHO (1992) International Classification of Diseases, 10th edn, Geneva, World Health Organisation.
137. WHO (2008) Registered Deaths by Cause, Age and Gender: Table 1, available online at www.who.whosis.
138. Wilkinson, R. and Pickett, K. (2009) The Spirit Level, London, Allen.
139. Williams, C. F. (2007) 'The UK General Medical Council fails child protection', Paediatrics, 119, pp. 800-2.
140. Williams, R. and Pritchard, C. (2006) Breaking the Cycle of Educational Alienation, Buckingham, Open University Press.
141. Wood, H. (2012) 'Assessing the feasibility of using an actuarial risk assessment tool to identify risk in child protection cases', unpublished Ph. D. thesis, School of Health and Social Care, Bournemouth University.
142. Woodman, J., Pitt, M., Wentz, R., Taylor, B. and Gilbert, R. E. (2008) 'Performance screening tests for child physical abuse in accident and emergency departments', Health Technology Assessment, 12, pp. 1-95.
143. Woodruff, T. J., Darrow, L. and Parker, J. D. (2008) 'Air pollution and postnatal infant mortalityinthe USA 1992-2002', Environmental Health Perspectives, 116, pp. 110-15.
144. Zagar, R. J., Isbell, S. A., Busch, K. and Hughes, J. R. (2009) 'An empirical theory of the development of homicide within individuals', Psychological Report, 104, pp. 199-245.