Frederick Law Olmsted, Green Infrastructure, and the Evolving City

Journal of Planning History

Volumn 12, Issue 4, 2013, Pages 287-311

  Eisenman, Theodore S ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA   (United States)

Author keywords

cities; ecosystem services; green infrastructure; Olmsted; parks; urbanism

Indexed keywords

ECOSYSTEM SERVICE; ENVIRONMENTAL RESTORATION; GREENSPACE; INFRASTRUCTURE; LANDSCAPE; NINETEENTH CENTURY; REGIONAL PLANNING; URBAN PLANNING;

EID: 84887444278     PISSN: 15385132     EISSN: 15526585     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1177/1538513212474227     Document Type: Article

References (180)

1. Frederick Law Olmsted, "Public Parks and the Enlargement of Towns," Journal of Social Science, Containing the Proceedings of the American Association (1869-1909), no. 3 (1871): 10.
2. Paper read before the American Social Science Association, at the Lowell Institute (Boston, MA, February 25, 1870).
3. Timothy Beatley, Green Urbanism: Learning From European Cities (Washington, DC: Island Press, 2000).
4. Claire Enlow, "Streets as Parks," Planning 68, no. 5 (2002): 16.
5. Ulf G. Sandstrom, "Green Infrastructure Planning in Urban Sweden," Planning Practice and Research 17, no. 4 (2002): 373-85.
6. S. E. Gill et al., "Adapting Cities for Climate Change: The Role of the Green Infrastructure," Built Environment 33, no. 1 (2007): 115-33.
7. Joseph Schilling and Jonathan Logan, "Greening the Rust Belt: A Green Infrastructure Model for Right Sizing America's Shrinking Cities," Journal of the American Planning Association 74, no. 4 (2008): 451-66.
8. Cheryl Kollin and James C. Schwab, "Bringing Nature into the City," in Planning the Urban Forest: Ecology, Economy, and Community Development, Planning Advisory Service 555 (Chicago, IL: American Planning Association, 2009), 1-24.
9. Robert F. Young, "Planting the Living City: Best Practices in Planning Green Infrastructure-Results from Major U.S. Cities," Journal of the American Planning Association 77 (2011): 368-81.
10. Alexandra Dapolito Dunn, "Siting Green Infrastructure: Legal and Policy Solutions to Alleviate Urban Poverty and Promote Healthy Communities," Boston College Environmental Affairs Law Review 37, no. 1 (2010): 41-66.
11. Mark A. Benedict and Edward T. McMahon, Green Infrastructure: Linking Landscapes and Communities (Washington, DC: Island Press, 2006), 1.
12. The Conservation Fund, "What is Green Infrastructure?" 2011, http://www.greeninfrastructure.net/con-tent/definition-green-infrastructure.
13. Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, Ecosystems and Human Well-being: Synthesis (Washington, DC: Island Press, 2005).
14. Michael Hough, "Looking Beneath the Surface: Teaching a Landscape Ethic," in Ecology and Design: Frameworks for Learning, ed. Bart Johnson and Kristina Hill (Washington, DC: Island Press, 2001), 245-67.
15. John Randolph, Environmental Land Use Planning and Management (Washington, DC: Island Press, 2003).
16. Ulf G. Sandstrom, "Green Infrastructure Planning in Urban Sweden."
17. Mark A. Benedict and Edward T. McMahon, Green Infrastructure.
18. Eugenie L. Birch, "From Townsite to Metropolis," in Local Planning: Contemporary Principles and Practices, ed. Gary Hack, Eugenie Birch, Paul Sedway, and Mitchell Silver (Washington, DC: ICMA Press, 2009), 3-22.
19. Popularized in the Middle Ages, miasma theory held that diseases such as cholera, chlamydia, and Black Death were caused by noxious air. This was disproved in 1854 when British physician John Snow traced an outbreak of cholera in London to a polluted water well, a discovery that is considered the beginning of the science of epidemiology and of modern germ theory, where the mechanism of disease transport is through viral or bacterial microorganisms. However, it was not until the late nineteenth century that this was generally accepted.
20. Tom Koch, "The Map as Intent: Variations on the Theme of John Snow," Cartographica 39, no. 4 (2004): 1-14.
21. David Schuyler, The New Urban Landscape: The Redefinition of City Form in Nineteenth-century America (Baltimore, MD: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1986), 60.
22. Catharine Ward Thompson, "Linking Landscape and Health: The Recurring Theme," Landscape and Urban Planning 99, no. 3-4 (2010): 187-95.
23. Frederick Law Olmsted, Walks and Talks of an American Farmer in England, 2002 reprint edition of Olmsted's first book, describing his 1850 walking tour of England. (Amherst, MA: Library of American Landscape History, 1852), 75.
24. Justin Martin, Genius of Place: The Life of Frederick Law Olmsted (Cambridge, MA: Da Capo Press, 2011).
25. London's parks were first labeled "The Lungs of London" in the eighteenth century by-it is claimed-British Prime Minister William Pitt the Elder (1766-1768). The term would later be consistently used to advocate for parks, whether in Berlin, Paris, or New York.
26. See note 13 above.
27. David Schuyler, The New Urban Landscape, 61.
28. Frederick Law Olmsted and Calvert Vaux, "A Review of Recent Changes, and Changes which have been Projected, in the Plans of the Central Park, by the Landscape Architects, 1872," in Frederick Law Olmsted, Landscape Architect, 1822-1903, Vol. 2: Central Park as a Work of Art and as a Great Municipal Enterprise 1853-1895, ed. Frederick Law Olmsted, Jr. and Theodora Kimball, 3rd ed. (Bronx, NY: Benjamin Blom, Inc., 1970), 249, reprinted in 1922.
29. Frederick Law Olmsted, Notes on the Plan of Franklin Park and Related Matters (Boston, MA: Park Department, 1886), 45.
30. Frederick Law Olmsted, "Public Parks and the Enlargement of Towns," 22.
31. Ibid., 21.
32. Ibid., 18.
33. Cheryl Kollin and James C. Schwab, "Bringing Nature into the City."
34. In addition to stormwater management and cooling benefits, regulating ecosystem services from urban green infrastructure may reduce air pollution and greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions.
35. However, some scholars conclude that "the removal of atmospheric pollutants by vegetation is one of the most commonly cited urban ecosystem services, yet it is one of the least supported empirically." The study authors also report that direct carbon sequestration by plants and soils in cities is negligible compared with urban GHG emissions. Likewise, while trees can cool urban temperatures, and thereby lower demand for air conditioning and reduce GHG emissions related to electricity generation, this needs to be better quantified.
36. Diane E. Pataki et al., "Coupling Biogeochemical Cycles in Urban Environments: Ecosystem Services, Green Solutions, and Misconceptions," Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment 9, no. 1 (2011): 27-36.
37. Roger S. Ulrich, "View through a Window May Influence Recovery from Surgery," Science 224 (1984): 420-421.
38. Frances E. Kuo, Parks and Other Green Environments: Essential Components of a Healthy Human Habitat. Executive Summary: Research Series (Ashburn, VA: National Recreation and Parks Association, 2010), 18.
39. Russ Parsons et al., "The View from the Road: Implications for Stress Recovery and Immunization," Journal of Environmental Psychology 18, no. 2 (1998): 113-40.
40. Bum Jin Park et al., "The Physiological Effects of Shinrin-yoku (taking in the Forest Atmosphere or Forest Bathing): Evidence from Field Experiments in 24 Forests across Japan," Environmental Health and Preventive Medicine 15, no. 1 (2009): 18-26.
41. Won Sop Shin, "The Influence of Forest View through a Window on Job Satisfaction and Job Stress," Scandinavian Journal of Forest Research 22, no. 3 (2007): 248-53.
42. Patrik Grahn and Ulrika A. Stigsdotter, "Landscape Planning and Stress," Urban Forestry & Urban Greening 2, no. 1 (2003): 1-18.
43. Nancy M. Wells and Gary W. Evans, "Nearby Nature," Environment and Behavior 35, no. 3 (2003): 311-30.
44. Russ Parsons et al., "The View from the Road: Implications for Stress Recovery and Immunization".
45. Gregory B. Diette et al., "Distraction Therapy with Nature Sights and Sounds Reduces Pain During Flexible Bronchoscopy," Chest 123, no. 3 (2003): 941-48.
46. J. Barton, R. Hine, and J. Pretty, "The Health Benefits of Walking in Greenspaces of High Natural and Heritage Value," Journal of Integrative Environmental Sciences 6, no. 4 (2009): 261-78.
47. Jo Barton and Jules Pretty, "What is the Best Dose of Nature and Green Exercise for Improving Mental Health? A Multi-study Analysis," Environmental Science & Technology 44, no. 10 (2010): 3947-55.
48. Marc G. Berman et al., "Interacting with Nature Improves Cognition and Affect for Individuals with Depression," Journal of Affective Disorders 140, no. 3 (2012): 300-305.
49. Marc G. Berman, John Jonides, and Stephen Kaplan, "The Cognitive Benefits of Interacting with Nature," Psychological Science 19, no. 12 (2008): 1207-12.
50. Johan Ottosson and Patrik Grahn, "A Comparison of Leisure Time Spent in a Garden with Leisure Time Spent Indoors: On Measures of Restoration in Residents in Geriatric Care," Landscape Research 30, no. 1 (2005): 23-55.
51. Bernadine Cimprich and David L. Ronis, "An Environmental Intervention to Restore Attention in Women with Newly Diagnosed Breast Cancer," Cancer Nursing 26, no. 4 (2003): 284-92.
52. Andrea Faber Taylor and Frances E. Kuo, "Children with Attention Deficits Concentrate Better after Walk in the Park," Journal of Attention Disorders 12, no. 5 (2009): 402-409.
53. Andrea Faber Taylor, Frances E. Kuo, and William Sullivan, "Coping with ADD: The Surprising Connection to Green Play Settings," Environment and Behavior 33, no. 1 (2001): 54-77.
54. Rodney H. Matsuoka, "Student Performance and High School Landscapes: Examining the Links," Landscape and Urban Planning 97, no. 4 (2010): 273-82.
55. Byoung-Suk Kweon, Chris D. Ellis, and Trevor Thomas, "Urban Nature and Student Performance," in CELA 2011: Urban Nature Inquiries (paper presented at the Council of Educators in Landscape Architecture, Los Angeles, CA, 2011).
56. Andrea Faber Taylor et al., "Growing Up in the Inner City Green Spaces as Places to Grow," Environment and Behavior 30, no. 1 (1998): 3-27.
57. A few prominent theories may explain evidence for stress reduction and potentially other mental health benefits of nature contact. Attention restoration theory holds that people process information either through directed attention or fascination. Directed attention sorts information we use to solve daily problems and it is a highly limited resource that can be exhausted without opportunities for recovery. People recover best in environments-such as nature-where this system can rest.
58. Rachel Kaplan and Stephen Kaplan, The Experience of Nature: A Psychological Perspective (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1989).
59. The psychoevolutionary theory suggests that humans have an innate emotional reaction to environmental stimuli that leads to approach or avoidance adaptive survival behaviors.
60. By extension, modern humans, as a partly genetic remnant of evolution, have a biologically prepared capacity for acquiring and retaining restorative responses to certain nature settings and content but have no such disposition for most built environments and their materials.
61. Roger S. Ulrich, "Effects of Gardens on Health Outcomes: Theory and Research," in Healing Gardens: Therapeutic Benefits and Design Recommendations, ed. Clare Cooper Marcus and Marni Barnes (New York: Wiley & Sons, 1999).
62. This resonates with biophilia theory, which posits that because human beings coexisted in close relationship with the natural environment for millions of years, we have an affinity for life and life-like processes, a premise that is being explored in the design of buildings and cities.
63. Edward O. Wilson, Biophilia (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1984).
64. Stephen R. Kellert, Judith Heerwagen, and Martin Mador, Biophilic Design: The Theory, Science and Practice of Bringing Buildings to Life (Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, 2008).
65. Timothy Beatley, Biophilic Cities: Integrating Nature into Urban Design and Planning (Washington, DC: Island Press, 2011).
66. Robert D. Putnam, Bowling Alone: The Collapse and Revival of American Community (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2000), 19.
67. Bonnie S. Fisher and Jack L. Nasar, "Fear of Crime in Relation to Three Exterior Site Features Prospect, Refuge, and Escape," Environment and Behavior 24, no. 1 (1992): 35-65.
68. Jack L. Nasar, Bonnie Fisher, and Margaret Grannis, "Proximate Physical Cues to Fear of Crime," Landscape and Urban Planning 26, no. 1-4 (1993): 161-78.
69. Charles C. Branas et al., "A Difference-in-differences Analysis of Health, Safety, and Greening Vacant Urban Space," American Journal of Epidemiology 174, no. 11 (2011): 1296-306.
70. Eugenia C. Garvin, Carolyn C. Cannuscio, and Charles C. Branas, "Greening Vacant Lots to Reduce Violent Crime: A Randomised Controlled Trial," Injury Prevention (2012): Online First: 10.1136/injuryprev-2012-040439.
71. Geoffrey H. Donovan and Jeffrey P. Prestemon, "The Effect of Trees on Crime in Portland, Oregon," Environment and Behavior 44, no. 1 (2012): 3-30.
72. Austin Troy, J. Morgan Grove, and Jarlath O'Neil-Dunne, "The Relationship between Tree Canopy and Crime Rates Across an Urban-rural Gradient in the Greater Baltimore Region," Landscape and Urban Planning 106, no. 3 (2012): 262-70.
73. Frances E. Kuo and William Sullivan, "Aggression and Violence in the Inner City," Environment and Behavior 33, no. 4 (2001): 543-71.
74. Frances E. Kuo and William Sullivan, "Environment and Crime in the Inner City," Environment and Behavior 33, no. 3 (2001): 343-67.
75. Rebekah Levine Coley, William Sullivan, and Frances Kuo, "Where Does Community Grow?" Environment and Behavior 29, no. 4 (1997): 468-94.
76. Frances E. Kuo et al., "Fertile Ground for Community: Inner-city Neighborhood Common Spaces," American Journal of Community Psychology 26, no. 6 (1998): 823-51.
77. Byoung-Suk Kweon, William C. Sullivan, and Angela R. Wiley, "Green Common Spaces and the Social Integration of Inner-city Older Adults," Environment and Behavior 30, no. 6 (1998): 832-58.
78. William C. Sullivan, Frances E. Kuo, and Stephen F. Depooter, "The Fruit of Urban Nature," Environment and Behavior 36, no. 5 (2004): 678-700.
79. Andrea Faber Taylor et al., "Growing Up in the Inner City Green Spaces as Places to Grow."
80. Frances E. Kuo, Parks and Other Green Environments: Essential Components of a Healthy Human Habitat.
81. Jolanda Maas et al., "Social Contacts as a Possible Mechanism behind the Relation Between Green Space and Health," Health & Place 15, no. 2 (2009): 586-95.
82. Robert D. Putnam, Bowling Alone: The Collapse and Revival of American Community, 326.
83. Charles E. Beveridge, "Frederick Law Olmsted's Theory on Landscape Design," Nineteenth Century 3, no. 2 (1977): 41.
84. Rebecca Stern (Director of External Affairs, Central Park Conservancy), in communication with the author, January 2012.
85. Olmsted's influence on the American urban landscape is pervasive. He pursued a nationwide practice that included scores of public parks, private estates, and academic institutions, and by the time of his retirement in 1895, he had left his mark on nearly every major American city.
86. Francis R. Kowsky, "Municipal Parks and City Planning: Frederick Law Olmsted's Buffalo Park and Parkway System," Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians 46, no. March (1987): 49.
87. Julius Gy Fabos, Gordon T. Milde, and V. Michael Weinmayr, Frederick Law Olmsted, Sr: Founder of Landscape Architecture in America (Amherst: The University of Massachusetts Press, 1968), 20.
88. Cynthia Zaitzevsky, Frederick Law Olmsted and the Boston Park System (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1982), 54.
89. Scott H. Markwith, "Biogeography and Environmental Restoration: An Opportunity in Applied Research," Geography Compass 5, no. 8 (2011): 531.
90. Cynthia Zaitzevsky, Frederick Law Olmsted and the Boston Park System.
91. Anne Whiston Spirn, "Constructing Nature: The Legacy of Frederick Law Olmsted," in Uncommon Ground, ed. William Cronon (New York: W. W. Norton & Company, 1995), 104.
92. Cynthia Zaitzevsky, Frederick Law Olmsted and the Boston Park System, 55.
93. Jack Ahern, "Green Infrastructure for Cities: The Spatial Dimension," in Cities of the Future: Towards Integrated Sustainable Water and Landscape Management, ed. Vladimir Novotny and Paul Brown (London: IWA Publishing, 2007), 274.
94. Mark A. Benedict and Edward T. McMahon, Green Infrastructure, 210.
95. Lee Hall, Olmsted's America: An "Unpractical" Man and His Vision of Civilization (Boston, MA: Bulfinch Press, 1995).
96. German biologist Ernst Haeckel used the word ökologie in 1866 to denote the study of organisms and their interactions with the world around them. Michael Allaby, ed., The Dictionary of Ecology, 2nd ed. (Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 1998).
97. Maintenance and Management Oversight Committee, Muddy River Restoration Project, "Flood Control," Muddy River Restoration Project, 2011, http://www.muddyrivermmoc.org/html/RestorationLinks/flood-Control.html.
98. Emerald Necklace Bird Club, "Emerald Necklace Bird Club List," 2011, http://www.friendsofjamaica-pond.org/emeraldnecklacebirdclub.html.
99. Franklin Park Coalition, "Wildlife," 2011, http://franklinparkcoalition.org/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=38&Itemid=14.
100. Frederick Law Olmsted, "Public Parks and the Enlargement of Towns," 26.
101. See note 10 above. Today, core elements of comprehensive plans address land use, transportation, housing, and environmental resources, and the scope has expanded to also include issues such as public health, culture and arts, and sustainability.
102. Barry Miller, "Plans That Fit the Purpose," in Local Planning: Contemporary Principles and Practices, ed. Gary Hack et al. (Washington, DC: ICMA Press, 2009), 213-28.
103. Frederick Law Olmsted, "Suggestions for the Improvement of Muddy River (1880)," in Parks, Politics, and Patronage (1874-1882): Vol. 7, The Papers of Frederick Law Olmsted ed. Charles E. Beveridge, Carolyn F. Hoffman, and Kenneth Hawkins (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2007), 518.
104. Frederick Law Olmsted and Calvert Vaux & Co., "Mr. Olmsted's Report (1868)," in Preliminary Report Respecting a Public Park in Buffalo and a Copy of the Act of the Legislature Authorizing Its Establishment (Buffalo, NY: Matthews & Warren, 1869), 12.
105. Michael Hough, "Looking Beneath the Surface: Teaching a Landscape Ethic".
106. Ulf G. Sandstrom, "Green Infrastructure Planning in Urban Sweden".
107. John Randolph, Environmental Land Use Planning and Management.
108. Mark A. Benedict and Edward T. McMahon, Green Infrastructure.
109. Anne Whiston Spirn, The Granite Garden: Urban Nature And Human Design (New York: Basic Books, 1985).
110. Anne Whiston Spirn, "The Authority of Nature: Conflict, Confusion, and Renewal in Design, Planning, and Ecology," in Ecology and Design, ed. Bart Johnson and Kristina Hill (Washington, DC: Island Press, 2001), 38.
111. Frederick Law Olmsted and Calvert Vaux & Co. Landscape Architects, "Report of the Landscape Architects and Superintendents to the President of the Board of Commissioners of Prospect Park, Brooklyn (1868)," in Landscape into Cityscape: Frederick Law Olmsted's Plans for a Greater New York (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1967), 132.
112. David Schuyler, The New Urban Landscape, 126-128.
113. Justin Martin, Genius of Place, 292.
114. Frederick Law Olmsted, "Mr. Olmsted's Report (October 1st, 1868)," 18.
115. Francis R. Kowsky, "Municipal Parks and City Planning: Frederick Law Olmsted's Buffalo Park and Parkway System," Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians 46, no. March (1987): 56.
116. Witold Rybczynski, A Clearing in the Distance: Frederick Law Olmsted and America in the 19th Century, 1st ed. (New York: Scribner, 1999), 289.
117. Humboldt Parkway connecting Delaware Park in the north to the Parade in the east was converted to a six-lane state highway in the mid-twentieth century to accommodate increased vehicular traffic. More recently, Porter Avenue, connecting the parkway system to Front Park in the west, has been upgraded to include new sidewalks, ornamental lighting, replacement trees where needed, and a bike lane.
118. Brian Dold (associate landscape architect, Buffalo Olmsted Parks Conservancy), in communication with the author, September 2012.
119. John Randolph, Environmental Land Use Planning and Management.
120. Mark A. Benedict and Edward T. McMahon, Green Infrastructure.
121. Karsten Jorgensen, "The Origins of Urban Green Structures," in COST Action C11. Green Structure and Urban Planning: Final Report, ed. Ann Carol Werquin et al. (Luxembourg: Office for the Official Publications of the European Communities, 2005), 227.
122. James Howard Kunstler, "KunstlerCast #25: Frederick Law Olmsted and the American Park" interview by Duncan Crary, 2008, http://kunstlercast.com/shows/KunstlerCast_25_Olmsted_Parks.html.
123. Jon C. Teaford, "Landscaping America," Reviews in American History 15, no. 4 (1987): 661.
124. Witold Rybczynski, A Clearing in the Distance.
125. Frederick Law Olmsted and Calvert Vaux & Co. Landscape Architects, Preliminary Report Upon the Proposed Suburban Village at Riverside, Near Chicago (New York: Sutton, Bowne & Co., 1868), 26.
126. Witold Rybczynski, A Clearing in the Distance, 292-293.
127. Justin Martin estimates that 40 percent of Riverside was designated as greens and commons.
128. See note 15 above.
129. Melvin Kalfus, Frederick Law Olmsted: The Passion of a Public Artist (New York: New York University Press, 1990), 29.
130. Cynthia Zaitzevsky, Frederick Law Olmsted and the Boston Park System, 51.
131. Frederick Law Olmsted and Calvert Vaux & Co., "Observations on the Progress of Improvements in Street Plans, with Special Reference to the Parkway Proposed to be Laid Out in Brooklyn (1868)," in Civilizing American Cities: Writings on City Landscapes: Frederick Law Olmsted, ed. S. B. Sutton, Unabridged republication of 1971 edition published by the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (New York: Da Capo Press, 1977), 36.
132. Jon A. Peterson, The Birth of City Planning in the United States, 1840-1917 (Baltimore, MD: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 2003), 22.
133. Burnham 1893, in Martin, Genius of Place, 1.
134. Irving D. Fisher, Frederick Law Olmsted and the City Planning Movement in the United States, 2nd ed. (Ann Arbor, MI: UMI Research Press, 1986), 96.
135. John Stuart Mill, "Principles of Political Economy with Some of Their Applications to Social Philosophy," in Collected Works of John Stuart Mill, vol. 2:120, 3:708, ed. J. M. Robson, (London: University of Toronto Press, 1965).
136. Olmsted dedicated his three-volume documentation of the antebellum south to Mill.
137. Frederick Law Olmsted, The Cotton Kingdom: A Traveller's Observations on Cotton and Slavery in the American Slave States, vol. 1, 2 (London: Sampson Low, Son & Co., 1862).
138. Fisher, Frederick Law Olmsted and the City Planning Movement in the United States, 101.
139. Politismenos is a contemporary Greek word not found in Attic (Classical) Greek. The basic meaning is cultured or civilized. Greek uses the term polis (city-state) as the root for words connoting cultured, in a similar manner that "urbane" (sophisticated; cosmopolitan) was derived in English from the Latin word for city (urbs).
140. Jeremy McInerney (Professor of Classical Studies, University of Pennsylvania), in communication with the author, October 2011.
141. Frederick Law Olmsted, "Public Parks and the Enlargement of Towns," 4.
142. See page 98 in note 96 above.
143. See also Morton White and Lucia White, The Intellectual Versus the City: From Thomas Jefferson to Frank Lloyd Wright, Publication of the Joint Center for Urban Studies (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1962).
144. Andrew Menard, "The Enlarged Freedom of Frederick Law Olmsted," The New England Quarterly 83 (2010): 508-38.
145. David Schuyler, The New Urban Landscape, 3.
146. Lee Hall, Olmsted's America, 242.
147. Frederick Law Olmsted, "The Yosemite Valley and the Mariposa Big Trees: A Preliminary Report (1865)," Landscape Architecture 43 (1952): 12-13.
148. Karen Williamson, Growing with Green Infrastructure (Doylestown, PA: Heritage Conservancy, 2003).
149. World Commission on Environment and Development, Our Common Future: From One Earth to One World (New York, NY: Oxford University Press, 1987), 8.
150. Frederick Law Olmsted, "Mr. Olmsted's Report (1868)," 12-13.
151. Frederick Law Olmsted, "Public Parks and the Enlargement of Towns," 25.
152. Neal R. Peirce and Curtis W. Johnson, Century of the City: No Time to Lose (New York: The Rockefeller Foundation, 2008).
153. Peter Newman, Timothy Beatley, and Heather Boyer, Resilient Cities: Responding to Peak Oil and Climate Change (Washington, DC: Island Press, 2009).
154. IPCC, Climate Change 2007: The Physical Science Basis: Contribution of Working Group I to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, ed. Henry LeRoy MIller, Jr. (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2007).
155. J. Peen et al., "The Current Status of Urban-rural Differences in Psychiatric Disorders," Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica 121, no. 2 (2010): 84-93.
156. Preben Bo Mortensen et al., "Effects of Family History and Place and Season of Birth on the Risk of Schizophrenia," New England Journal of Medicine 340, no. 8 (1999): 603-608.
157. Carsten Bøcker Pedersen and Preben Bo Mortensen, "Evidence of a Dose-response Relationship Between Urbanicity During Upbringing and Schizophrenia Risk," Archives of General Psychiatry 58, no. 11 (2001): 1039-46.
158. Jim van Os, Carsten B. Pedersen, and Preben B. Mortensen, "Confirmation of Synergy Between Urbanicity and Familial Liability in the Causation of Psychosis," American Journal of Psychiatry 161, no. 12 (2004): 2312-14.
159. Lydia Krabbendam and Jim van Os, "Schizophrenia and Urbanicity: A Major Environmental Influence-Conditional on Genetic Risk," Schizophrenia Bulletin 31, no. 4 (2005): 795-99.
160. Charles Waldheim, "Landscape as Urbanism," in The Landscape Urbanism Reader, ed. Charles Waldheim (New York: Princeton Architectural Press, 2006), 35-53.
161. Alexandra Dapolito Dunn and Nancy Stoner, "Green Light for Green Infrastructure," Environmental Forum 3 (2007): 32-35.
162. Mary Rickel Pelletier, "Green Infrastructure for Blue Urban Watersheds," in Green Community, ed. Susan Piedmont-Palladino and Timothy Mennel (Chicago, IL: American Planning Association, 2009), 96-103.
163. City of New York Department of Environmental Protection, NYC Green Infrastructure Plan: A Sustainable Strategy for Clean Waterways (New York: The City of New York, 2010), http://www.nyc.gov/html/dep/html/stormwater/nyc_green_infrastructure_plan.shtml.
164. City of Philadelphia, Green City, Clean Waters: The City of Philadelphia's Plan for Combined Sewer Overflow Control (Philadelphia, PA: Philadelphia Water Department, 2011).
165. Cynthia Rosenzweig, William D. Solecki, and Ronald B. Slosberg, "Mitigating New York City's Heat Island with Urban Forestry, Living Roofs, and Light Surfaces." New York City Regional Heat Island Initiative Final Report (Albany, NY: New York State Energy Research and Development Authority, 2006).
166. S. E. Gill et al., "Adapting Cities for Climate Change".
167. Eleftheria Alexandri and Phil Jones, "Temperature Decreases in an Urban Canyon Due to Green Walls and Green Roofs in Diverse Climates," Building and Environment 43, no. 4 (2008): 480-93.
168. (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency) EPA, "Urban Heat Island Mitigation", 2011, http://www.epa.gov/heatisland/mitigation/index.htm.
169. Joseph Schilling and Jonathan Logan, "Greening the Rust Belt."
170. Katherine Alaimo et al., "Fruit and Vegetable Intake among Urban Community Gardeners," Journal of Nutrition Education and Behavior 40, no. 2 (2008): 94-101.
171. Sin-Ae Park, Candice A. Shoemaker, and Mark D. Haub, "Physical and Psychological Health Conditions of Older Adults Classified as Gardeners or Nongardeners," HortScience 44, no. 1 (2009): 206-210.
172. Kimberly Hodgson, Marcia Caton Campbell, and Martin Bailkey, Urban Agriculture: Growing Healthy, Sustainable Places Planning Advisory Service (Chicago, IL: American Planning Association, 2011).
173. Jemma L Hawkins et al., "Allotment Gardening and Other Leisure Activities for Stress Reduction and Healthy Aging," HortTechnology 21, no. 5 (2011): 577-85.
174. Agnes E. van den Berg and Mariëtte H. G. Custers, "Gardening Promotes Neuroendocrine and Affective Restoration from Stress," Journal of Health Psychology 16, no. 1 (2011): 3-11.
175. Galen Cranz and Michael Boland, "Defining the Sustainable Park: A Fifth Model for Urban Parks," Landscape Journal 23, no. 2 (2004): 102-20.
176. Stephanie Pincetl and Elizabeth Gearin, "The Reinvention of Public Green Space," Urban Geography 26, no. 5 (2005): 365-84.
177. Alexander Garvin, Public Parks: The Key to Livable Communities (New York: W. W. Norton & Company, 2011), 46.
178. "Green infrastructure... may well become the next great frontier in planning and government services.
179. Cheryl Kollin and James C. Schwab, "Conclusions and Recommendations," in "Planning the Urban Forest: Ecology, Economy, and Community Development," Planning Advisory Series 555 (Chicago: American Planning Association, 2009), 118.
180. See page 39 in note 115 above, describing landscape urbanism as the use of infrastructural systems and the public landscapes they engender as "the very ordering mechanisms of the urban field itself.