A review of chamber experiments for determining specific emission rates and investigating migration pathways of flame retardants

Atmospheric Environment

Volumn 82, Issue , 2014, Pages 44-55

  Rauert, Cassandra ^a   Lazarov, Borislav ^b   Harrad, Stuart ^a   Covaci, Adrian ^c   Stranger, Marianne ^b  

^a UNIVERSITY OF BIRMINGHAM   (United Kingdom)

^b FLEMISH INSTITUTE FOR TECHNOLOGICAL RESEARCH VITO   (Belgium)

^c UNIVERSITY OF ANTWERP   (Belgium)

Author keywords

Emission chamber; Flame retardants; Mass transfer to dust; Specific emission rate

Indexed keywords

BROMINATED FLAME RETARDANTS; EMISSION RATES; HEXABROMOCYCLODODECANES; INDOOR MICROENVIRONMENTS; ORGANOPHOSPHATE FLAME RETARDANTS; PHYSICOCHEMICAL PROPERTY; POLYBROMINATED DIPHENYL ETHER (PBDES); STEADY-STATE CONDITION;

EXPERIMENTS; FLAME RETARDANTS; MASS TRANSFER; ORGANIC POLLUTANTS; PARTICULATE EMISSIONS;

DUST;

FLAME RETARDANT; GLASS; HEXABROMOCYCLODODECANE; ORGANIC CARBON; ORGANOPHOSPHATE; PHTHALIC ACID; POLYBROMINATED DIPHENYL ETHER; STAINLESS STEEL; TETRABROMOBISPHENOL A;

ATMOSPHERIC POLLUTION; CHEMICAL COMPOSITION; CRITICAL ANALYSIS; DUST; EMISSION INVENTORY; EXPERIMENTAL STUDY; INDOOR AIR; POLLUTANT TRANSPORT; POLLUTION EXPOSURE;

AIRBORNE PARTICLE; AIRFLOW; AMBIENT AIR; CONTAMINATION; DUST; HUMAN; HUMIDITY; MICROENVIRONMENT; PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY; PRIORITY JOURNAL; REVIEW; TEMPERATURE;

EID: 84886256319     PISSN: 13522310     EISSN: 18732844     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.atmosenv.2013.10.003     Document Type: Review

References (80)

1. Abdallah M.A.-E., Harrad S., Covaci A. Hexabromocyclododecanes and tetrabromobisphenol-A in indoor air and dust in Birmingham, UK: implications for Human Exposure. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2008, 42:6855-6861.
2. Ali N., Dirtu A.C., Eede N.V.d., Goosey E., Harrad S., Neels H., Mannetje A., Coakley J., Douwes J., Covaci A. Occurrence of alternative flame retardants in indoor dust from New Zealand: indoor sources and human exposure assessment. Chemosphere 2012, 88:1276-1282.
3. Allen J.G., McClean M.D., Stapleton H.M., Nelson J.W., Webster T.F. Personal exposure to Polybrominated Diphenyl Ethers (PBDEs) in residential indoor air. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2007, 41:4574-4579.
4. Allen J.G., McClean M.D., Stapleton H.M., Webster T.F. Linking PBDEs in house dust to consumer products using X-ray fluorescence. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2008, 42:4222-4228.
5. ASTM International Standard Practice for Full-Scale Chamber Determination of Volatile Organic Emissions from Indoor Materials/Products 2007, D6670. first ed.
6. ASTM International Standard Guide for Small-Scale Environmental Chamber Determinations of Organic Emissions from Indoor Materials/Products 2010, D5116. tenth ed.
7. Bakó-Biró Z., Wargocki P., Weschler C.J., Fanger P.O. Effects of pollution from personal computers on perceived air quality, SBS symptoms and productivity in offices. Indoor Air 2004, 14:178-187.
8. Batterman S.A., Chernyak S., Jia C., Godwin C., Charles S. Concentrations and emissions of polybrominated diphenyl ethers from U.S. Houses and Garages. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2009, 43:2693-2700.
9. Benning J.L., Liu Z., Tiwari A., Little J.C., Marr L.C. Characterizing gas-particle interactions of phthalate plasticizer emitted from vinyl flooring. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2013, 47:2696-2703.
10. Bergman A., Rydén A., Law R.J., de Boer J., Covaci A., Alaee M., Birnbaum L., Petreas M., Rose M., Sakai S., Van den Eede N., van der Veen I. Anovel abbreviation standard for organobromine, organochlorine and organophosphorus flame retardants and some characteristics of the chemicals. Environ. Int. 2012, 49:57-82.
11. Besis A., Samara C. Polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) in the indoor and outdoor environments: a review on occurrence and human exposure. Environ. Pollut. 2012, 169:217-229.
12. Boon J.P., Lewis W.E., Tjoen-A-Choy M.R., Allchin C.R., Law R.J., de Boer J., ten Hallers-Tjabbes C.C., Zegers B.N. Levels of polybrominated diphenyl ether (PBDE) flame retardants in animals representing different trophic levels of the North Sea Food Web. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2002, 36:4025-4032.
13. Brommer S., Harrad S., Van den Eede N., Covaci A. Concentrations of organophosphate esters and brominated flame retardants in German indoor dust samples. J.Environ. Monit. 2012, 14:2482-2487.
14. Butt C.M., Diamond M.L., Truong J., Ikonomou M.G., ter Schure A.F.H. Spatial distribution of polybrominated diphenyl ethers in Southern Ontario as measured in indoor and outdoor window organic films. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2004, 38:724-731.
15. Carlsson H., Nilsson U., Östman C. Video display units: an emission source of the contact allergenic flame retardant triphenyl phosphate in the indoor environment. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2000, 34:3885-3889.
16. Chen L., Mai B., Xu Z., Peng X., Han J., Ran Y., Sheng G., Fu J. In- and outdoor sources of polybrominated diphenyl ethers and their human inhalation exposure in Guangzhou, China. Atmos. Environ. 2008, 42:78-86.
17. Clausen P.A., Hansen V., Gunnarsen L., Afshari A., Wolkoff P. Emission of di-2-ethylhexyl phthalate from PVC flooring into air and uptake in dust: emission and sorption experiments in FLEC and CLIMPAQ. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2004, 38:2531-2537.
18. Clausen P.A., Kofoed-Sørensen V. Organic Indoor Air Pollutants 2009, 19-45. Wiley, Weinheim. second ed. T. Salthammer, E. Uhde (Eds.).
19. Clausen P.A., Liu Z., Kofoed-Sørensen V., Little J., Wolkoff P. Influence of temperature on the emission of di-(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate (DEHP) from PVC flooring in the emission cell FLEC. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2012, 46:909-915.
20. Clausen P.A., Liu Z., Xu Y., Kofoed-Sørensen V., Little J.C. Influence of air flow rate on emission of DEHP from vinyl flooring in the emission cell FLEC: measurements and CFD simulation. Atmos. Environ. 2010, 44:2760-2766.
21. Covaci A., Harrad S., Abdallah M.A.E., Ali N., Law R.J., Herzke D., de Wit C.A. Novel brominated flame retardants: a review of their analysis, environmental fate and behaviour. Environ. Int. 2011, 37:532-556.
22. D'Hollander W., Roosens L., Covaci A., Cornelis C., Reynders H., Campenhout K.V., Voogt P.d., Bervoets L. Brominated flame retardants and perfluorinated compounds in indoor dust from homes and offices in Flanders, Belgium. Chemosphere 2010, 81:478-487.
23. de Wit C.A., Björklund J.A., Thuresson K. Tri-decabrominated diphenyl ethers and hexabromocyclododecane in indoor air and dust from Stockholm microenvironments 2: indoor sources and human exposure. Environ. Int. 2012, 39:141-147.
24. Denier van der Gon H., van het Bolscher M., Visschedijk A., Zandveld P. Emissions of persistent organic pollutants and eight candidate POPs from UNECE-Europe in 2000, 2010 and 2020 and the emission reduction resulting from the implementation of the UNECE POP protocol. Atmos. Environ. 2007, 41:9245-9261.
25. Destaillats H., Maddalena R.L., Singer B.C., Hodgson A.T., McKone T.E. Indoor pollutants emitted by office equipment: a review of reported data and information needs. Atmos. Environ. 2008, 42:1371-1388.
26. Earnshaw M.R., Jones K.C., Sweetman A.J. Estimating European historical production, consumption and atmospheric emissions of decabromodiphenyl ether. Sci. Total Environ. 2013, 447:133-142.
27. European Union Risk Assessment Report: 2,2',6,6'-tetrabromo-4,4'-isopropylideneediphenol (Tetrabromobisphenol-A or TBBP-A) 2006, ECHA, European Chemicals Association, Available at:. http://echa.europa.eu/documents/10162/6434698/orats_final_rar_2_2_6_6-tetrabromo-4_4-isoprop_en.pdf.
28. Risk Assessment: Hexabromocyclododecane 2008, ECHA, European Chemicals Association, Available at:. http://echa.europa.eu/documents/10162/6434698/orats_final_rar_hexabromocyclododecane_en.pdf.
29. Member State Committee: Support document for identification of bis(pentabromophenyl) ether as a substance of very high concern because of its PBT/vPvB properties 2012, ECHA, European Chemicals Association, European Chemicals Agency. Adopted on 29 November 2012. Available at:. http://echa.europa.eu/documents/10162/1f83d2de-8eaf-405a-90a1-a9e2d0651459.
30. ECMA International. Standard ECMA-328. Determination of Chemical Emission Rates from Electronic Equipment 2010, ECMA.
31. EU European Commission Health & Consumers DG (2011): No B232 6/116. Identification and Evaluation of Data on Flame Retardants in Consumer Products 2011, Final Report 2/402. Contracted to ARCADIS Belgium, Contract Number 17.020200/09/549040.
32. Environment Canada Screening Assessment Report on Hexabromocyclododecane 2011.
33. Fulong C.R.P., Espino M.P.B. Decabromodiphenyl ether in indoor dust from different microenvironments in a university in the Philippines. Chemosphere 2013, 90:42-48.
34. Gevao B., Al-Bahloul M., Al-Ghadban A.N., Ali L., Al-Omair A., Helaleh M., Al-Matrouk K., Zafar J. Polybrominated diphenyl ethers in indoor air in Kuwait: implications for human exposure. Atmos Environ 2006, 40:1419-1426.
35. Harrad S., Abdallah M.A.-E., Covaci A. Causes of variability in concentrations and diastereomer patterns of hexabromocyclododecanes in indoor dust. Environ. Int. 2009, 35:573-579.
36. Harrad S., de Wit C.A., Abdallah M.A.-E., Bergh C., Björklund J.A., Covavi A., Darnerud P.O., de Boer J., Diamond M., Huber S., Leonards P., Mandalakis M., Östman C., Haug L.S., Thomsen C., Webster T.F. Indoor contamination with hexabromocyclododecanes, polybrominated diphenyl ethers, and perfluoroalkyl compounds: an important exposure pathway for people?. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2010, 44:3221-3231.
37. Harrad S., Goosey E., Desborough J., Abdallah M.A.-E., Roosens L., Covaci A. Dust from U.K. primary school classrooms and daycare centers: the significance of dust as a pathway of exposure of young U.K. children to brominated flame retardants and polychlorinated biphenyls. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2010, 44:4198-4202.
38. Harrad S., Ibarra C., Abdallah M.A.-E., Boon R., Neels H., Covaci A. Concentrations of brominated flame retardants in dust from United Kingdom cars, homes, and offices: causes of variability and implications for human exposure. Environ. Int. 2008, 34:1170-1175.
39. Harrad S., Ibarra C., Diamond M., Melymuk L., Robson M., Douwes J., Roosens L., Dirtu A.C., Covaci A. Polybrominated diphenyl ethers in domestic indoor dust from Canada, New Zealand, United Kingdom and United States. Environ. Int. 2008, 34:232-238.
40. Harrad S., Wijesekera R., Hunter S., Halliwell C., Baker R. Preliminary assessment of U.K. Human Dietary and inhalation exposure to polybrominated diphenyl ethers. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2004, 38:2345-2350.
41. Hazrati S., Harrad S. Causes of variability in concentrations of polychlorinated biphenyls and polybrominated diphenyl ethers in indoor air. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2006, 40:7584-7589.
42. Heeb N.V., Bernd Schweizer W., Mattrel P., Haag R., Gerecke A.C., Schmid P., Zennegg M., Vonmont H. Regio- and stereoselective isomerization of hexabromocyclododecanes (HBCDs): kinetics and mechanism of γ- to α-HBCD isomerization. Chemosphere 2008, 73:1201-1210.
43. Isetun S., Nilsson U., Colmsjö A., Johansson R. Air sampling of organophosphate triesters using SPME under non-equilibrium conditions. Anal. Bioanal. Chem. 2004, 378:1847-1853.
44. EN ISO 16000-9:2006 Indoor Air - Part 9: Determination of the Emission of Volatile Organic Compounds from Building Products and Furnishing - Emission Test Chamber Method 2006, ISO.
45. ISO 16000-25:2011: Indoor Air - Part 25: Determination of the Emission of Semi-volatile Organic Compounds by Building Products - Micro-chamber Method 2011, ISO.
46. Kang Y., Wang H.S., Cheung K.C., Wong M.H. Polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) in indoor dust and human hair. Atmos. Environ. 2011, 45:2386-2393.
47. Katsumata H., Murakami S., Kato S., Hoshino K., Ataka Y. Measurement of semi-volatile organic compounds emitted from various types of indoor materials by thermal desorption test chamber method. Build. Environ. 2008, 43:378-383.
48. Kefeni K.K., Okonkwo J.O. Analysis of major congeners of polybromobiphenyls and polybromodiphenyl ethers in office dust using high resolution gas chromatography, mass spectrometry. Chemosphere 2012, 87:1070-1075.
49. Kemmlein S., Hahn O., Jann O. Emissions of organophosphate and brominated flame retardants from selected consumer products and building materials. Atmos. Environ. 2003, 37:5485-5493.
50. Lazarov B., Swinnen R., Spruyt M., Goelen E., Stranger M., Desmet G., Wauters E. Optimisation steps of an innovative air sampling method for semi volatile organic compounds. Atmos. Environ. 2013, 79:780-786.
51. Mandalakis M., Atsarou V., Stephanou E.G. Airborne PBDEs in specialized occupational settings, houses and outdoor urban areas in Greece. Environ. Pollut. 2008, 155:375-382.
52. Moeckel C., Gasic B., MacLeod M., Scheringer M., Jones K.C., Hungerbühler K. Estimation of the source strength of polybrominated diphenyl ethers based on their diel variability in air in Zurich, Switzerland. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2010, 44:4225-4231.
53. Muenhor D., Harrad S. Within-room and within-building temporal and spatial variations in concentrations of polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) in indoor dust. Environ. Int. 2012, 47:23-27.
54. Ni Y., Kumagai K., Yanagisawa Y. Measuring emissions of organophosphate flame retardants using a passive flux sampler. Atmos. Environ. 2007, 41:3235-3240.
55. Palm A. The Environmental Fate of Polybrominated Diphenyl Ethers in the Centre of Stockholm-assessment Using a Multi-media Fugacity Model 2001, IVL Rapport/Report B 1400, IVL Swedish Environmental Research Institute Ltd.
56. Palm Cousins A. The effect of the indoor environment on the fate of organic chemicals in the urban landscape. Sci. Total Environ. 2012, 438:233-241.
57. Prevedouros K., Jones K.C., Sweetman A.J. Estimation of the production, consumption, and atmospheric emissions of pentabrominated diphenyl ether in Europe between 1970 and 2000. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2004, 38:3224-3231.
58. Salthammer T., Fuhrmann F., Uhde E. Flame retardants in the indoor environment - part II: release of VOCs (triethylphosphate and halogenated degradation products) from polyurethane. Indoor Air 2003, 13:49-52.
59. Schripp T., Fauck C., Salthammer T. Chamber studies on mass-transfer of di(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate (DEHP) and di-n-butylphthalate (DnBP) from emission sources into house dust. Atmos. Environ. 2010, 44:2840-2845.
60. Sparks L.E., Tichenor B.A., Chang J., Guo Z. Gas-phase mass transfer model for predicting volatile organic compound (VOC) emission rates from indoor pollutant sources. Indoor Air 1996, 6:31-40.
61. Stranger M., Maes F., Goelen E., Nørgaard A.W., Wolkoff P., Ventura G., Fernandes E.d.O., Tolis E., Efthimiou G., Kalimeri K., Bartzis J., Letzel T. Quantification of the Product Emissions by Laboratory Testing WP6. Part II Results of Product Testing Experiments 2013.
62. Tan J., Cheng S.M., Loganath A., Chong Y.S., Obbard J.P. Polybrominated diphenyl ethers in house dust in Singapore. Chemosphere 2007, 66:985-992.
63. Thuresson K., Björklund J.A., de Wit C.A. Tri-decabrominated diphenyl ethers and hexabromocyclododecane in indoor air and dust from Stockholm microenvironments 1: levels and profiles. Sci. Total Environ. 2012, 414:713-721.
64. Uhde E., Bednarek M., Fuhrmann F., Salthammer T. Phthalic esters in the indoor environment - test chamber studies on PVC-coated Wallcoverings. Indoor Air 2001, 11:150-155.
65. Uhde E., Salthammer T. Influence of molecular parameters on the sink effect in test chambers. Indoor Air 2006, 16:158-165.
66. UNEP Stockholm Convention on POPs. Governments Unite to Step-up Reduction on Global DDT Reliance and Add Nine New Chemicals under International Treaty 2009, Available Online at:. http://chm.pops.int/Convention/Pressrelease/COP4Geneva8May2009/tabid/542/language/en-US/Default.aspx.
67. UNEP Stockholm Convention on POPs. Three Other Chemicals Proposed for Listing in the Stockholm Convention on POPs 2012, Available Online at:. http://chm.pops.int/Convention/Media/PressReleases/HBCDcontrolunderglobalchemicalstreaty/tabid/2895/Default.aspx.
68. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). An Exposure Assessment of Polybrominated Diphenyl Ethers 2010, USEPA, National Center for Environmental Assessment, Washington, DC, EPA/600/R-08/086F. Available from the National Technical Information Service, Springfield, VA, and Online at:. http://www.epa.gov/ncea.
69. Hexabromocyclododecane (HBCD) Action Plan Summary 2010, USEPA, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), Available online at:. http://www.epa.gov/oppt/existingchemicals/pubs/actionplans/hbcd.html.
70. Van den Eede N., Dirtu A.C., Neels H., Covaci A. Analytical developments and preliminary assessment of human exposure to organophosphate flame retardants from indoor dust. Environ. Int. 2011, 37:454-461.
71. Van der Veen I., de Boer J. Phosphorus flame retardants: properties, production, environmental occurrence, toxicity and analysis. Chemosphere 2012, 88:1119-1153.
72. Watkins D.J., McClean M.D., Fraser A.J., Weinberg J., Stapleton H.M., Sjödin A., Webster T.F. Impact of dust from multiple microenvironments and diet on PentaBDE body burden. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2011, 46:1192-1200.
73. Webster T.F., Harrad S., Millette J.R., Holbrook R.D., Davis J.M., Stapleton H.M., Allen J.G., McClean M.D., Ibarra C., Abdallah M.A.-E., Covaci A. Identifying transfer mechanisms and sources of decabromodiphenl ether (BDE 209) in indoor environments using environmental forensic microscopy. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2009, 43:3067-3072.
74. Webster T.F., Watkins D.J., Walker C., Fraser A.J., Heiger-Bernays W., Stapleton H.M., McClean M.D. PentaBDE alternatives in homes, offices and cars. BFR2010 Workshop, Kyoto, Japan, 7-9 April 2010.
75. Weil E.D., Levchik S.V. Flame retardants for polystyrenes in commercial use or development. J.Fire Sci. 2007, 25:241-265.
76. 3 emission test chamber. Proceedings of Electronics Goes Green, Berlin 2004, 759-764.
77. Weschler C.J., Nazaroff W.W. Semivolatile organic compounds in indoor environments. Atmos. Environ. 2008, 42:9018-9040.
78. Wu N., Herrmann T., Paepke O., Tickner J., Hale R., Harvey E., La Guardia M., McClean M.D., Webster T.F. Human exposure to PBDEs: associations of PBDE body burdens with food consumption and house dust concentrations. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2007, 41:1584-1589.
79. Xu Y., Liu Z., Park J., Clausen P.A., Benning J.L., Little J.C. Measuring and predicting the emission rate of phthalate plasticizer from vinyl flooring in a specially-designed chamber. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2012, 46:12534-12541.
80. Zhang X., Diamond M.L., Ibarra C., Harrad S. Multimedia modeling of polybrominated diphenyl ether emissions and fate indoors. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2009, 43:2845-2850.