Not business as usual: The psychological impact of terrorism and mass casualty on business and organizational behavior

International Terrorism and Threats to Security: Managerial and Organizational Challenges

Volumn , Issue , 2008, Pages 81-104

  Walter, Kristen H ^a   Hall, Brian J ^a   Hobfoll, Stevan E ^a  

^a KENT STATE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 84886115714     PISSN: None     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book    
DOI: 10.4337/9781848443815.00012     Document Type: Chapter

References (74)

1. American Psychiatric Association (1994), Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 4th edn,Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association.
2. Antonovsky, A. (1979), Health Stress and Coping: New Perspectives on Mental and Physical Well-being, San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
3. Bandura, A. (1977), 'Self-efficacy: toward a unifying theory of behavioral change', Psychological Review, 84, 191-215.
4. Bandura, A. (1997), Self-efficacy: The Exercise of Control, New York: Freeman.
5. Basoglu, M., Salcioglu, E., Livanou, M., Kalender, D. and Acar, G. (2005), 'Singlesession behavioral treatment of earthquake-related posttraumatic stress disorder: a randomized waiting list controlled trial', Journal of Traumatic Stress, 18(1), 1-11.
6. Baum, A., Cohen, L. and Hall, M. (1993), 'Control and intrusive memories as possible determinants of chronic stress', Psychosomatic Medicine, 55(3), 274-86.
7. Becker, E. (1973), The Denial of Death, New York: Simon and Schuster.
8. Benight, C.C. and Bandura, A. (2004), 'Social cognitive theory of posttraumatic recovery: the role of perceived self-efficacy', Behaviour Research and Therapy, 42, 1129-48.
9. Benight, C.C., Freyaldenhoven, R.W., Hughes, J., Ruiz, J.M., Zoschke, T.A. and Lovallo, W.R. (2000), 'Coping self-efficacy and psychological distress following the Oklahoma City bombing', Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 30(7), 1331-44.
10. Benight, C.C., Swift, E., Sanger, J., Smith, A. and Zeppelin,D. (1999), 'Coping selfefficacy as a mediator of distress following a natural disaster', Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 29(12), 2443-64.
11. Bisson, J.I., McFarlane, A.C. and Rose S. (2000), 'Psychological debriefing', in E.B. Foa, T.M. Keane and M.J. Friedman (eds), Effective Treatments for PTSD: Practice Guidelines from the International Society for Traumatic Stress Studies, New York: Guilford, pp. 39-59.
12. Bonanno, G.A. (2004), 'Loss, trauma, and human resilience: have we underestimated the human capacity to thrive after extremely aversive events?', American Psychologist, 59, 20-28.
13. Briere, J. and Elliott, D. (2000), 'Prevalence, characteristics and long-term sequelae of natural disaster exposure in the general population', Journal of Traumatic Stress, 13(4), 661-79.
14. Bryant, R.A., Harvey, A.G., Guthrie, R.M. and Moulds, M.L. (2003), 'Acute psychophysiological arousal and posttraumatic stress disorder: a two-year prospective study', Journal of Traumatic Stress, 16(5), 439-43.
15. Carver, C.S. and Scheier, M.F. (1987), 'Dispositional optimism and physical wellbeing: the influence of generalized outcome expectancies on health', Journal of Personality, 55(2), 169-210.
16. Carver, C.S. and Scheier, M.F. (1998), On the Self-regulation of Behavior, Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press.
17. Code of Federal Regulations (2007), http://frwebgate.access.gpo.gov/cgibin/getcfr.cgi?TITLE=28&PART=0&SECTION=85&TYPE=TEXT, retrieved April 9.
18. Davidson, R.J., Kabat-Zinn, J., Schumacher, J., Rosenkranz, M., Muller, D., Santorelli, S.F. et al. (2003), 'Alterations in brain and immune function produced by mindfulness meditation', Psychosomatic Medicine, 65(4), 564-70.
19. Ennis, N.E., Hobfoll, S.E. and Schroder, K.E.E. (2000), 'Money doesn't talk, it swears: how economic stress and resistance resources impact inner-city women's depressive mood', American Journal of Community Psychology, 28(2), 149-73.
20. Fredrickson, B.L. (2001), 'The role of positive emotions in positive psychology: the broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions', American Psychologist, 56(3), 218-26.
21. Fredrickson, B.L., Tugade, M.M., Waugh, C.E. and Larkin, G.R. (2003), 'What good are positive emotions in crisis? A prospective study of resilience and emotions following the terrorist attacks on the United States on September 11th, 2001', Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 84(2), 365-76.
22. Freedy, J.R. and Hobfoll, S.E. (1994), 'Stress inoculation for reduction of burnout: a conservation of resources approach', Anxiety, Stress, and Coping, 6(4), 311-25.
23. Friedland, N. and Merari, A. (1985), 'The psychological impact of terrorism: A double-edged sword', Political Psychology, 6(4), 591-604.
24. Galea, S., Ahern, J., Resnick, H., Kilpatrick, D., Bucuvalas, M., Gold, J., et al. (2002), 'Psychological sequelae of the September 11 terrorist attacks in New York City', New England Journal of Medicine, 346(13), 982-7.
25. Greenberg, J., Pyszczynski, T. and Solomon, S. (1986), 'The causes and consequences of a need for self-esteem: a terror management theory', in R.F. Baumeister (ed.), Public and Private Self, New York: Springer-Verlag, pp. 189-212.
26. Grieger, T.A., Fullerton, C.S. and Ursano, R.J. (2003), 'Posttraumatic stress disorder, alcohol use, and perceived safety after the terrorist attack on the Pentagon', Psychiatric Services, 54, 1380-82.
27. Hall, B.J., Hobfoll, S.E., Canetti-Nisim, D., Johnson, R. and Galea, S. (2007), 'Posttraumatic growth following terrorism from a terror management perspective', manuscript submitted for publication.
28. Hall, B.J., Hobfoll, S.E., Palmieri, P., Canetti-Nisim, D., Shapira, O., Johnson, R.J. and Galea, S. (2008), 'The psychological impact of forced settler disengagement in Gaza: trauma and posttraumatic growth', Journal of Traumatic Stress, 21, 22-9.
29. Halloran, M.J. and Kashima, E.S. (2004), 'Social identity and worldview validation: the effects of in-group identity primes and mortality salience on value endorsement', Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 30(7), 915-25.
30. Harvey, A.G. and Bryant, R.A. (1998), 'Predictors of acute stress following mild traumatic brain injury', Brain Injury, 12(2), 147-54.
31. Hobfoll, S.E. (1988), The Ecology of Stress, New York: Hemisphere.
32. Hobfoll, S.E. (1989), 'Conservation of resources: a new attempt at conceptualizing stress', American Psychologist, 44, 513-24.
33. Hobfoll, S.E. (1991), 'Traumatic stress: a theory based on rapid loss of resources', Anxiety Research, 4, 187-97.
34. Hobfoll, S.E. (1998), Stress, Culture, and Community: The Psychology and Philosophy of Stress, New York: Plenum.
35. Hobfoll, S.E., Canetti-Nisim, D. and Johnson, R. (2006), 'Exposure to terrorism, stress-related mental health symptoms, and defensive coping among Jews and Arabs in Israel', Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 74(2), 207-18.
36. Hobfoll, S.E., Freedy, J., Lane, C. and Geller, P. (1990), 'Conservation of social resources: social support resource theory', Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 7, 465-78.
37. Hobfoll, S.E. and Lilly, R.S. (1993), 'Resource conservation as a strategy for community psychology', Journal of Community Psychology, 21, 128-48.
38. Hobfoll, S.E. and London, P. (1986), 'The relationship of self-concept and social support to emotional distress among women during war', Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 4, 189-203.
39. Hobfoll, S.E., Watson, P., Bell, C.C., Bryant, R.A., Brymer, M.J., Friedman, M.J. et al. (2007), 'Five essential elements of immediate and mid-term mass trauma intervention: empirical evidence', Journal of Psychiatry: Interpersonal and Biological Processes, 70, 283-315.
40. Holahan, C.J., Moos, R.H., Holahan, C.K. and Cronkite, R.C. (1999), 'Resource loss, resource gain, and depressive symptoms: a 10-year model', Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 77(3), 620-29.
41. Holman, E.A. and Silver, R.C. (2005), 'Future-oriented thinking and adjustment in a nationwide longitudinal study following the September 11th terrorist attacks', Motivation and Emotion, 29(4), 389-410.
42. Jacoby, J. (2001), 'Speaking out against terror', The Boston Globe, September 23, p. D7.
43. Janoff-Bulman, R. (1992), Shattered Assumptions: Towards a New Psychology of Trauma, New York: Free Press.
44. Kabat-Zinn, J., Massion, A.O., Kristeller, J., Peterson, L.G., Fletcher, K., Pbert, L. et al. (1992), 'Effectiveness of a meditation-based stress reduction program in the treatment of anxiety disorders', American Journal of Psychiatry, 149, 936-43.
45. King, D.W., King, L.A., Foy, D.W., Keane, T.M. and Fairbank, J.A. (1999), 'Posttraumatic stress disorder in a national sample of female and male Vietnam veterans: risk factors, war-zone stressors, and resilience-recovery variables', Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 108, 164-70.
46. Lazarus, R.S. and Folkman, S. (1984), Stress, Appraisal, and Coping, New York: Springer.
47. McGregor, H.A., Lieberman, J.D., Greenberg, J., Solomon, S., Arndt, J., Simon, L. et al. (1998), 'Terror management and aggression: evidence that mortality salience motivates aggression against worldview-threatening others', Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 74(3), 590-605.
48. McNally, R.J., Bryant, R.A. and Ehlers, A. (2003), 'Does early psychological intervention promote recovery from posttraumatic stress?', Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 4(2), 45-79.
49. Mitchell, J.T. (1983), 'When disaster strikes: the critical incident stress debriefing', Journal of Medical Emergency Services, 8, 36-9.
50. Neria, Y., Gross, R., Olfson, M., Gameroff, M.J.,Wickramaratne, P., Das, A. et al. (2006), 'Posttraumatic stress disorder in primary care one year after the 9/11 attacks', General Hospital Psychiatry, 28(3), 213-22.
51. Neria, Y. and Solomon, Z. (1999), 'Prevention of posttraumatic reactions: debriefing and frontline treatment', in P.A. Saigh and J.D. Bremner (eds), Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: A Comprehensive Test, Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon, pp. 309-26.
52. Norris, F.H., Friedman, M.J.,Watson, P.J., Byrne, C.M., Diaz, E. and Kaniasty, K. (2002), '60,000 disaster victims speak: Part I. An empirical review of the empirical literature, 1981-2001', Psychiatry: Interpersonal and Biological Processes, 65(3), 207-39.
53. Norris, F. and Kaniasty, K. (1996), 'Received and perceived social support in times of stress: a test of the social support deterioration deterrence model', Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 71, 498-511.
54. Ozer, E.J., Best, S.R., Lipsey, T.L. and Weiss, D.S. (2003), 'Predictors of posttraumatic stress disorder and symptoms in adults: a meta-analysis', Psychological Bulletin, 129(1), 52-73.
55. Pyszczynski, T., Solomon, S. and Greenberg, J. (2003), In the Wake of 9/11: The Psychology of Terror, Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
56. Raphael, B. (1986), When Disaster Strikes: How Individuals and Communities Cope with Catastrophe, New York: Basic Books.
57. Rappaport, J. (1981), 'In praise of paradox: a social policy of empowerment over prevention', American Journal of Community Psychology, 9(1), 1-25.
58. Resick, P.A. , Nishith, P.,Weaver, T.L., Astin, M.C. and Feuer, C.A. (2002), 'A comparison of cognitive-processing therapy with prolonged exposure and a waiting condition for the treatment of chronic posttraumatic stress disorder in female rape victims', Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 70(4), 867-79.
59. Rosenblatt, A., Greenberg, J., Solomon, S., Pyszczynski, T. and Lyon, D. (1989), 'Evidence for terror management theory: the effects of mortality salience on reactions to those who violate or uphold cultural values', Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 57(4), 681-90.
60. Ruzek, J.I. (2006), 'Models of early intervention following mass violence and other trauma', in E.C. Ritchie, P.J. Watson and M.J. Friedman (eds), Interventions Following Mass Violence and Disasters, New York: Guilford, pp. 16-34.
61. Santorelli, S.F. (1996), 'Mindfulness and mastery in the workplace: 21 ways to reduce stress during the workday', in A. Kotler (ed.), Engaged Buddhist Reader, Berkeley, CA: Parallax, pp. 40-45.
62. Schlenger, W.E., Caddell, J.M., Ebert, L., Jordan, B.K., Rourke, K.M., Wilson, D. et al. (2002), 'Psychological reactions to terrorist attacks: findings from the national study of Americans' reactions to September 11', Journal of the American Medical Association, 288(5), 581-8.
63. Schuster, M.A., Stein, B.D., Jaycox, L.H., Collins, R.L., Marshall, G.N., Elliott, M.N. et al. (2001), 'A national survey of stress reactions after the September 11, 2001, terrorist attacks', New England Journal of Medicine, 345(20), 1507-12.
64. Shalev, A.Y. and Freedman, S. (2005), 'PTSD following terrorist attacks: a prospective evaluation', American Journal of Psychiatry, 162(6), 1188-91.
65. Silver, R.C., Holman, E.A., McIntosh, D.N., Poulin, M. and Gil-Rivas, V. (2002), 'Nationwide longitudinal study of psychological responses to September 11', Journal of the American Medical Association, 288(10), 1235-44.
66. Simon, L., Arndt, J., Greenberg, J., Pyszczynski, T. and Solomon, S. (1998), 'Terror management and meaning: evidence that the opportunity to defend the worldview in response to mortality salience increases the meaningfulness of life in the mildly depressed', Journal of Personality, 66(3), 359-82.
67. Skinner, B.F. (1996), 'The ethics of helping people', in M.A. Mattaini and B.A. Thyer (eds), Finding Solutions to Social Problems: Behavioral Strategies for Change, Washington, DC: American Psychological Association, pp. 61-72 (originally published 1975).
68. Solomon, S.,Greenberg, J. and Pyszczynski, T. (2004), 'The cultural animal: twenty years of terror management theory and research', in J. Greenberg, S. Koole and T. Pyszczynski (eds), The Handbook of Experimental Existential Psychology, New York: Guilford, pp. 13-34.
69. Ursano, R.J., McCaughey, B.G. and Fullerton, C.S. (1994), Individual and Community Responses to Trauma and Disaster, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
70. van der Kolk, B.A. and McFarlane, A.C. (1996), 'The black hole of trauma', in van der Kolk and McFarlane (eds), Traumatic Stress: The Effects of Overwhelming Experience on Mind, Body, and Society, New York: Guilford, pp. 3-23.
71. Vaux, A. (1998), Social Support: Theory, Research, and Intervention, New York: Praeger.
72. Wells, J.D., Hobfoll, S.E. and Lavin, J. (1997), 'Resource loss, resource gain, and communal coping during pregnancy among women with multiple roles', Psychology of Women Quarterly, 21(4), 645-62.
73. Wells, J.D., Hobfoll, S.E. and Lavin, J. (1999), 'When it rains it pours: the greater impact of resource loss compared to gain on psychological distress', Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 25, 1172-82.
74. Yalom, I.D. (1980), Existential Psychotherapy, New York: Basic Books.