The shifting grounds of race: Black and Japanese Americans in the making of multiethnic Los Angeles

The Shifting Grounds of Race: Black and Japanese Americans in the Making of Multiethnic Los Angeles

Volumn , Issue , 2010, Pages

  Kurashige, Scott ^a  

^a NONE

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References (414)

1. For an analysis of "triangulation" in the "Black-Korean conflict," see Claire Jean Kim, Bitter Fruit: The Politics of Black-Korean Conflict in New York City (New Haven, 2000).
2. Gunnar Myrdal, An American Dilemma: The Negro Problem and Modern Democracy (New York, 1944), 69-71; Report of the National Advisory Commission on Civil Disorders (New York, 1968), 1.
3. Sugrue, Origins of the Urban Crisis, 13.
4. Huntington quoted in Carey McWilliams, Southern California: An Island on the Land (Salt Lake City, 1973), 133-134; Bradley quoted in Steven P. Erie, Globalizing L.A.: Trade, Infrastructure, and Regional Development (Stanford, 2004), 91-92.
5. Mike Davis, City of Quartz: Excavating the Future in Los Angeles (New York, 1992).
6. Douglas S. Massey and Nancy A. Denton, American Apartheid: Segregation and the Making of the Underclass (Cambridge, MA, 1993), 74-78.
7. See Christina Klein, Cold War Orientalism: Asia in the Middlebrow Imagination (Berkeley, 2003).
8. On the Eastside, see Richard Griswold del Castillo, The Los Angeles Barrio, 1850-1890: A Social History (Berkeley, 1979);
9. Ricardo Romo, East Los Angeles: History of a Barrio (Austin, 1983);
10. George J. Sánchez, Becoming Mexican American: Ethnicity, Culture and Identity in Chicano Los Angeles, 1900-1945 (New York, 1993);
11. Douglas Monroy, Rebirth: Mexican Los Angeles From the Great Migration to the Great Depression (Berkeley, 1999);
12. Edward J. Escobar, Race, Police and the Making of a Political Identity: Mexican Americans and the Los Angeles Police Department, 1900-1945 (Berkeley, 1999);
13. Douglas Flamming, Bound for Freedom: Black Los Angeles in Jim Crow America (Berkeley, 2005);
14. Mark Wild, Street Meeting: Multiethnic Neighborhoods in Early Twentieth-Century Los Angeles (Berkeley, 2005).
15. LAT, 4 August 1909, 1 and 15 December 1912, 1 January 1913; Natalia Molina, Fit To Be Citizens? Public Health and Race in Los Angeles, 1879-1939 (Berkeley, 2006), 19.
16. Quoted in Clark Davis, Company Men: White-Collar Life and Corporate Cultures in Los Angeles, 1892-1941 (Baltimore, 2000), 73-74. On the rise of Los Angeles as a metropolis
17. see Robert M. Fogeleson, The Fragmented Metropolis: Los Angeles, 1850-1930 (Berkeley, 1993);
18. Frank L. Kidner and Philip Neff, An Economic Survey of the Los Angeles Area (Los Angeles, 1945);
19. Jacqueline Rorabeck Kasun, Some Social Aspects of Business Cycles in the Los Angeles Area 1920-1950 (Los Angeles, 1954);
20. R. M. Widney, "An Account of the Great Chinese Riot and Massacre in Los Angeles," November 1917, handwritten and typed manuscripts, box 1, Widney Family Papers, The Huntington Library, San Marino, CA; Remi Nadeau, City-Makers: The Story of Southern California's First Boom, 1868-76 (Costa Mesa, CA, 1965), 63-68.
21. Joseph P. Widney, Race Life of the Aryan Peoples, vol. 2 (New York, 1907), 65-66, 126-134, 169-75, 180-201, 306-11. On post-1848 California
22. see Carey McWilliams, North From Mexico: The Spanish Speaking People of the United States (New York, 1990);
23. Leonard Pitt, The Decline of the Californios: A Social History of Spanish-Speaking Californians (Berkeley, 1971);
24. Griswold del Castillo, Los Angeles Barrio; Monroy, Thrown Among Strangers;
25. Tomás Almaguer, Racial Fault Lines: The Historical Origins of White Supremacy in California (Berkeley, 1994);
26. Kevin Starr, Inventing the Dream: Southern California Through the Progressive Era (New York, 1985).
27. Erie, Globalizing L.A., 47-63; Fogeleson, Fragmented Metropolis, 21-134.
28. Grace Heilman Stimson, Rise of the Labor Movement in Los Angeles (Berkeley, 1955), 104, 366-408;
29. Robert Gottlieb and Irene Wolt, Thinking Big: The Story of the Los Angeles Times, Its Publishers, and Their Influence on Southern California (New York, 1977), 35-52;
30. Edgar Lloyd Hampton, How the Open Shop Promotes General Prosperity in Los Angeles, 4, 19, folder " 'Labor-Los Angeles,' 2-24," box 91, JRH.
31. David Clark, Los Angeles: A City Apart (Woodland Hills, CA, 1981), 20;
32. William Mason and James Anderson, America's Black Heritage (Los Angeles, 298 • Notes to Chapter 1 1969), 44;
33. Stimson, Labor Movement in Los Angeles, 267-337;
34. Kashu Mainichi, 11 April 1937. According to Stimson, during 1910 and 1911, a brief effort was made to draw Mexicans, African Americans, and European immigrants into the AFL. The local AFL leaders maintained an exclusionary posture toward Asians.
35. W.E.B. DuBois, "Colored Californians," The Crisis 6 (August 1913): 194; "School Board Not Bothered by Japanese, Sees No Necessity for Segregation," Los Angeles Herald, 3 February 1907, folder 24, "Japanese," box 87, JRH;
36. Chotoku Toyama, "The Japanese Community in Los Angeles" (MA thesis, Columbia University, 1926), 8.
37. Delilah L. Beasley, The Negro Trail Blazers of California (New York, 1997), 254;
38. J. Alexander Somerville, Man of Color (Los Angeles, 1949), 74;
39. Du Bois, "Colored Californians," 192-195;
40. Lonnie Bunch III, Black Angelenos: The Afro-American in Los Angeles, 1850-1950 (Los Angeles, 1988), 18-21;
41. Mason and Anderson, America's Black Heritage, 45;
42. Rydall quoted in Quintard Taylor, In Search of the Racial Frontier: African Americans in the American West, 1528-1990 (New York, 1998), 207.
43. William M. Mason and John A. McKinstry, The Japanese of Los Angeles (Los Angeles, 1969), 5-17;
44. Koyoshi Uono, "The Factors Affecting the Geographical Aggregation and Dispersion of the Japanese Residences in the City of Los Angeles" (MA thesis, University of Southern California, 1927), 18-19. On Japanese immigrant history
45. see Yuji Ichioka, The Issei: The World of the First Generation Japanese Immigrants (New York, 1988);
46. Eiichiro Azuma, Between Two Empires: Race, History, and Transnationalism in Japanese America (New York, 2005).
47. LAT, 31 October 1901, 28 January 1906, 12 February 1909.
48. Charles S. Johnson, Industrial Survey of the Negro Population of Los Angeles, California (The Department of Research and Investigations of the National Urban League, 1926), 10;
49. Arna Bontemps and Jack Conroy, Anyplace But Here (New York, 1966), 266-267;
50. Flamming, Bound for Freedom, 133;
51. Ichioka, The Issei, 191-192.
52. Nadeau, Los Angeles, 211; Bunch, Black Angelenos, 26; LAT, 9 February 1915; CE, 6 February 1915.
53. Richard Schickel, D. W. Griffith: An American Life (New York, 1984), 225-230, 281;
54. Michael Rogin, " 'The Sword Became a Flashing Vision': D. W. Griffith's The Birth of a Nation," Representations 9 (Winter 1985): 150, 176; Starr, Inventing the Dream, 303.
55. Robert G. Lee, Orientals: Asian Americans in Popular Culture (Philadelphia, 1999), 117-126; Los Angeles Examiner, 18 May 1923;
56. Emory S. Bogardus, The New Social Research (Los Angeles, 1926), 259; RS, 22 May 1923.
57. Mayor John Porter's 1929 election was sponsored by fundamentalist Rev. Robert Schuler, an overtly racist, anti-Semitic, and anti-Catholic Klan apologist. See Tom Sitton, John Randolph Haynes: California Progressive (Stanford, 1992), 219-220.
58. LAT, 28 June 1906, 1 July, 2 and 6 November, 1 December 1920, 24 June 1923.
59. Erie, Globalizing L.A., 50; Jackson, Crabgrass Frontier, 179, 288; W. W. Robinson, "The Southern California Real Estate Boom of the Twenties," Southern California Quarterly (March 1942): 25-30;
60. Allan H. Spear, Black Chicago: The Making of a Negro Ghetto, 1890-1920 (Chicago, 1967), 11-27;
61. Scott Bottles, Los Angeles and the Automobile: The Making of the Modern City (Berkeley, 1987), 187-190;
62. James R. Grossman, Land of Hope: Chicago, Black Southerners, and the Great Migration (Chicago, 1989), 161-180; LAT, 26 May, 2 June, 15 October 1925 (emphases in originals).
63. McWilliams, Southern California, 136-137, 161-164; Fogelson, Fragmented Metropolis, 67-72, 142-45, 191-98; Sánchez, Becoming Mexican American, 87-96; LAT, 12 February, 21 April 1913, 24 March, 15 September 1919, 5 March 1940.
64. Los Angeles Examiner, 11 March 1923;
65. Mark Weiss, The Rise of the Community Builders: The American Real Estate Industry and Urban Land Planning (New York, 1987), 10, 80-99;
66. Fogelson, Fragmented Metropolis, 247-272;
67. Mark Foster, "The Decentralization of Los Angeles During the 1920s" (PhD diss., University of Southern California, 1971), 216-251;
68. Loren Miller, Petitioners: The Story of the Supreme Court of the United States and the Negro (Cleveland, 1967), 244-252;
69. Clement E. Vose, Caucasians Only: The Supreme Court, the NAACP, and the Restrictive Covenant Cases (Berkeley, 1959), 3-6. My understanding of "northern" racism has been shaped by Joel Kovel, White Racism: A Psychohistory (New York, 1970).
70. LAT, 1 April 1906; "invisible walls of steel" quoted in Taylor, In Search of the Racial Frontier, 235; Robert E. Park, "Behind our Masks," Survey Graphic 9: 2 (May 1926): 135. After the Great Migration, extensive campaigns emerged in Chicago to keep Blacks hemmed into their corner of the South Side, and fierce struggles ensued as white property owners sought to bind entire neighborhoods to contractual obligations prohibiting nonwhite residency.
71. See Michael Jones-Correa, "The Origins and Diffusion of Racial Restrictive Covenants," Political Science Quarterly 115: 4 (Winter 2000/2001): 543-561.
72. Title Guarantee & Trust Co. v. Garrott, 42 Cal. App. 152 (1919); LAT, 20 April, 30 May 1916; Flamming, Bound for Freedom, 153-155. Flamming incorrectly states that the Garrott case was decided by the California Supreme Court, which in fact denied hearing the plaintiff's appeal on 8 September 1919.
73. Los Angeles Investment Company v. Gary, 181 Cal. 680 (1919); Miller, Petitioners, 323.
74. Janss Investment Company v. Walden, 196 Cal. 753 (1925); Miller, Petitioners, 251-255; Vose, Caucasians Only, 17-19.
75. LAT, 8 January 1928; Foster, "Decentralization of Los Angeles," 91-99, 197-203, 248-51;
76. J. Max Bond, "The Negro in Los Angeles" (PhD diss., University of Southern California, 1936), 47; US Bureau of the Census, 1930 Census of Population (Washington, DC, 1933).
77. LAT, 8 April 1927, 8 January 1928, 5 March 1939; Weiss, Rise of the Community Builders, 53-78.
78. LAT, 10 April, 27 November 1927, 24 March, 8 April, 1 September 1928, 12 January 1929.
79. Weiss, Rise of the Community Builders, 32-38, 68-72; LAT, 8 and 10 April 1927;
80. Greg Hise, Magnetic Los Angeles: Planning the Twentieth-Century Metropolis (Baltimore, 1997), 22.
81. John Modell, The Economics and Politics of Racial Accommodation: The Japanese of Los Angeles, 1900-1942 (Urbana, 1977), 65-66;
82. Mason and Anderson, America's Black Heritage, 45;
83. Lawrence de Graaf, "City of Black Angels: The Evolution of the Los Angeles Ghetto, 1890-1930," Pacific Historical Review 39: 3 (August 1970): 345; LAT, 12 February, 23 July 1922, 16 December 1923, 16 March, 14 June 1924, 10 April 1927, 4 August 1929, 16 April 1939 (emphasis in original).
84. "Achievement Report," California Real Estate Magazine, November 1938, as cited in Leonard D. Cain, Jr., "Absolute Discretion? Selected Documents on 'Property Rights' and 'Equal Protection of the Laws,' " April 1964, folder 16, box 2, MM;
85. Serena B. Preusser, "Color Question in California Reveals Many Problems," California Real Estate Magazine, July 1927, 35, 61.
86. Bessie Averne McClenahan, The Changing Urban Neighborhood: A Sociological Study (University of Southern California Studies, 1929), 38;
87. Gottlieb and Wolt, Thinking Big, 146; LAT, 22 April 1927, 30 June 1929 (emphasis in original).
88. Warren S. Rogers, Mesa to Metropolis: The Crenshaw Area, Los Angeles (Los Angeles, 1959), 13-16; LAT, 15 May, 27 November 1927, 21 October 1928, 23 April 1933.
89. CE, 4 December 1925, 15 January, 12 and 26 March 1926.
90. LAT, 2 August 1895, 11 October 1927, 8 February 1929, 1 September 1932, 19 May 1940; CE, 14 May 1926; John Anson Ford, Thirty Explosive Years in Los Angeles County (San Marino, CA, 1961), 150-152;
91. Flamming, Bound for Freedom, 239-242.
92. Albert Camarillo, Chicanos in a Changing Society: From Mexican Pueblos to American Barrios in Santa Barbara and Southern California, 1848-1930 (Cambridge, MA, 1979), 202-203; Bunch, Black Angelenos, 30; "Marshal Royal," in Central Avenue Sounds: Jazz in Los Angeles, ed. Clora Bryant (Berkeley, 1998), 33. See maps of Central Avenue district ca. 1920 in Flamming, Bound for Freedom, 93-94.
93. Wild, Street Meeting, 24-25;
94. Mason and McKinstry, The Japanese of Los Angeles, 5-10, 29; LAT, 26 February 1907, 8 December 1911; Uono, "Japanese Residences," 42-46. Non-Japanese used the name "Little Tokyo" as early as 1904 or 1905.
95. Mason and McKinstry, The Japanese of Los Angeles, 5-9, 29;
96. Uono, "Japanese Residences," 12-46, 72;
97. Leonard Bloom and Ruth Riemer, Removal and Return: The Socio-Economic Effects of the War on Japanese Americans (Berkeley, 1949). 25.
98. LAT, 9 April 1923; Daniel Widener, " 'Perhaps the Japanese Are to Be Thanked': Asia, Asian Americans, and the Construction of Black California," positions 11: 1 (Spring 2003): 150. Black and Japanese American residential patterns commonly overlapped in West Coast cities before World War II. For a discussion of relations between African Americans and Asian Americans in Seattle's Central District
99. see Quintard Taylor, The Forging of a Black Community: Seattle's Central District From 1870 Through the Civil Rights Era (Seattle, 1994), 106-134.
100. Romo, East Los Angeles, 81; Monroy, Rebirth, 28-29; Sánchez, Becoming Mexican American, 195-200; Bloom and Riemer, Removal and Return, 25, 91; Uono, "Japanese Residences," 48-53, 125-39.
101. LAT, 23 December 1921, 27 May 1923; Los Angeles Record, 9 and 13 January 1922 (emphasis in original); Fred Viehe, "Black Gold Suburbs: The Influence of the Extractive Industry on the Suburbanization of Los Angeles, 1890-1930," Journal of Urban History (November 1981): 1-26;
102. Becky M. Nicolaides, "The Quest for Independence: Workers in the Suburbs," in Metropolis in the Making: Los Angeles in the 1920s, ed. Tom Sitton and William Deverell (Berkeley, 2001), 83-87;
103. Becky M. Nicolaides, My Blue Heaven: Life and Politics in the Working-Class Suburbs of Los Angeles, 1920-1965 (Chicago, 2002), 26-40.
104. LAT, 20 September 1922 (emphasis in original); Lloyd H. Fisher, The Problem of Violence: Observations on race conflict in Los Angeles, pamphlet by the American Council on Race Relations, undated (ca. 1945-46), 18-19, folder "American Council on Race Relations," box 230, JRH.
105. LAT, 7 February 1920; CE, 12 February 1926; Edward A. Burch, "Civil Rights and the Negro," 1936, folder 4, box 1, LAUL.
106. Charles M. Wollenberg, All Deliberate Speed: Segregation and Exclusion in California Schools, 1855-1975 (Berkeley, 1976), 72;
107. Irving G. Hendrick, The Education of Non-Whites in California, 1849-1970 (San Francisco, 1977), 87-95;
108. Toyotomi Morimoto, Japanese Americans and Cultural Continuity: Maintaining Language and Heritage (New York, 1997), 37-38; CE, 10 December 1926;
109. Charlotta A. Bass, Forty Years (Los Angeles, 1960), 162; "A Fremont Poster," folder "Race Relations-And Black History," additions box 1, CAB.
110. Eshref Shevky and Marilyn Williams, The Social Areas of Los Angeles (Berkeley, 1949), 50-51; US Bureau of the Census, 1940 Statistics for Census Tracts, Los Angeles-Long Beach, Calif. (Washington, DC, 1942); Bond, "The Negro in Los Angeles," 117;
111. George Parrish and M. S. Siegel to Elmer E. Lore, 9 December 1937, box 77, JAF; quoted in Flamming, Bound for Freedom, 352.
112. LAT, 12 February 1909; Ernest Frederick Anderson, "The Development of Leadership and Organization Building in the Black Community of Los Angeles From 1900 Through World War II" (PhD diss., University of Southern California, 1976), 94-164; Azuma, Between Two Empires, 17-60; Morimoto, Japanese Americans and Cultural Continuity, 64-65.
113. Karen Brodkin, How Jews Became White Folks & What That Says About Race in America (New Brunswick, 1998), 25-52;
114. Max Vorspan and Lloyd P. Gartner, History of the Jews of Los Angeles (San Marino, CA, 1970), 117-118, 203-205;
115. Lynn C. Kronzek, Fairfax: A Home, A Community, A Way of Life (Los Angeles, 1990), 13, 36; Sánchez, Becoming Mexican American, 75-77; Romo, East Los Angeles, 85.
116. CE, 5 March 1926; Bass, Forty Years, 98; Kevin K. Gaines, Uplifting the Race: Black Leadership, Politics, and Culture in the Twentieth Century (Chapel Hill, 1996), 2.
117. Bond, "The Negro in Los Angeles," 108-117;
118. de Graaf, "City of Black Angels," 351; US Bureau of the Census, 1930 Census of Population: Special Report on Foreign-born White Families by Country of Birth of Head (Washington, DC, 1933);
119. Charles B. Spaulding, "Housing Problems of Minority Groups in Los Angeles County," The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 248 (November 1946): 220-221; CE, 21 May, 4 June 1926.
120. Bass, Forty Years, 12-13, 27-33.
121. CE, 21 December 1928; Fisher, The Problem of Violence, 9-10.
122. Azuma, Between Two Empires, 44; Ichioka, The Issei, 210-43; Naoko Shimazu, Japan, Race and Equality: The Racial Equality Proposal of 1919 (London, 1998), 174-176.
123. RS, 27 February 1923.
124. RS, 1-3 March 1923.
125. RS, 4, 16, 18, and 29 March 1923; LAT, 29 June 1919.
126. LAT, 20 June, 3 July 1924; RS, 21, 24, and 27-29 June 1924; Toyama, "Japanese Community in Los Angeles," 48; Uono, "Japanese Residences," 136-38.
127. Azuma, Between Two Empires, 61-85;
128. Ichioka, The Issei, 244-254;
129. Masayo Umezawa Duus, The Japanese Conspiracy: The Oahu Sugar Strike of 1920 (Berkeley, 1999), 309-316; LAT, 1-2 July 1924; Beikoku ni okeru hainichi mondai zakken [Reports of the Japanese consul in Los Angeles], 24 July 1924, Archives of the Japanese Ministry of Foreign Affairs, 1868-1945 (Tokyo, 1949-51).
130. Anderson, "The Development of Leadership and Organization," 156; CE, 25 June, 6 August 1926, 7 February 1930; LAT, 5 August 1926. On the Sweet case
131. see Kevin Boyle, Arc of Justice: A Saga of Race, Civil Rights, and Murder in the Jazz Age (New York, 2004).
132. Bond, "The Negro in Los Angeles," 94-95, 102-103, 137;
133. Holton, "Negro Districts in Los Angeles";
134. Patricia Adler, History of the Normandie Program Area (Community Redevelopment Agency of the City of Los Angeles, 1 September 1969), 10-17;
135. McClenahan, Changing Urban Neighborhood, 28;
136. Uono, "Japanese Residences," 104-124;
137. James M. Ervin, "The Participation of the Negro in the Community Life of Los Angeles" (MA thesis, University of Southern California, 1931, reprint, San Francisco, 1973), 12; US Census, 1940 Los Angeles-Long Beach Tracts.
138. US Census, 1940 Los Angeles-Long Beach Tracts; Earl Hanson and Paul Beckett, Los Angeles: Its People and Its Homes (Los Angeles, 1944), 22-28;
139. Bogardus, New Social Research, 235-236;
140. McClenahan, Changing Urban Neighborhood, 23, 38-47, 84-85;
141. Fisher, The Problem of Violence, 8-9.
142. Bond, "The Negro in Los Angeles," 99-103.
143. Chester B. Himes, If He Hollers Let Him Go (London, 1967), 48-49;
144. Bond, "The Negro in Los Angeles," 90-91, 102; "NAACP Membership Campaign: November 28-December 15, 1938," box 76, JAF; US Census, 1940 Los Angeles-Long Beach Tracts.
145. CE, 20 November 1925, 4 and 11 June, 10 December 1926; Burch, "Civil Rights and the Negro."
146. Wayt v. Patee, 205 Cal. 46 (1928);
147. Shiedler v. Roberts, 69 Cal. App. 2nd 549 (1945); RS, 4 October, 26 November 1933, 1 and 10 July, 18 August 1940.
148. McClenahan, Changing Urban Neighborhood, 242-245;
149. Uono, "Japanese Residences," 108-123.
150. CE, 29 January, 26 February 1926.
151. See Azuma, Between Two Empires, esp. introduction.
152. Ralph Bunche, "Across the Generation Gap," in John and LaRee Caughey, Los Angeles: Biography of a City (Berkeley, 1976), 284; CE, Xmas Edition 1927, 12 October 1928.
153. Beasley, Negro Trail Blazers of California, 185, 288; CE, 19 June, 18 September, 6 November 1925;
154. Ichioka, The Issei, 146-150;
155. Mason and McKinstry, The Japanese of Los Angeles, 13, 30-31;
156. Bloom and Riemer, Removal and Return, 69-73;
157. Modell, The Economics and Politics of Racial Accommodation, 8.
158. Johnson, Industrial Survey of the Negro Population of Los Angeles, 17-73.
159. Terrace v. Thompson, 263 U.S. 197 (1923);
160. Kidner and Neff, Economic Survey of the Los Angeles Area, 7;
161. Nobuya Tsuchida, "Japanese Gardeners in Southern California, 1900-1941," in Labor Immigration Under Capitalism: Asian Workers in the United States Before World War II, ed. Lucie Cheng and Edna Bonacich (Berkeley, 1984), 437-443;
162. Isamu Nodera, "A Survey of the Vocational Activities of the Japanese of in the City of Los Angeles" (MA thesis, University of Southern California, 1936), 30-34.
163. War Agency Liquidation Unit, People in Motion: The Postwar Adjustment of the Evacuated Japanese Americans (Washington, DC, 1947), 60, 84; Nodera, "Vocational Activities of the Japanese," 100-115; Modell, The Economics and Politics of Racial Accommodation, 116-17;
164. Bloom and Riemer, Removal and Return, 30, 94-95;
165. Uono, "Japanese Residences," 54;
166. Haru Matsui [pen name of Ayako Ishigaki], Restless Wave: An Autobiography (New York, 1940), 227;
167. Tsuyoshi Matsumoto, "History of Resident Japanese in Southern California," draft manuscript in Togo Tanaka, diary, reel 11, JERS.
168. Uono, "Japanese Residences," 57.
169. Anderson, "The Development of Leadership and Organization," 94-164;
170. Emory J. Tolbert, The UNIA and Black Los Angeles: Ideology and Community in the American Garvey Movement (Los Angeles, 1980), 42-63, 90-92.
171. John Lamar Hill II, Black Leadership in Los Angeles, 1, 16-17, 99-102, transcript of oral history conducted in 1984 by Ranford B. Hawkins, collection 300/248, BLLA; Kidner and Neff, Economic Survey of the Los Angeles Area, 7; Beasley, Negro Trail Blazers of California, 139; CE, 22 October 1942; quoted in Anderson, "The Development of Leadership and Organization," 138.
172. CE, 29 January 1916; Reginald Kearney, African American Views of the Japanese: Solidarity or Sedition (Albany, 1998), 23, 65;
173. Charlotta Bass, radio broadcast, November 1939, folder "BASS, C. A.-speeches, 1930s," additions box 1, CAB.
174. Masao Suzuki, "Success Story? Japanese Immigrant Economic Achievement and Return Migration," The Journal of Economic History 55: 4 (December 1995): 889-901.
175. Marc S. Gallicchio, The African American Encounter with Japan and China: Black Internationalism in Asia, 1895-1945 (Chapel Hill, 2000), 47;
176. Kearney, African American Views of the Japanese, 57;
177. Shimazu, Japan, Race and Equality, 78-116.
178. CE, 28 October 1927.
179. Kearney, African American Views of the Japanese, 49-53;
180. Langston Hughes, I Wonder as I Wander (New York, 1956), 265; LAT, 28 September 1920; CE, 30 May 1924.
181. Bloom and Riemer, Removal and Return, 2, 18-20;
182. Kashu Mainichi, 23 April 1937;
183. Nodera, "Vocational Activities of the Japanese," 59.
184. Daily Worker, 11 July 1932, 4;
185. R. J. Smith, The Great Black Way: LA in the 1940s and the Lost African American Renaissance (New York, 2006), 242-243.
186. William Z. Foster, History of the Communist Party of the United States (New York, 1952), 257-266;
187. Dorothy Ray Healey and Maurice Isserman, California Red: A Life in the American Communist Party (Urbana, 1993), 40-41.
188. Arnold Rampersad, The Life of Langston Hughes, Volume 1: 1902-1941, I, Too, Sing America (New York, 1986), 236; Daily Worker, 8 September 1932, 3; "Langston Hughes at Japan Nite" (3 March 1934), folder 5, box 1, KGY.
189. International Labor Defense, "Scottsboro Boys Must Be Freed," folder 2, box 1, KGY; Vivian McGuckin Raineri, The Red Angel: The Life and Times of Elaine Black Yoneda (New York, 1991), 21-34.
190. Pierce quoted in Gottlieb and Wolt, Thinking Big, 187-203; Perry quoted in Gerald Horne, Fire This Time: The Watts Uprising and the 1960s (Charlottesville, 1995), 6.
191. Rodolfo Acuña, Occupied America: A History of Chicanos, 3rd ed. (New York, 1983), 200-206; Sánchez, Becoming Mexican American, 210-25;
192. Ronald Takaki, Strangers From a Different Shore: A History of Asian Americans (Boston, 1998), 331-335.
193. Togo Tanaka, "The Vernacular Newspapers," 8, reel 106, JERS. My awareness of the five Issei known to have been executed under Stalin stems from fall 1991 conversations with Yuji Ichioka about Japanese media reports.
194. Foster, History of the Communist Party, 320-324.
195. Louis B. Perry and Richard S. Perry, A History of the Los Angeles Labor Movement, 1911-1941 (Berkeley, 1963), 198-199, 442-491;
196. Robert Zieger, The CIO, 1935-1955 (Chapel Hill, 1995), 70-73; Sánchez, Becoming Mexican American, 239.
197. See also Chris Friday, Organizing Asian American Labor: The Pacific Coast Canned-Salmon Industry, 1870-1942 (Philadelphia, 1994).
198. Beth Tompkins Bates, Pullman Porters and the Rise of Protest Politics in Black America, 1925-1945 (Chapel Hill, 2001);
199. Alice Burger, "Negro Labor Unions in the Transportation Industry in Los Angeles," 1938, folder 7, box 1, LAUL; Flamming, Bound for Freedom, 358-359.
200. S. Fujii, "Japanese Workers Urged to Join Union," The Market Worker, 13 February 1937, folder 6, box 14, KGY; Sánchez, Becoming Mexican American, 239-245.
201. Larry Tajiri, "Village Vagaries: Nisei and Unions ...," SF Nichibei, 16 September 1936, clipping in folder 10, box 2, KGY; Bloom and Riemer, Removal and Return, 2, 91-99; RS, 12 April 1934; Thomas Sasaki's Daily Reports From Los Angeles, 18 October 1946, Reel 107, JERS.
202. Bass, Forty Years, 76-78; Ruth Washington, Black Leadership in Los Angeles, 73-74, transcript of oral history conducted in 1984 by Ranford B. Hopkins, collection 300/249, BLLA; Bruce, "Occupations for Negro Women in Los Angeles"; CE, 13 July 1934; Houston, "Survey on Negro Business and Businessmen."
203. Los Angeles Daily News, 17 July, 13 August 1940
204. RS, 28 July, 16 August 1940.
205. Bill Hosokawa, JACL in Quest of Justice (New York, 1982), 57-63, 98; Sánchez, Becoming Mexican American, 255-64;
206. Yuji Ichioka, "A Study in Dualism: James Yoshinori Sakamoto and the Japanese American Courier, 1928-1942," Amerasia Journal 13: 2 (1986-1987): 49-81;
207. Togo Tanaka, "History of the JACL, Chapter II, Emergence of National Organization (1930-1937)," 6-11, reel 106, JERS.
208. Janet Hutchison, "Shaping Housing and Enhancing Consumption: Hoover's Interwar Housing Policy," in From Tenements to Taylor Homes: In Search of Urban Housing Policy in Twentieth-Century America, ed. John F. Bauman, Roger Biles, and Kristin M. Szylvian (University Park, PA, 2000), 122; Jefferson Park Tract Map (tentative), subject file 1337, box A-731, Los Angeles City Archives; RS, 18 and 21 April, 5 and 12 May, 21 July 1940.
209. Mr. and Mrs. Maurice L. Young to Gentlemen, date missing or illegible, subject file 1337, box A-731, Los Angeles City Archives; RS, 14, 24-25, and 28-29 July, 1-2 and 18 August 1940; Togo Tanaka, personal interview, 21 October 1999, Los Angeles; Togo Tanaka, diary, 15 January 1942, reel 11, JERS.
210. Tanaka, "Political Organizations," 1-15; Tanaka, "Period of Adjustment," 8-19.
211. Tanaka, "Period of Adjustment," 20-21; RS, 28 July 1940;
212. Shigemori Tamaki, "Gongoro Nakamura: A Man Who Served the Japanese Community," in The Okinawa Club of America, History of the Okinawans, 418-420. Olson's speech is reprinted in the Doho, 25 September 1941.
213. CE, 25 December 1941; Herbert Garfinkel, When Negroes March: The March on Washington Movement in the Organizational Politics for FEPC (New York, 1973), 38-65.
214. CE, 5 February 1942.
215. CE, 11 December 1941; Doho, 7 December 1941.
216. Robert A. Hill, ed., The FBI's RACON: Racial Conditions in America During World War II (Boston, 1995), 15, 373-376;
217. Kearney, African American Views of the Japanese, 87-127;
218. Myrdal, An American Dilemma, 1006;
219. Langston Hughes, "White Folks Do the Funniest Things," Common Ground, Winter 1944, 45-46.
220. CE, 18 December 1941, 19 February, 23 April 1942; Kearney, African American Views of the Japanese, 110-112; Floyd C. Covington to Charles S. Johnson, 31 December 1942, folder 28, box 1, LAUL; Cheryl Greenberg, "Black and Jewish Responses to Japanese Internment," Journal of American Ethnic History 14: 2 (Winter 1995): 3-37.
221. Thomas W. Robinson, personal interview, 30 December 2003, Los Angeles.
222. Tanaka, diary, 12 January 1942; CE, 1 January 1942.
223. Mary Oyama, "After Pearl Harbor-Los Angeles," Common Ground, Spring 1942, 12-13; Minutes of the Anti-Axis Committee (AAC) Meeting, Southern District Council, Japanese American Citizens League, 8 December 1941, Union Church, box 74, JAF; Morton Grodzins, Americans Betrayed: Politics and the Japanese Evacuation (Chicago, 1949), 232.
224. RS, 15-16, 21-22, and 26 December 1941.
225. Resolution by Supervisor John Anson Ford, 9 December 1941, box 74, JAF.
226. Tanaka, personal interview; Togo Tanaka, "How to Survive Racism in America's Free Society," in Voices Long Silent: An Oral Inquiry Into the Japanese American Evacuation, ed. Arthur A. Hansen and Betty E. Miston (Fullerton, 1974), 88-90; AAC Minutes, 8 December 1941; LAT, 9 December 1941; NYT, 9 December 1941; RS, 9-10 December 1941; "Anti-Axis Committee, Japanese American Citizens League of the Southern District Council," box 74, JAF.
227. RS, 7 December 1941; Togo Tanaka, diary, December 1941 passim and 9 January 1942, reel 11, JERS; Hosokawa, JACL in Quest of Justice, 136-137; Tanaka, "Period of Recurring Crises," 21-35.
228. Tanaka, "Period of Recurring Crises," 27-29, 40-41; Sasaki's Daily Reports, 1 and 4 August 1946.
229. "Anti-Axis Committee Meeting, Southern District Council, Japanese American Citizens League," 17 January 1942, box 74, JAF; Bill Hosokawa, Nisei: The Quiet Americans (New York, 1969), 42-43; "Tokutaro Nishimura Slocum," in Encyclopedia of Japanese American History: An A-to-Z Reference From 1868 to the Present, updated ed., ed. Brian Niiya (New York, 2001), 367-68; Tanaka, "Period of Adjustment," 8-10; Tanaka, "Period of Recurring Crises," 32-35; quoted in Tanaka, diary, 11 and 23 January 1942.
230. Tanaka, "Political Organizations," 37-38;
231. Tanaka, "Period of Recurring Crises," 32; Tanaka, diary, 11 January 1942.
232. "Excerpt from Radio Broadcast by Mayor Fletcher Bowron, Station KECA," 9 December 1942, folder "Japanese," box 52, FB; Korematsu v. United States, 323 U.S. 214 (1944).
233. Roger Daniels, Concentration Camps, North America: Japanese in the United States and Canada During World War II (Malabar, FL, 1993), 14, 40, 52;
234. Peter Irons, Justice at War: The Story of the Japanese American Internment Cases (New York, 1983), 8.
235. Grodzins, Americans Betrayed, 35, 59;
236. Emily S. Rosenberg, A Date Which Will Live: Pearl Harbor in American Memory (Durham, 2003), 32-33.
237. Warren quoted in Michi Weglyn, Years of Infamy: The Untold Story of America's Concentration Camps (New York, 1976), 37-38; Ed Cray, Chief Justice: A Biography of Earl Warren (New York, 1997), 118-122; LAT, 4 March 1942; "Excerpt from Radio Broadcast by Mayor Fletcher Bowron, KECA," 13 August 1942, folder "Japanese," box 52, FB.
238. Quoted in Tanaka, diary, 1 January 1942; Weglyn, Years of Infamy, 45.
239. "Excerpt from Radio Broadcast by Mayor Fletcher Bowron, Station KECA," 5 February 1942; "Statement by Mayor Fletcher Bowron," 6 February 1942;
240. Tanaka, "Period of Recurring Crises," 17;
241. Tanaka, diary, 6 February 1942; 8
242. Foster, History of the Communist Party, 409; Yoneda, Ganbatte, 123; Doho, 11 and 13 December 1941, 30 January, 6 February 1942.
243. Nisei Writers' and Artists' Mobilization for Democracy, "General Survey of the Occupational and Financial Problems of the Citizens and Alien Japanese Residing in Metropolitan Los Angeles, These Problems Resulting from the Present Conflict Between Japan and the United States, and Some Suggestions for Their Solution," stamped 6 February 1942, box 74, JAF; Doho, 20 February 1942; Masayo Duus, The Life of Isamu Noguchi: Journey Without Borders (Princeton, 2004), 111-166.
244. Thomas quoted in Weglyn, Years of Infamy, 111; John Anson Ford to Francis Biddle, 4 May 1942, folder "Japanese," box 52, FB; John Anson Ford to William R. Burke, 19 January 1948, box 74, JAF.
245. RS, 1 February 1942; LAT, 24-26 February 1942; Carey McWilliams, "Japanese Evacuation: Policy and Perspectives," Common Ground, Summer 1942, 65-72.
246. RS, 17-20 February 1942; Grodzins, Americans Betrayed, 187-196.
247. Tanaka, diary, 11 January 1942; Doho, 27 February, 6 March 1942
248. Tanaka, diary, 22 February 1942; Tanaka, "Period of Recurring Crises," 57-59; NYT, 21 February 1942.
249. RS, 28 February, 1 March 1942; Manzanar Free Press, 20 March 1943,reprinted by the National Park Service at http://www.nps.gov/manz/MFP/mfp-v3n23n.htm ; Sasaki's Daily Reports, 31 July 1946.
250. Tanaka, "Period of Recurring Crises," 36-37, 57; Weglyn, Years of Infamy, 38.
251. RS, 20 and 22 March 1942; Doho, 1 and 10 April 1942; Manzanar Free Press, 11 April 1942, reprinted by the National Park Service at http://www .nps.gov/manz/MFP/mfp-v1-n1.htm .
252. Mary Oyama, "This Isn't Japan," Common Ground, Autumn 1942, 32-34; Tanaka, diary, 22 February 1942; Weglyn, Years of Infamy, 111-33; Hayashi, Democratizing the Enemy, 100, 134-35.
253. Thomas Madison Doram, "In and Before the Committee on Fair Employment Practices," 18 November 1943, roll 106FR, FEPC; CE, 5 February 1942; Hill, Black Labor, 185-92;
254. Josh Sides, L.A. City Limits: African American Los Angeles from the Great Depression to the Present (Berkeley, 2003), 64-68; Taylor, In Search of the Racial Frontier, 259.
255. Doram, "In and Before the Committee"; CE, 24 March, 1 April 1943; Hill, Black Labor, 199-202; Smith, "Black Employment in the Los Angeles Area," 23-68.
256. Hill, Black Labor, 176-83; CE, 18 December 1941, 8 and 15 January, 12 March 1942 (emphasis in original).
257. CE, 16 and 23 April, 25 June, 16 July 1942 (emphasis in original).
258. Anderson, "The Development of Leadership and Organization," 175; CE, 23 April 1942.
259. CE, 15 and 29 January 1942, 10 February 1943, 14 June 1945 (emphasis in original).
260. Lawrence Brooks de Graaf, "Negro Migration to Los Angeles, 1930 to 1950" (PhD diss., University of California, Los Angeles, 1962), 254-268; Smith, "Black Employment in the Los Angeles Area," 49; Spaulding, "Housing Problems of Minority Groups in Los Angeles," 222; US Bureau of the Census, Special Census of Los Angeles, California, Population by Age, Race, and Sex, By Census Tracts: January 28, 1946, series P-SC, no. 188 (Washington, DC, 29 October 1946).
261. Carey McWilliams, "Report on Importation of Negro Labor to California," folder 23, box 1, LAUL; CE, 9 July 1942.
262. Anderson, "The Development of Leadership and Organization," 180-190, 237; CE, 16 July 1942.
263. Citizens Defense Committee to Vierling Kersey, 29 July 1942, box 76, JAF; Anderson, "The Development of Leadership and Organization," 191-192; CE, 6 August 1942.
264. CE, 21 and 27 August, 24 September 1942 (emphases in originals).
265. Zieger, The CIO, 152; CE, 24 February, 1 April 1943; Smith, "Black Employment in the Los Angeles Area," 239; Floyd C. Covington to Charles S. Johnson, 31 December 1942, folder 28, box 1, LAUL.
266. CE, 12 November 1942, 8, 15, and 22 January 1943; Smith, "Black Employment in the Los Angeles Area," 201-202.
267. Zieger, The CIO, 71-82, 128; Perry and Perry, History of Los Angeles Labor Movement, 420-24, 495-97; Lichtenstein, Labor's War, 56-63; Hill, The FBI's RACON, 373-75;
268. Richard S. Hobbs, The Cayton Legacy: An African American Family (Pullman, WA, 2002), 89, 157; CE, 15 October, 5 November 1942, 28 January 1943.
269. CE, 3 June 1943, 9 December 1943; Bass, Forty Years, 16-20.
270. Covington to Johnson; Lichtenstein, Labor's War, 79-81; Zieger, The CIO, 145-146.
271. Hill, Black Labor, 209-11; Perry and Perry, History of the Los Angeles Labor Movement, 450-51; CE, 6 August, 22 October 1942, 10 February, 3 June 1943; Smith, "Black Employment in the Los Angeles Area," 341.
272. CE, 10 June 1943; Zieger, The CIO, 152-159.
273. CE, 18 December 1942 (emphasis in original).
274. Sugrue, Origins of the Urban Crisis, 29; McWilliams, North From Mexico, 206.
275. McWilliams, North From Mexico, 206-16; Acuña, Occupied America, 254-56; CE, 5 November 1942, 24 February, 9 September 1943.
276. CE, 27 May, 3 June, 1 July 1943 (emphasis in original).
277. Acuña, Occupied America, 257-58; CE, 10 and 17 June 1943.
278. Miller, transcript of interview, 46; CE, 10, 17, and 24 June, 1 July 1943 (emphasis in original); Smith, Great Black Way, 75.
279. Penny M. Von Eschen, Race Against Empire: Black Americans and Anticolonialism, 1937-1957 (Ithaca, 1997), 17-95; CE, 24 September 1942, 24 February, 1 April, 1 July, 19 August 1943; Garfinkel, When Negroes March, 49-50, 131-32.
280. CE, 3 and 18 December 1942, 8 and 28 January 1943.
281. Hill, Black Labor, 274-316; Smith, "Black Employment in the Los Angeles Area," 69;
282. Leon H. Washington, Jr., to Malcolm Ross and George Johnson, 22 August 1944, roll 21, FEPC.
283. Los Angeles Tribune, 1 June 1946.
284. Miley to Ford, 8 July 1943; "Comments-Negroes in Little Tokyo," folder 17, box 1, CAB.
285. CE, 29 July 1943; LAT, 26 May 1944; US Census, Special Census of Los Angeles (1946); Miley to Ford, 8 July 1943.
286. CE, 3 June 1943.
287. Roger W. Lotchin, The Bad City in the Good War: San Francisco, Los Angeles, Oakland, and San Diego (Bloomington, 2003), 215; Hise, Magnetic Los Angeles, 130-85; US Bureau of the Census, 1950 Census Tract Statistics, Los Angeles, California and Adjacent Area (Washington, DC, 1952); "Minority Report: By the Negro People of Los Angeles," in Bert S. West to John Anson Ford, 15 March 1956, box 76, JAF.
288. CE, 11 and 18 December 1942, 8 January, 2 September 1943, 20 January, 1 June, 3 August 1944; Spaulding, "Housing Problems of Minority Groups in Los Angeles," 223.
289. CE, 11 November 1943, 1 June, 6 July, 19 October 1944, 4 January 1945.
290. Sasaki's Daily Reports, 24 July, 11 and 22 September, 21 October 1946.
291. Los Angeles Daily News, 4 March 1947; LAT, 31 December 1944, 3 January, 4 May 1945, 4 March 1947; Sasaki's Daily Reports, 25 July, 2, 4, 7, and 9 August, 19 and 26 September 1946.
292. US Census, Special Census of Los Angeles (1946); Sasaki's Daily Reports, 24 and 29 July, 17-18 September 1946; Smith, Great Black Way, 152.
293. "Pilgrim House: Los Angeles' Plymouth Rock in a Drifting Community," folder "Pilgrim House," box 258, JRH; Ishikawa, "Common Ground"; Sasaki's Daily Reports, 16 September 1946; Welfare Council of Metropolitan Los Angeles, "Report on Pilgrim House" (ca. 1947), box 76, JAF.
294. "Race War That Flopped," 3-9 (emphasis in original).
295. Sasaki's Daily Reports, 16 and 18 September 1946; Interracial Planning for Community Organization, "Racial Problems in Housing," Bulletin No. 2, National Urban League, Fall 1944, 10, folder "Race Problems," box 258, JRH.
296. CE, 21 October 1943, 3 August 1944, 2 August 1945; "Don't Fence Me In," folder "BASS-City Council Campaign, 1945," additions box 1, CAB.
297. CE, 18 January, 1 February, 22 March 1945.
298. CE, 12 and 26 April, 3 May 1945; LAT, 3 May 1945.
299. CE, 4 January, 2 August 1945; Bass, Forty Years, 107; Los Angeles Tribune, 14 September 1946.
300. Los Angeles Tribune, 27 July 1946.
301. Myrdal, An American Dilemma; Carey McWilliams, Prejudice, Japanese-Americans: Symbol of Racial Intolerance (Boston, 1944). 174-175.
302. Los Angeles Coordinating Committee for Resettlement, "Minutes of Last Meeting," 22 September 1945, folder 1, carton 3, PCCAPFP.
303. David Unoura, personal interview, 31 December 2003, Culver City, CA; Dan Genung, A Street Called Love: The Story of All People's Christian Church and Center, Los Angeles, California (Pasadena, 2000), 73-83, 103-106; Sasaki's Daily Reports, 22 August 1946.
304. Sasaki's Daily Reports, 22 and 24 August, 12-13 September, 19 November 1946; Art Takemoto, interviewed by James Gatewood, 19 May 1998, REgenerations Oral History Project: Rebuilding Japanese American Families, Communities, and Civil Rights in the Resettlement Era, vol. 2 (Los Angeles, 2000), 411.
305. "Race War That Flopped," 7; Sasaki's Daily Reports, 9 and 23 August, 15 September, 7 November 1946; Los Angeles Tribune, 16 March 1946; LAT, 5 January 1963.
306. Richard Drinnon, Keeper of Concentration Camps: Dillon S. Myer and American Racism (Berkeley, 1987), 59; The Committee on Resettlement of Japanese Americans, "Planning Resettlement of Japanese Americans," July 1943, folder 2, box 53, WCC.
307. Eddie Shimano, "Democracy Begins at Home-II: Blueprint For a Slum," Common Ground, Summer 1943, 78;
308. Larry Tajiri, "Farewell to Little Tokyo," Common Ground, Winter 1944, 92;
309. Joe Grant Masaoka, "Working Principles for Today: Intergroup Pattens," California Conference of Social Work, Sacramento, 7-11 April 1946, folder 40, carton 20, CMW.
310. D. S. Myer to Board of Supervisors, 29 May 1946, box 74, JAF. On the relationship between Myer's administration of the WRA and Bureau of Indian Affairs, see Drinnon, Keeper of Concentration Camps.
311. Sasaki's Daily Reports, 11-12 September 1946.
312. CE, 27 January, 1 March, 7 April, 3 May 1949; "Proposed Platform of the Nisei Progressives," 18 January 1949, folder 2, box 19, Civil Rights Congress Papers, Southern California Library for Social Studies Research, Los Angeles.
313. William Petersen, "Success Story, Japanese-American Style," The New York Times Magazine, 9 Janurary 1966, 21.
314. LAT, 9 December 1945; Rev. Sumio Koga, " 'The Cross That Opened a Community': John 3: 16," in Nanka Nikkei Voices: Resettlement Years, 1945-1955 (Japanese American Historical Society of Southern CA, 1998), 55-56; WRA, "Semi-Annual Report," 1 July to 31 December 1945.
315. Dorothy Swaine Thomas and Richard S. Nishimoto, The Spoilage (Berkeley, 1946), esp. 5-8.
316. Allan W. Austin, From Concentration Camps to Campus: Japanese American Students and World War II (Urbana, IL, 2004), 9-61, 83-84; Hayashi, Democratizing the Enemy, 138-39.
317. Hayashi, Democratizing the Enemy, 104, 139-40; NYT, 17 February 1945; Masayo Umezawa Duus, Unlikely Liberators: The Men of the 100th and 442nd (Honolulu, 1987), 217-219.
318. Takaki, Strangers From a Different Shore, 397-403; Press Release of the American Veterans Committee, 9 October 1945, box 74, JAF;
319. Gracia D. Booth, "Church Women Ask: How Can We Help Japanese American Evacuees?" New York City, Committee on Resettlement of Japanese Americans, November 1944, folder 2, box 53, WCC.
320. "Remarks by Mayor Fletcher Bowron at Testimonial Banquet for Japanese American Veterans," 3 November 1946, folder "Addresses-Remarks 1946," box 35, FB; War Agency Liquidation Unit, People in Motion, 27, 41-46; Mike Masaoka with Bill Hosokawa, They Call Me Moses Masaoka: An American Saga (New York, 1987), 201-216.
321. Reagan quoted in Masaoka, They Call Me Moses, 178; Dillon S. Myer, "Japanese American Relocation: Final Chapter," Common Ground, Autumn 1945, 66; Dillon S. Myer, Uprooted Americans: The Japanese Americans and the War Relocation Authority During World War II (Tucson, 1971), 286-98, 342-43; Dillon S. Myer to Carey McWilliams, 7 March 1946, folder 34, carton 20, CMW; D. S. Myer to Board of Supervisors, 29 May 1946, box 74, JAF; Los Angeles County Committee for Interracial Progress, Minutes of the Twenty-Fifth Monthly Committee Meeting, 8 April 1946, folder 2, carton 3, PCCAPFP.
322. Americanism Educational League, "Do You Want to Take This Chance On the Pacific Coast By Having the Japanese Returned to This Area?" folder 12, box 53, WCC (emphasis in original).
323. Los Angeles Tribune, 24 August, 14, September 1946; Hisaye Yamamoto, "A Fire in Fontana," Rafu Shimpo Magazine, 21 December 1985, 8; Sasaki's Daily Reports, 1 August, 21 and 23 September, 12 November 1946.
324. Duus, Unlikely Liberators, 218; Takaki, Strangers From a Different Shore, 397-403; Alan Brinkley, The Unfinished Nation, vol. 2, From 1865, 2nd ed. (New York, 1997), 755, 772; Hosokawa, Nisei, 414-15; Ikuko Amatatsu Watanabe, interviewed by Arthur A. Hansen (California State University, Fullerton Oral History Program, 24 July 1974), http://content.cdlib.org:8088/xtf/view?docId =ft8x0nb520&query= ; LAT, 11 January 1945; Los Angeles Daily News, 11 January 1945; Harley M. Oka to William F. Schneider, 18 April 1945, box 74, JAF; PC, 15 May 1953.
325. Coordinating Committee for Resettlement, "Minutes of the Third Meeting"; WRA, "Semi-Annual Report," 1 January to 30 June and 1 July to 31 December 1945; War Agency Liquidation Unit, People in Motion, 29, 90-91; Sasaki's Daily Reports, 15 and 17 October 1946.
326. Bloom and Riemer, Removal and Return, 124-204.
327. War Agency Liquidation Unit, People in Motion, 61-67, 89, 121-23; Bloom and Riemer, Removal and Return, 101-13; Shuji Fujii to Carey McWilliams, 7 March 1946, folder 34, carton 20, CMW; Yoneda, Ganbatte, 169-75; Sasaki's Daily Reports, 9 November 1946.
328. Tanaka, personal interview; Togo Tanaka, interviewed by James Gatewood, 13 December 1997, REgenerations Oral History Project, vol. 2, 419-464; Who's Going to Pay for These Donuts Anyway? directed by Janice Tanaka (1992).
329. Quoted in McWilliams, Prejudice, 272-73; Pearl S. Buck, "Equality," in What America Means to Me (New York, 1942), 37.
330. McWilliams, Prejudice, 272-273; Town Hall 5: 44 (3 November 1943).
331. John W. Dower, Embracing Defeat: Japan in the Wake of World War II (New York, 1999), 219-220; Hayashi, Democratizing the Enemy, 204-6. I also thank Nisei scholar Iwao Ishino for sharing his personal recollections of working with Leighton and fellow Nisei researchers.
332. Klein, Cold War Orientalism, 1-18.
333. LAT, 28 October 1951; Erie, Globalizing L.A., 81; RS, 20 December 1956; Masaoka, They Call Me Moses, 272-280.
334. Dower, Embracing Defeat, 23-27, 69-81.
335. Sayonara, directed by Joshua Logan (1957); James A. Michener, Sayonara (New York, 1954); LAT, 26 December 1957.
336. PC, 7 September 1956, 30 August 1957; Hosokawa, JACL in Quest of Justice, 293-299.
337. US Census, 1950 Census: Characteristics of the Population; US Bureau of the Census, 1960 Census of Populations: Characteristics of the Population (Washington, DC, 1963); Los Angeles Community Relations Conference, "Employment Discrimination in Southern California," 25 January 1960, folder 9, box 6, MM.
338. Greer, Last Man In, 142-149.
339. CE, 15 March 1945, 11 April, 9, 23, and 30 May, 13 June 1946, 15 and 29 October 1953; Anderson, "The Development of Leadership and Organization," 211-214; NYT, 15 June 1948, 9 April 1952; Los Angeles Tribune, 24 August 1946.
340. CE, 26 April 1951; Horne, Fire This Time, 7; Flamming, Bound for Freedom, 380-381.
341. Sides, L.A. City Limits, 146-47; Southern California Area Council, "Resolution, Communist Infiltration," folder "conferences, Southern California Area Conference-correspondence, Feb-April 1953," carton 34, NAACPW; Charlotta Bass, "N.A.A.C.P." ca. 1955, folder "BASS, C. A.-Articles and Speeches, undated," additions box 1, CAB.
342. Mary L. Dudziak, "Brown as a Cold War Case," The Journal of American History 91: 1 (June 2004): 41; NYT, 17 February 1947, 30 November 1948;
343. Donald R. McCoy and Richard T. Ruetten, Quest and Response: Minority Rights and the Truman Administration (Lawrence, KS, 1973), 65, 134; CE, 30 December 1954.
344. Carol Anderson, "Bleached Souls and Red Negroes: The NAACP and Black Communists in the Early Cold War, 1948-1952," in Window on Freedom: Race, Civil Rights, and Foreign Affairs, 1945-1988, ed. Brenda Gayle Plummer (Chapel Hill, 2003), 106; LAS, 25 July 1957.
345. Hill, Black Labor, 373-81; LAT, 7-8 November 1946.
346. NYT, 16 July 1967; Thomas W. Casstevens, Politics, Housing and Race Relations: California's Rumford Act and Proposition 14 (Berkeley, 1967), 8-10; LAT, 24 September 1959, 7 January 1965;
347. Dwight R. Zook, "Statement to the United States Commission on Civil Rights for the Los Angeles, California, Hearings," 25-26 January 1960, folder 9, box 6, MM.
348. LAT, 17 October, 15-16 November 1945.
349. "Appendix V-Human Relations: Report Submitted for Human Relations Study Group," box 72, JAF.
350. "Project Number 3A, Alice Bordman interview of George Gleason," folder "Race Problems" 17, box 259, JRH; Lester Granger, "No Short-Cut to Democracy," Common Ground, Winter 1944, 15-16.
351. Fisher, The Problem of Violence, 18-19.
352. LAT, 24 January 1961.
353. Carlton Jackson, Hattie: The Life of Hattie McDaniel (Lanham, MD, 1990), 91; Pittsburgh Courier, 15 December 1945; LAT, 7 December 1945.
354. CE, 27 May, 3 June 1954.
355. PC, 18 January 1957; CE, 6 May 1948; LAT, 24 January 1961.
356. Milton A. Senn, "Report on Efforts in the Los Angeles Area to Circumvent the United States Supreme Court Decisions on Restrictive Covenants," 31 December 1948, folder "Race Problems" 17, box 259, JRH.
357. LAT, 7 August 1952, 24 January 1961; Miller, Petitioners, 323-31; Ruchames, Race, Jobs, & Politics, 245-51; McEntire, Race and Residence, 239-250; Wm. C. Carr to Mr. Mont, 10 January 1960, folder 4, box 3, MM; Senn, "Report on Efforts in the Los Angeles Area to Circumvent the United States Supreme Court Decisions on Restrictive Covenants."
358. PC, 18 May 1956; Frank F. Chuman, "President's Commission on Civil Rights Subcommittee on Housing," 26 January 1959, folder 10, box 6, MM; Nishi and Kim, "Recent Japanese Settlement Changes in the Los Angeles Area," 25-33.
359. RS, 4 May 1948; Vose, Caucasians Only, 194-95; Sasaki's Daily Reports, 15 October 1946; "How Eichler Sells Open Occupancy with No Fuss," Church and Race, September 1964, 9-13; Milton G. Gordon, "What are the Obligations of Government to Resolve Such Conflicts as Exist in This Area (Property Rights and Civil Rights)," 22 November 1963, folder 16, box 2, MM.
360. Evelyn R. Matthews to American Civil Liberties Union, 18 September 1947, folder 1, box 32, ACLU; James Hasking with Kathleen Benson, Nat King Cole (New York, 1984), 77-82; Senn, "Report on Efforts in the Los Angeles Area to Circumvent the United States Supreme Court Decisions on Restrictive Covenants."
361. LAT, 20-21 August, 7 September, 1 December 1955, 16 January 1957; PC, 18 and 25 January, 1 February 1957; "City of Anaheim, Orange County," folder 10, box 3, MM.
362. Senn, "Report on Efforts in the Los Angeles Area to Circumvent the United States Supreme Court Decisions on Restrictive Covenants"; John J. Mance to Frank H. Barnes, 12 January 1950 [actual year is 1960], folder 10, box 3, MM; LAT, 27 January 1960.
363. LAT, 5 June 1961.
364. War Agency Liquidation Unit, People in Motion, 179-80; Sasaki's Daily Reports, 12 September, 14, 21, and 29 October 1946; Kazuo K. Inouye, interviewed by Leslie Ito, 13 December 1997, REgenerations Oral History Project, vol. 2, 173-188.
365. Inouye, REgenerations, 190-197.
366. Inouye, REgenerations, vol. 2, 197; Ryo Munekata, personal interview, 23 September 2002, Los Angeles; PC, 19 December 1958.
367. LAT, 4 July 1962; Yoshimura, "Sansei L.A.," 103; Roy Nakano, "Them Bad Cats, Part II," Gidra, June 1973, 1; Sheila Gardette, e-mail correspondence with author, 23 June 2005.
368. PC, 25 April, 14 November 1958; LAT, 19 April 1958; Roy Nakano, "Them Bad Cats: Past Images of Asian American Street Gangs," Gidra, January 1973; Yoshimura, "Sansei L.A.," 103.
369. Munekata, personal interview; RS, 26 February 1959, 25 and 30 March 1960; Inouye, REgenerations, vol. 2, 200.
370. RS, 11 and 14 February 1959.
371. LAT, 3 May 2000; RS, 12 May, 22 June, 7 July, 4 December 2000.
372. Rogers, Mesa to Metropolis, 19-20.
373. LAT, 24 and 29 January, 10 September 1961.
374. Christopher Taylor et al., "To Men of Good Will: A Statement of Major Grievances and Immediate Requirements of the Negro Community," 6 June 1963, folder 27, box 16, California Democratic Council Papers, Southern California Library for Social Studies and Research, Los Angeles.
375. Casstevens, Politics, Housing and Race Relations, 18-47.
376. The Apartment Journal 46 (August 1964), 18-19, folder 1, box 5, MM; PC, 2 November 1956.
377. LAT, 4 July 1962; "Prop 14-The minority myth"; RS, 24 June, 7 July, 1 August, 26 and 29 September, 14 October 1964; "Vote No on 14," folder 19, box 5, MM; Wolfinger and Greenstein, "Repeal of Fair Housing in California," 759.
378. "Remarks of the Reverend Martin Luther King at NAACP Sponsored Mass Rally for Civil Rights," 10 July 1960, Shrine Auditorium, Los Angeles, reel 17, part 21, NAACP; LAT, 24 June 1963.
379. Taylor, In Search of the Racial Frontier, 286; "Black Ghetto," NAACP Newsletter (Los Angeles) 2:11 (July 1957), reel 2, part 25, NAACP; McEntire, Race and Residence, 83-86; US Census, 1950 Census Tract Statistics, Los Angeles and Adjacent Area; US Census, Special Census of Los Angeles (1954); John Mark McQuiston, Negro Residential Invasion in Los Angeles (Los Angeles, 1969), 114.
380. McEntire, Race and Residence, 37-38, 120-138; LAT, 5 July 1962; Fair Employment Practice Commission, Negroes and Mexican Americans in South and East Los Angeles: Changes Between 1960 and 1965 in Population, Employment, Income, and Family Status (San Francisco, 1966), 12-21.
381. Dale Gardner to John A. Ford, March 17, 1953, box 72, JAF; Senn, "Report on Efforts in the Los Angeles Area to Circumvent the United States Supreme Court Decisions on Restrictive Covenants"; Los Angeles Urban League, "Minority Housing in Metropolitan Los Angeles."
382. J. Gregory Payne and Scott Ratzan, Tom Bradley: The Impossible Dream (Toronto, 1987), 72-78; Celes King III, Black Leadership in Los Angeles, 370-401, 453-58, transcript of oral history conducted in 1985 by Bruce M. Tyler and 1987 by Robin D. G. Kelley, Collection 300/293, BLLA.
383. Norman O. Houston, "Yesterday, Today and Tomorrow," 1966, folder 6, box 21, GSM; LAT, 4-5 July 1965; Self, American Babylon, 187-89; "Memorandum of Understanding Between California State Fair Employment Practice Commission and Bank of America National Trust and Savings Association," 1 June 1964, folder 8, box 1, MM.
384. LAT, 2 July 1962, 25-26 June, 14, 23, and 26 July, 4 and 17 August 1963, 30 May, 12 and 19 June 1964, 12 March 1965; John Caughey with LaRee Caughey, To Kill a Child's Spirit: The Tragedy of School Segregation in Los Angeles (Itasca, IL, 1973), 2-25; Taylor et al., "To Men of Good Will"; Horne, Fire This Time, 123-24; Fair Housing (newsletter of the American Friends Service Committee) 10 (May 1963), folder 1, box 30, ACLU.
385. LAS, 19 August 1965; Payne and Ratzan, Tom Bradley, 73; Governor's Commission on the Los Angeles Riot, A Report by the Governor's Commission on the Los Angeles Riot (Los Angeles, 1965), 6A; Horne, Fire This Time, 339-54.
386. Francine Rabinovitz, Minorities in Suburbs: The Los Angeles Experience (Cambridge, MA, 1975), 8-30, 50-51.
387. Rogers, Mesa to Metropolis, 19-20; RS, 14 August 1965; Horne, Fire This Time, 60-63, 105, 293; LAS, 19 August 1965; Bruce Michael Tyler, "Black Radicalism in Southern California, 1950-1982" (PhD diss., University of California, Los Angeles, 1983), 207-310.
388. The Integrator, Winter 1967-1968; Jean Gregg, "Statement to the Governor's Commission on the Los Angeles Riots" with Crenshaw Notes 9 (October 1965) attached to testimony from 21 October 1965, Governor's Commission on the Los Angeles Riots, Transcripts, Depositions, Consultants' Reports, and Selected Documents (Los Angeles, 1965), microform edition; Crenshaw Notes 73 (January 1972), folder 10, box 22, MM; LAT, 2 November 1967.
389. Gregg, "Statement to the Governor's Commission," 2-4, 9-14; Gardette, correspondence with author; Richard T. Morris and Vincent Jeffries, The White Reaction Study (Los Angeles, 1967).
390. Raphael J. Sonnenshein, Politics in Black and White: Race and Power in Los Angeles (Princeton, 1993) 58-60; Payne and Ratzan, Tom Bradley, 49-52.
391. Sonnenshein, Politics in Black and White, 55-66; Payne and Ratzan, Tom Bradley, 31-98;
392. James Q. Wilson, Negro Politics: The Search for Leadership (New York, 1980), 36-37.
393. Sonnenshein, Politics in Black and White, 55-66; Payne and Ratzan, Tom Bradley, 69, 197.
394. Mae M. Ngai, Impossible Subjects: Illegal Aliens and the Making of Modern America (Princeton, 2004), 227-264;
395. Heather Parker, "Tom Bradley and the Politics of Race," in African-American Mayors: Race, Politics, and the American City, ed. David R. Colburn and Jeffrey S. Adler (Urbana, 2001), 153-77; Crenshaw Notes 73 (January 1972); Takei, To the Stars, 281-310; Los Angeles 2000 Committee, LA 2000: A City for the Future (Los Angeles, 1988), 51, 59.
396. David Monkawa, "The Westside Community: 'Getting it Together' Against Crime," Gidra, December 1973, 4.
397. Dwight Chuman and Dean Toji, "Fred Kawano Interview, Part 2," Gidra, February 1974, 6-8;
398. John Saito, "Yellow Power," The Integrator, Summer 1968.
399. LAT, 13 February 2005; Yuri Kochiyama, Passing It On: A Memoir (Los Angeles, 2004), 39-77; Donna K. Nagata, Legacy of Injustice: Exploring the Cross-Generational Impact of the Japanese American Internment (New York, 1993), 98-99.
400. Nakano, "Them Bad Cats, Part II," 7; Sheri Miyashiro, "Yellow Brotherhood," Gidra, Twentieth Anniversary Issue, 122-23; Nick Nagatani, " 'Action Talks and Bullshit Walks': From the Founders of Yellow Brotherhood to the Present," in Asian Americans: The Movement and the Moment, ed. Steve Louie and Glenn Omatsu (Los Angeles, 2001), 148-55.
401. Amy Uyematsu, "To All Us Sansei Who Wanted To Be Westside," 30 Miles From J-Town (Brownsville, OR, 1992), 3; Amy Uyematsu, "The Emergence of Yellow Power in America," Roots: An Asian American Reader, ed. Amy Tachiki et al. (Los Angeles, 1971), 9-13; "Storefront: Cooperation Over Competition," Gidra, January 1972, 3; Bruce Iwasaki, "Dissolving: The Storefront. It's A Long Story," Gidra, April 1973, 7, 18-19.
402. LAT, 12 November 1967, 30 September 1974.
403. See US Bureau of the Census, table 1a, http://www.census.gov/ipc/www/usinterimproj/.
404. McWilliams, Speech to the Annual Meeting of the California Library Association.
405. Los Angeles Urban League and United Way of Los Angeles, The State of Black Los Angeles (Los Angeles, 2005), 25-42; quoted in Erin Aubry Kaplan, "Cloud Over the Promised Land," LA Weekly, 22-28 July 2005.
406. McWilliams, Speech to the Annual Meeting of the California Library Association.
407. Edward W. Soja and Allen J. Scott, "Introduction to Los Angeles: City and Region," in The City: Los Angeles and Urban Theory at the End of the Twentieth Century, ed. Scott and Soja (Berkeley, 1996), 17.
408. Sánchez, " 'What's Good for Boyle Heights Is Good for the Jews,' " 633-661.
409. See Bennett Harrison, Lean and Mean: The Changing Landscape of Corporate Power in the Age of Flexibility (New York, 1994).
410. Paul Ong et al., Beyond Asian American Poverty: Community Economic Development Policies and Strategies (Los Angeles, 1993), 13-56.
411. Erin J. Aubry, "Lost Soul," LA Weekly, 4-10 December 1998; LAT, 3 and 24 May 2006.
412. Aubry, "Lost Soul"; LAT, 26 April 2006.
413. NYT, 8 May 2000; Sowell quoted in RS, 22 June 2000; Sanders quoted in RS, 12 May 2000; Nakamoto quoted in Erin Aubry, "Bowl Over," LA Weekly, 5-11 May 2000; Feuer quoted in RS, 4 December 2000.
414. On "polyculturalism," see Vijay Prashad, Everybody Was Kung Fu Fighting: Afro-Asian Connections and the Myth of Cultural Purity (Boston, 2001).