The Presidential difference: Leadership style from FDR to Barack Obama

The Presidential Difference: Leadership style from FDR to Barack Obama

Volumn , Issue , 2012, Pages

  Greenstein, Fred I ^a  

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References (291)

1. For documentation of the two episodes, see John P. Burke and Fred I. Greenstein with the collaboration of Larry Berman and Richard Immerman, How Presidents Test Reality: Decisions on Vietnam, 1954 and 1965 (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 1989).
2. Richard E. Neustadt, Presidential Power: The Politics of Leadership (New York: Wiley, 1960)
3. James David Barber, The Presidential Character: Predicting Success in the White House (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice Hall, 1972).
4. Max Weber, "Politics as a Vocation," in From Max Weber: Essays in Sociology, ed. H. H. Gerth and C. Wright Mills (New York: Oxford University Press, 1956, originally published in 1919), 115
5. Daniel Coleman, Emotional intelligence (New York: Bantam Books, 1995).
6. A Discussion with Gerald R. Ford: The American Presidency (Washington, D.C.: American Enterprise Institute, 1977), 3.
7. Clinton Campaign Speech at Pleasant Grove Baptist Church, March 13, 1992 (C-Span Archives).
8. "Remarks on Signing the Line .Item Veto Act and an Exchange with Reporters," April 9, 1996, in Public Papers of the Presidents: William J. Clinton, 1996 (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1997).
9. Geoffrey C. Ward, Before the Trumpet: Young Franklin Rooseuelt, 1881-1 905 (New York: Harper & Row, 1985), 243.
10. William Hopkins, oral history interview, John F. Kennedy Presidential Library, Boston, Massachusetts.
11. For the texts of the fireside chats, see Russell D. Buhite and David W. Levy, FDR's Fireside Chats (Norman, Okla.: University of Oklahoma Press, 1992)
12. Roosevelt's remark about rationing his talks appears in a May 20, 1935, letter to the journalist Ray Stannard Baker, which is reproduced in FDR: His Personal Letters: 1928-1 945 (New York: Duell, Sloan, Pearce, 1950), 3: 144-145.
13. Leo C. Rosten, The Washington Correspondents (New York: Harcourt Brace, 1937), 49.
14. Arthur Schlesinger, Jc, The Coming of the New Deal (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1959), 528.
15. Robert Sherwood, Roosevelt and Hopkins: An Intimate History (New York: Harper, 1948), 9
16. Harold Ickes, The Secret Diary of Harold Ickes: The Inside Struggle (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1953-1954), 659.
17. Samuel I. Rosenman, Working with Roosevelt (New York: Harper & Row, 1952), 468.
18. Schlesinger, The Coming of the New Deal, 522-523.
19. I draw particularly on the account of the Hundred Days by Kenneth S. Davis, FDR: The New Deal Years, 1933-1 937: A History (New York: Random House, 1986), chaps. 3,4.
20. The quarterback analogy is from Roosevelt's April 19, 1933, press conference. Complete Presidential Press Conferences of Franklin D. Roosevelt (New York: Da Capo Press, 1972), 1: 156-158
21. On Roosevelt's about-face on deposit insurance, see Frank Freidel, Franklin D. Roosevelt: Launching the New Deal (Boston: Little, Brown, 1973), 442-443.
22. George Martin, Madam Secretary: Francis Perkins (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1976), 435.
23. For a fuller account, see Warren Kimball, The Most Unsordid Act: Lend Lease, 1939-1 941 (Baltimore, Md.: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1969).
24. For a review of the literature on Roosevelt's wartime diplomacy, see Mark A. Stoler, "A Half Century of Conflict: Interpretations of U.S. World War I1 Diplomacy," Diplomatic History 18 (1994): 375-403.
25. Warren F. Kimball, ed., Churchill and Roosevelt: The Complete Correspondence: 1 Alliance Emerging (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1984), 421.
26. Quoted by Frances Perkins in The Roosevelt I Knew (New York: Viking, 1946), 83-85.
27. Milovan Djilas, Conversations with Stalin (New York: Harcourt, Brace & World, 1962), 73.
28. In 1970, the Bureau of the Budget was renamed the Office of Management and Budget. For a fuller account, see Larry Berman, The Office of Management and Budget and the Presidency: 1921-1 979 (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1979).
29. Raymond Moley, After Seven Years (New York: Harper & Brothers, 1939), 48.
30. On the economics of the New Deal, see Stanley Lebergott, The Americans: An Economic Record (New York: Norton, 1982), 453-465.
31. Geoffrey C. Ward, A First-Class Temperament: The Emergence of Franklin Roosevelt (New York: Harper & Row, 1989), xv.
32. Davis, FDR: The New Deal Years, 319-320.
33. On Roosevelt's last year, see Robert H. Ferrell, The Dying President: Franklin D. Roosevelt: 1944-1 945 (Columbia, Mo.: University of Missouri Press, 1998), 138-152
34. For the assertion by a Roosevelt aide that he "must have been psychoanalyzed by God," see John Gunther, Roosevelt in Retrospect (New York: Harper, 1950), 33.
35. On the routinization of charisma, see H. H. Gerth and C. Wright Mills, eds., From Max Weber: Essays in Sociology (New York: Oxford University Press, 1956), 53-54,297.
36. On Truman's shifting reputation, see Geoffrey S. Smith, "'Harry, We Hardly Know You,"' American Political Science Review 70 (1976): 560-582
37. Daniel Yergin, "Harry Truman-Revived and Revised," New York Times Magazine, October 24, 1976
38. For a book that exemplifies the latter-day idealization of Truman, see David McCullough's Pulitzer Prize-winning Truman (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1992).
39. The phrase "small ego" appears on page 43 of Alonzo L. Hamby, "An American Democrat: A Reevaluation of the Personality of Harry S. Truman," Political Science Quarterly 106 (1991 ): 1-55
40. Any unattributed quotations in this chapter are from Hamby's Man of the People: A Life o f Harry S. Truman (New York: Oxford University Press, 1995).
41. Remarks at Camp Pike, Arkansas, August 1933, County Judge File, Truman Library, Independence, Missouri.
42. Time, April 30, 1945, 17-19
43. For Truman's Gallup poll ratings see The Gallup Opinion Index, Report No. 182 (October-November 1980). All of the Gallup statistics reported in this book are from that report, George C. Edwards 111, Presidential Approval: A Sourcebook (Baltimore, Md.: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1990), and in information provided by Gallup.
44. For detailed documentation, see Robert James Maddox, From War to Cold War: The Education of Harry S. Truman (Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press, 1988).
45. Robert H. Ferrell, ed., Off the Record: The Private Papers of Harry S. Truman (New York: Harper & Row, 1980), 31.
46. Leslie R. Groves, Now It Can Be Told: The Story of the Manhattan Project (New York: Harper & Row, 1962), 265
47. See also J. Samuel Walker, "The Decision to Use the Bomb: A Historiographical Update," Diplomatic History 14 (1970): 97-114
48. For the revisionist view on Truman's use of nuclear weapons, see Gar Alperovitz, Atomic Diplomacy: Hiroshima and Potsdam, the Use of the Atomic Bomb and the American Confrontation with Soviet Power (New York: Elisabeth Sifton Books, 1985).
49. Robert J. Donovan, Conflict and Crisis: The Presidency of Harry S. Truman, 1945-1 948 (New York: Norton, 1977), 116.
50. On Acheson's speech, see Robert J. Donovan, Tumultuous Years: The Presidency of Harry S. Truman: 1949-1954 (New York: Norton, 1982), 136-138,200,221.
51. Dean Acheson, Present at the Creation: My Years at the State Department (New York: Norton, 1969), 730.
52. Donovan, The Tumultuous Years, 370-371
53. Robert H. Ferrell has edited a number of collections of Truman's private reflections and fulminations, including Off the Record: The Private Papers of Harry S. Truman and The Autobiography of Harry S. Truman (Boulder, Colo.: Colorado Associated University Press, 1980).
54. On the Truman White House, see Francis H. Heller, ed., The Truman White House: The Administration of the Presidency: 1945-1953 (Lawrence, Kans.: Regents Press of Kansas, 1980)
55. Ken Hechler, Working with Truman: A Personal Memoir of the White House Years (New York: Putnam, 1982)
56. On the changes in the Executive Office of the President in Truman's time, see Richard E. Neustadt's "Presidency and Legislation: The Growth of Central Clearance," American Political Science Review 43 (1954): 641-671
57. "Presidency and Legislation: Planning the President's Program," American Political Science Review 44 (1955): 980-1021
58. See also Larry Berman, The Ofice of Management and Budget and the Presidency, 1921-1979 (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1979).
59. Harry S. Truman, Memoirs, Vol. 1, Year of Decisions (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1955), 125.
60. For evidence from the archives of the former Soviet Union indicating that Acheson's speech may have emboldened Stalin to authorize the invasion of South Korea, see John Lewis Caddis, We Now Know: Rethinking Cold War History (New York: Oxford University Press, 1997), 72-73
61. Sidney Hook's distinction between eventful and event-making leaders appears in his The Hero in History (New York: John Day, 1943).
62. Clifford J. Carry, "President Truman and Peter the Great's Will," Diplomatic History 4 (1980): 371-385.
63. On polls of historians about presidential greatness, see Robert K. Murray and Tim H. Blessing, Greatness in the White House: Rating the Presidents from George Washington Through Ronald Reagan, 2d ed. (University Park, Pa.: Pennsylvania State University Press, 1994).
64. Richard E. Neustadt, Presidential Power: The Politics of Leadership (New York: Wiley, 1960)
65. The most recent of several expansions of Neustadt's classic was published by the Free Press in 1990. The account of Eisenhower's leadership in this chapter builds on Fred I
66. Greenstein, The Hidden- Hand Presidency: Eisenhower as Leader (New York: Basic Books, 1982; 2d ed. with a new preface, Baltimore, Md.: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1994).
67. For a detailed account, see Greenstein, The Hidden-Hand Presidency, 155-227.
68. The discarded introduction to Crusade in Europe appears in the file containing the manuscript of that work, Eisenhower Library, Abilene, Kansas.
69. John Osborne, "White House Watch: Gabbing with (Bryce) Harlow," New Republic, May 13, 1978, 12-14. Harlow was a speechwriter and legislative liaison aide of Eisenhower.
70. On the importance of the effective use of the transition between election and inauguration, see James P. Pfiffner, The Strategic Presidency: Hitting the Ground Running, 2d ed. (Lawrence, Kans.: University Press of Kansas, 1996)
71. Also see Charles O. Jones, Passages to the Presidency: From Cdmpaigning to Governing (Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution Press, 1998).
72. Robert H. Ferrell, ed., The Eisenhower Diaries (New York: Norton, 1981), 202.
73. The quotation from Kennan appears in Project Solarium: A Collective Oral Histoy, February 27, 1988, transcript of John Foster Dulles Centennial Conference, Seeley Mudd Library, Princeton University. (The policy exercise was given the name Project Solarium for the room in the White House in which it was hatched.)
74. On Eisenhower's national security strategy, see John Lewis Gaddis, Strategies of Containment: A Critical Appraisal of Postwar American National Security Policy (New York: Oxford University Press, 1984)
75. Robert R. Bowie and Richard H. Immerman, Wagirig Peace: How Eisenhower Shaped an Enduring Cold War Strategy (New York: Oxford University Press, 1998)
76. Meena Bose, Shaping and Signaling Presidential Policy: The National Security Decision Making of Eisenhower and Kennedy (College Station, Tex.: Texas A&M Press, 1998).
77. The account that follows is drawn from John Burke and Fred I. Greenstein, with Larry Berman and Richard Immerman, How Presidents Test Reality (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 1988), chaps. 2-5.
78. Peter J. Roman, Eisenhower and the Missile Gap (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1995).
79. Robert A. Divine, The Sputnik Challenge: Eisenhower's Response to the Soviet Satellite (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993), xiv-xvi.
80. Eisenhower's public communication style is discussed in Bose, Shaping and Signaling Presidential Policy.
81. On the Kennedy missile buildup, see Desmond Ball, Politics and Force Lev els: The Strategic Missile Program of the Kennedy Administration (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1980)
82. According to a recent estimate, the combined nuclear arsenals of the United States, Russia, China, Great Britain, and France totaled 36,000 warheads
83. William M. Arkin, Robert S. Norris, and Joshua Handler, Taking Stock: Worldwide Nuclear Deployments, 1998 (Washington, D.C.: National Resources Defense Council, 1998).
84. Robert R. Bowie, Columbia University Oral History, quoted in Greenstein, The Hidden-Hand Presidency, 33-34. Bowie was the head of the State Department policy planning staff.
85. Richard M. Nixon, Six Crises (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1962), 158-159.
86. John Fitzgerald Kennedy, Why England Slept (New York: Funk, 1940).
87. James N. Giglio, "Past Frustrations, New Opportunities: Researching the Kennedy Presidency at the Kennedy Library," Presidential Studies Quarterly 22 (Spring 1992): 371-379.
88. John Fitzgerald Kennedy, Profiles in Courage (New York: Harper, 1956).
89. "Looking at the Kennedy Presidency 35 Years Later," The Public Perspective: A Roper Center Review of Public Opinion and Polling 9 (October-November 1988): 11.
90. For critiques of Kennedy as a cold warrior, see Thomas G. Paterson, ed. Kennedy's Quest for Victory: American Foreign Policy, 1961-1 963 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1989)
91. For a balanced review of the literature on Kennedy and foreign affairs, see Burton I. Kaufman, "John F. Kennedy as World Leader: A Perspective on the Literature," Diplomatic History 17 (Summer 1993): 447-469
92. For a work that synthesizes the ideological and psychosexual criticisms that have been leveled at Kennedy, see Thomas C. Reeves, A Question of Character: A Life of John E Kennedy (New York: Free Press, 1991).
93. This thesis is most fully developed in Reeves, A Question of Character.
94. For a richly documented account of the Kennedy-Khrushchev relationship, see Michael Beschloss, The Crisis Years: Kennedy and Khrushchev, 1960-1 963 (New York: HarperCollins, 1991).
95. "Annual Message to Congress on the State of the Union," January 30, 1961, in Public Papers of the Presidents of the United States: John E Kennedy, 1961 (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1962), 23.
96. Beschloss, The Crisis Years, 65.
97. Arthur Schlesinger, JT , The Age of Roosevelt: The Coming of the New Deal (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1959)
98. Richard E. Neustadt, Presidential Power: The Politics of Leadership (New York: Wiley, 1960).
99. "Remarks at the Rudolph Wilde Platz, Berlin," June 26, 1963, in Public Papers of the Presidents: John E Kennedy, 1963 (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1964), 524.
100. The occasion was a fund-raising dinner for the Democratic party. "Remarks at the Inaugural Anniversary Dinner," January 20,1962, in Public Papers of the Presidents:John E Kennedy, 1962 (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1963), 4041.
101. Bose, Shaping and Signaling Presidential Policy, 74.
102. Robert F. Kennedy, Thirteen Days: A Memoir of the Cuban Missile Crisis (New York: Norton, 1971), 109
103. Also See Richard E. Neustadt and Ernest R. May, Thinking in Time: The Uses of History for Decision Makers (New York: Free Press, 1986), 17-33.
104. Beschloss, The Crisis Years, 9-10.
105. The description of Johnson appears in Robert Dallek, Lone Star Rising: Lyndon Johnson and His Times, 1908-1 960 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1991), 351
106. Unless otherwise indicated, quotations in this chapter are from that work and the author's companion volume, Flawed Giant: Lyndon Johnson and is Times, 1961-1 973 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1998)
107. The statements of Johnson's associates are by Joseph A. Califano, Jc, The Triumph and Tragedy of Lyndon Johnson: The White House Years (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1991)
108. George Reedy, quoted in Dallek, Lone Star Rising, 352
109. John B. Connally, Jr., The American Experience: LBJ, Public Broadcasting Corporation, 1991.
110. "Address Before a Joint Session of Congress," November 27,1963, in Public Papers of the Presidents: Lyndon B. Johnson, 1963-64 (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1965).
111. James Sundquist, Politics and Policy: The Eisenhower, Kennedy, andJohnson Years (Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution, 1968), 11 1-154.
112. On the first episode see Lyndon Baines Johnson, Vantage Point: Perspectives on the Presidency, 1963-1 969 (New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1971), 3940
113. On the second see John D. Pomfret, "The Rail Settlement: A Triumph for Mediation," New York Times, April 27, 1964.
114. "Man of the Year," Time, January 1, 1965.
115. Sundquist, Politics and Policy, 212
116. Johnson, Vantage Point, 206-212.
117. E. L. Kensworthy, "Most in Congress Relieved by President's Course," New York Times, July 29, 1965
118. "The President's News Conference of July 18, 1965," in Public Papers of the Presidents: Lyndon B. Johnson, 1965 (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1966), 388.
119. "Annual Message to Congress on the State of the Union," January 12, 1966, in Public Papers of the Presidents: Lyndon B. Johnson, 1966 (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1967).
120. Richard Allen Moore oral history interview, Richard B. Russell Papers, Richard B. Russell Library, Athens, Georgia.
121. "Address to the Nation," March 31, 1968, in Public Papers of the Presidents: Lyndon B. Johnson, 1968 (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1969).
122. The best-known statement of the view that American intervention in Vietnam was contextually determined is Leslie H. Gelb with Richard K. Betts, The Irony of Vietnam: The System Worked (Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution, 1979).
123. "Senators Divided on Vietnam Stand: Frustration and Uncertainty Prevail as Debate Nears," New York Times, January 7, 1965
124. George H. Gallup, The Gallup Poll: Public Opinion, 1935-1 971 (New York: Random House, 1972), 1921-1922
125. "Remarks in Oklahoma at the Dedication of the Eufala Dam," in Public Papers, 1963-64, 1126
126. Unless otherwise indicated, the account that follows is taken from John Burke and Fred I. Greenstein, with Larry Berman and Richard Immerman, How Presidents Test Reality: Decisions on Vietnam, 1954 and 1965 (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 1988)
127. Larry Berman, Planning a Tragedy: The Americanization of the War in Vietnam (New York: Norton, 1982).
128. Quoted in Larry Berman, "Lyndon Johnson: Paths Chosen and Opportunities Lost," in Leadership in the Modern Presidency, ed. Fred I. Greenstein (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1988), 151.
129. Michael R. Beschloss, ed., Taking Charge: The Johnson White House Tapes, 1963-1 964 (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1997), 370.
130. Isaiah 1:18.
131. Alfred Steinberg, Sam Johnson's Boy: A Close-up of the President from Texas (New York: Macmillan, 1968), 500.
132. Beschloss, Taking Charge, 529.
133. Harlow served with Nixon in the Eisenhower administration and was his first-term director of congressional relations. Bryce Harlow, "The Man and the Political Leader," in Kenneth W. Thompson, ed., The Nixon Presidency: Twenty-Two lntimate Perspectives of Richard M. Nixon (Latham, Md.: University Press of America, 1987), 7-10.
134. Richard Hofstadter, The Paranoid Style in American Politics and Other Essays (New York: Knopf, 1965).
135. Bela Kornitzer, The Real Nixon: An Intimate Biography (Chicago: Rand McNally, 1960), 57, 61-66.
136. Unless otherwise indicated, direct quotations in this section are taken from Stephen Ambrose, Nixon, 3 vols. (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1987-1991)
137. On Nixon's congressional campaigns, also see Irwin F. Gellman, The Contender: Richard Nixon: The Congressional Years, 1946-1 952 (New York: Free Press, 1999).
138. "New Faces in the House," Time, November 18, 1946, 16.
139. Richard M. Nixon, "Asia After Viet Nam," Foreign Affairs 46 (October 1967): 111-125.
140. Raymond Price, With Nixon (New York: Viking Press, 1977), 29.
141. John Lewis Caddis, Strategies of Containment: A Critical Appraisal of Postwar American National Security Policy (New York: Oxford University Press, 1982), 289-297.
142. "Address to the Nation on the War in Vietnam," in Public Papers of the Presidents, Richard Nixon, 1969 (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1970), 901-909.
143. Stephen E. Ambrose, Nixon, Vol. 2, The Triumph of a Politician: 1962-1972 (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1989), 320
144. In 1999, former Nixon aide Alexander M. Butterfield reported that much of that deluge of mail had been instigated by the Nixon White House. George Lardner, Jr., "Butterfield: Response to Nixon's Silent Majority Speech was Contrived," Washington Post, January 23, 1999.
145. Barbara Kellerman, The Political Presidency: The Practice of Leadership (New York: Oxford University Press, 1984), 79.
146. Final Report of the Committee on the Judiciary, House of Representatives, "Minority Views of Messrs. Hutchinson, Smith, Sandman, Wiggins, Dennis, Mayne, Lott, Moorhead, Maraziti and Latta," 1975,482.
147. Richard M. Nixon, RN: The Memoirs of Richard Nixon (New York: Grosset & Dunlap, 1978), 411.
148. Ehrlichman interview, Biography: Richard Nixon: Man and President (New York: Arts and Entertainment Network video, 1996).
149. The foreign affairs specialist quoted is Harold H. Saunders (letter to the author, November 12,1997).
150. Leonard Garment, Crazy Rhythm: My Journey from Brooklyn, Jazz, and Wall Street to Nixon's White House, Watergate, and Beyond (New York: Times Books, 1997), 85.
151. The first two assertions are by Elmer Bobst and Hobart Lewis, respectively, members of Nixon's small circle of personal friends. They are quoted in Dom Bonafede, "President's Inner Circle of Friends Serves as an Influential 'Kitchen Cabinet,"' National Journal, January 22, 1972, 132
152. The third, which is by Haldeman, appears in Gerald S. Strober and Deborah H. Strober, Nixon: An Oral History of His Presidency (New York: Harper-Collins, 1994), 181.
153. H. R. Haldeman with Joseph DiMona, The Ends of Power (New York: Times Books, 1978), 62.
154. Gerald R. Ford, A Time to Heal: The Autobiography of Gerald R. Ford (New York: Harper & Row, 1979), 53.
155. See Robert L. Peabody's "Party Leadership Change in the United States House of Representatives," American Political Science Review 61 (September 1967)
156. Leadership in Congress: Succession, Stability, and Change (Boston: Little, Brown, 1976), 110-148.
157. "The Public Record of Gerald R. Ford," CQ Weekly Report, October 20, 1972, 2762
158. A. James Reichley, Conseruatiues in an Age of Change: The Nixon and Ford Administrations (Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution, 1981), 281.
159. "Address upon Assuming the Presidency," in Public Papers of the Presidents: Gerald Ford, 1974 (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1975), 1:l.
160. Roger B. Porter, "A Healing Presidency," in Leadership in the Modern Presidency, ed. Fred I. Greenstein (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1988), 206-207.
161. The remaining respondents in each instance expressed no opinion. George H. Gallup, The Gallup Poll: Public Opinion 1972-1977 (Wilmington, Del.: Scholarly Resources, 1978), 347.
162. Facts on File Yearbook: 1974 (New York: Facts on File, 1975), 747-777
163. The Gallup Opinion Index (October-November 1980): 17.
164. Ford, A Time to Heal, 159.
165. Robert T. Hartmann, Palace Politics: An lnside Account of the Ford Years (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1980), 261.
166. Ford, A Time to Heal, 186.
167. Roger B. Porter, Presidential Decision Making: The Economic Policy Board (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1980).
168. James Cannon, Time and Chance: Gerald Ford's Appointment with History (New York: HarperCollins, 1994), 394.
169. Ford, A Time to Heal, 133.
170. The interview, with Associated Press reporter Saul Pett, conducted on October 21, 1974, and published in the Los Angeles Times on October 27, 1974, is excerpted in Facts on File Yearbook: 1974, 891.
171. The passages quoted from Alan Greenspan appear in The President and the Council of Economic Advisors: lnteruiews with CEA Chairman, ed. Erwin C. Hargrove and Samuel A. Morley (Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press, 1984), 4161119. Malkiel's comments are in a July 29,1999, memorandum to the author.
172. Henry Kissinger, Years of Renewal (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1999), 171-172.
173. Douglas Brinkley, The Unfinished Presidency: Jimmy Carter's Journey Beyond the White House (New York: Viking, 1998)
174. John Whiteclay Chambers 11, "Jimmy Carter's Public Policy Ex-Presidency," Political Science Quarterly 113 (1998): 405435.
175. Jimmy Carter, Why Not the Best? (Nashville, Tenn.: Broadman Press, 1975), 12.
176. Leslie Wheeler, Jimmy Who? An Examination of Presidential Candidate Jimmy Carter: The Man, His Career, His Stand on Issues (Woodbury, N.J.: Barrons, 1976), 115.
177. Aaron Wildavsky and Jack Knott, "Jimmy Carter's Theory of Governing," Wilson Quarterly (Winter 1977): 49-67.
178. "Playboy Interview: Jimmy Carter: A Candid Conversation with the Democratic Candidate for the Presidency," Playboy (November 1976): 86.
179. Thomas P. O'Neill with William Novak, Man of the House: The Life and Political Memoirs of Speaker Tip O'Neill (New York: Random House, 1987), 297-329.
180. For a perceptive commentary on Carter's failure to set policy priorities, see David S. Broder, "Lack of Strategy in the Carter Camp," Washington Post, June 8,1977.
181. Jimmy Carter, Keeping Faith: Memoirs of a President (New York: Bantam Books, 1982), 171.
182. "Energy and National Goals," in Public Papers of the Presidents of the United States: Jimmy Carter, 1979 (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1980), 1235.
183. "High Marks on Early Exams," Time, April 4, 1977
184. Peter Goldman, Eleanor Clift, and Thomas M. DeFrank, "Jimmy So Far," Newsweek, May 2, 1977,48
185. The Gallup Opinion Index (October-November 1980): 14.
186. James Fallows, "The Passionless Presidency: The Trouble with the Jimmy Carter Administration," Atlantic Monthly (May 1979): 33-47.
187. Don Oberdorfer, The Two Koreas: A Contemporary History (Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley, 1997), 84-115.
188. Unless otherwise indicated, the sources of this chapter are the two excellent biographical studies of Reagan and his presidency by Washington Post reporter Lou Cannon: Reagan (New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1982)
189. President Reagan: The Role of a Lifetime (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1991).
190. "A Time for Choosing," October 27, 1964
191. in Paul D. Erickson, Reagan Speaks: The Making of an American Myth (New York: New York University Press, 1985), 124-138.
192. Robert Dallek, Ronald Reagan: The Politics of Symbolism (Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University Press, 1984), 39-40.
193. Cannon, President Reagan.
194. Michael K. Deaver, Behind the Scenes (New York: Morrow, 1987), 165-166
195. Donald T. Regan, For the Record: From Wall Street to Washington (New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1988), 142
196. David A. Stockman, The Triumph of Politics: Why the Reagan Revolution Failed (New York: Harper & Row, 1986), 419.
197. Martin Anderson, Revolution (New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1988), 283-286,291-292.
198. Hugh Heclo and Rudolf G. Penner, "Fiscal and Political Strategy in the Reagan Administration: 198 1-1 982," in The Reagan Presidency: An Early Assessment, ed. Fred I. Greenstein (Baltimore, Md.: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1983), 39.
199. New York Times, November 26, 1986, 10.
200. "How Will Reagan Go Down in History?" Gallup Report, no. 277 (October 1988).
201. "The President's News Conference," January 29, 1981, in Public Papers of the Presidents of the United States: Ronald Reagan, 1981 (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1982)
202. "Remarks at the Annual Convention of the National Association of Evangelicals, Orlando, Florida," in Public Papers of the Presidents of the United States: Ronald Reagan, 1983 (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1984).
203. For a lucid account of the politics of the end of the cold war, see Don Oberdorfer, From the Cold War to a New Era (Baltimore, Md.: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1998).
204. I am indebted to Douglas Dillon for this account.
205. William C. Wohlforth, ed., Witnesses to the End of the Cold War (Baltimore, Md.: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996), 105.
206. Cannon, Reagan, 137-138
207. Howard Gardner, Frames of Mind: The Theory of Multiple Intelligences (New York: Basic Books, 1983).
208. Wohlforth, Witnesses to the End of the Cold War, 10
209. Gallup Poll Monthly, no. 306 (March 1991): 2.
210. The best biography of Bush is Herbert S. Parmet, George Bush: The Life of a Lone Star Yankee (New York: Scribner, 1997).
211. Facts on File Yearbook: 1979 (New York: Facts on File, 1980), 326B1.
212. Unless otherwise indicated, quotations are from Herbert S. Parmet, George Bush: The Life of a Lone Star Yankee (New York: Scribner, 1997).
213. Toasts at the state dinner for Prime Minister Benazir Bhutto of Pakistan, June 6, 1989, in Public Papers of the Presidents of the United States: George Bush, 1989 (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1990), 686.
214. David Hoffman, "Bush Doubts Soviets Have Changed: Vice President Disagrees with Reagan's Assessment at Summit," Washington Post, June 8, 1988, A9
215. David Broder, "Cold War 'Not Over,' Bush Warns: Slackening Buildup Called a Mistake," Washington Post, June 29, 1988, A14.
216. Jack F. Matlock, Jr., Autopsy on an Empire: The American Ambassador's Account of the Collapse of the Soviet Union (New York: Random House, 1995), 591.
217. Facts on File Yearbook: 1990 (New York: Facts on File, 1991), 582A3.
218. "Inaugural Address," in Public Papers of the Presidents of the United States: George Bush, 1989 (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1990), 3-4.
219. Dac Goodgame, "Read My Hips: Bush's Flip-flops Add New Confusion to the Budget Battle and Raise Doubts About His Domestic Leadership," Time, October 22, 1990,26-28.
220. Gallup Poll Monthly, no. 318 (March 1992): 43.
221. George Bush and Brent Scowcroft, A World Transformed (New York: Knopf, 1998).
222. The most influential statement of that thesis appears in Irving L. Janis, Groupthink: Psychological Studies of Policy Decisions and Fiascoes (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1982).
223. For an excellent account of the prepresidential Clinton, see David Maraniss, First in His Class: The Biography of Bill Clinton (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1995)
224. For a view of Clinton through the prism of psychoanalysis, see Stanley A. Renshon, High Hopes: The Clinton Presidency and the Politics of Ambition (New York: New York University Press, 1996).
225. Ernest Dumas, The Clintons of Arkansas: An Introduction by Those Who Knew Them Best (Fayetteville, Ark.: University of Arkansas Press, 1993), xvi.
226. Donald Baer, Matthew Cooper, and David Gergen, "Bill Clinton's Hidden Life," U.S. News and World Report, July 20, 1992.
227. For a fuller account of Clinton's actions to avoid the draft, see Maraniss, First in His Class, 167-205.
228. Dan Balz and Howard Kurtz, "Clinton Calls Tabloid Story of 12-Year Affair 'Not True,"' Washington Post, January 24, 1992
229. Jeffrey H. Birn baum, "Clinton Received a Vietnam Draft Deferment for an ROTC Program That He Never Joined," Wall Street Journal, February 6, 1992.
230. Howard Kurtz, "Clintons Agree to Do '60 Minutes,'" Washington Post, January 25, 1992.
231. R. W. Apple, Jr., "Clinton, Savoring Victory, Starts Sizing Up Job Ahead," New York Times, November 5, 1992. ABC-Washington Post poll fi nding supplied by the Roper Center, University of Connecticut.
232. Richard Lacayo, "A Moment of Silence," Time, May 8, 1995, 46.
233. Inaugural Address, January 20, 1997, in Public Papers of the Presidents: William Jefferson Clinton, 1997 (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Offi ce, 1998).
234. The specifi cs are detailed in the referral of the independent counsel to the House of Representatives, popularly known as "The Starr Report."
235. For a reprint with valuable added material, see The Starr Report: The Findings of Independent Counsel Kenneth W. Starr on President Clinton and the Lewinsky Affair with Analysis by the Staff of the Washington Post (New York: PublicAffairs, 1998).
236. Tom Squiteri and Kevin Johnson, "Speech Boosts Clinton's Rating," USA Today, January 29, 1998
237. For a scholarly analysis, see John Zaller, "Monica Lewinsky's Contribution to Political Science," P.S. 31 (1998): 182-189.
238. "A Year of Grudging Compromises and Unfi nished Business," 1999 CQ Almanac (Washington, D.C.: Congressional Quarterly Press, 2000).
239. "Remarks at a Fundraiser for Mayor David Dinkins," New York City, September 26, 1993, in Public Papers of the Presidents: William Jefferson Clinton, 1993 (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Offi ce, 1994).
240. Elizabeth Drew, On the Edge: The Clinton Presidency (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1994), 348.
241. Dick Morris, Behind the Oval Offi ce: Winning the Presidency in the Nineties (New York: Random House, 1997)
242. Robert Reich, Locked in the Cabinet (New York: Knopf, 1997)
243. George Stephanopoulos, All Too Human: A Political Education (Boston: Little, Brown, 1999).
244. Maraniss, First in His Class, 138-139, 234-235.
245. The most balanced biography of George W. Bush is Bill Minutaglio, First Son: George W. Bush and the Bush Family Dynasty (New York: Times Books, 1999). There is no good biography as yet that includes his pre si dency.
246. George W. Bush, A Charge to Keep: My Journey to the White House (New York: HarperCollins, 1999), 180.
247. Alan C. Miller and Judy Pasternak, "Records Show Bush's Focus on Big Picture," Los Angeles Times, August 2, 2000.
248. For a Bush advisor's elaboration, see Marvin Olasky, Compassionate Conservatism: What It Is, What It Does, and How It Can Transform America (New York: Free Press, 2000).
249. Commission on Presidential Debates, "The Second Gore-Bush Presidential Debate," October 11, 2000, http://www.debates.org/pages/trans2000b.html.
250. For a succinct summary of this event, see Facts on File World News Digest Yearbook: 2001 (New York: Facts on File, 2002), 304.
251. John P. Burke, Becoming President: The Bush Transition, 2000-2003 (Boulder, Colo.: Lynne Rienner, 2004).
252. Richard A. Brody, "President Bush and the Public," in The George W. Bush Presidency: An Early Assessment, ed. Fred I. Greenstein (Baltimore, Md.: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2003), 228-244
253. See also Brody's "The American People and President George W. Bush: The Fall, the Rise and Fall Again," The Forum: A Journal of Applied Research in Contemporary Politics 6 (June 2008), http://www.bepress.com/forum/vol6/iss2/art1/.
254. A list of the post-September 11 NSC meetings can be found in the index of Bob Woodward's Bush at War (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2002), 367. The exchange between Rumsfeld and Powell appears on page 49. Bush was also immersed in information during the Iraq war, receiving as much as three hours a day of briefi ngs
255. Elisabeth Bumiller, "President, No Matter Where, Keeps Battlefi eld Close," New York Times, March 30, 2003
256. See also, Judy Keene and Laurence McQullan, "Bush Dives into Details of Iraq Confl ict," USA Today, March 21, 2003.
257. Bush received 286 electoral votes to Kerry's 251. If the closely divided state of Ohio had gone Democratic, the outcome would have been a mirror image of 2000, with the Democrats losing the popular vote, but winning the election in the Electoral College.
258. John Mueller, "The Iraq Syndrome," Foreign Affairs (November-December 2005): 44-54.
259. "Bush Replaces Rumsfeld to Get 'Fresh Perspective,'" November 9, 2006, CNN.com, http://www.cnn.com/2006/POLITICS/11/08/rumsfeld/index.html?iref=newssearch.
260. The Iraq Study Group report can be found at the Web site of the U.S. Institute of Peace: www.usip.org/isg/.
261. Stephen Thomma, "Growing on the Job," Miami Herald, December 9, 2001.
262. Offi ce of the Press Secretary, "President Bush, Prime Minister Blair Hold Press Availability," March 27, 2003, The White House.
263. For such a claim, see Jacob Weisberg, The Bush Tragedy (New York: Random House, 2008)
264. For a psychological biography of Bush that reaches the opposite conclusion, see Stanley A. Renshon, In His Father's Shadow: The Transformations of George W. Bush (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2004).
265. Woodward, Bush at War, 158.
266. Barack Obama, Dreams from My Father: A Story of Race and Inheritance (New York: Crown Publishers, 1995), 76
267. See also Barack Obama, The Audacity of Hope: Thoughts on Reclaiming the American Dream (New York: Three Rivers Press, 2006), in which Obama discusses his political career and policy positions.
268. Obama, Dreams from My Father, 85-86
269. David Mendell, Obama: From Promise to Power (New York: HarperCollins, 2007), 58-61.
270. Obama, Dreams from My Father, 133-141.
271. See also, Lisa Miller and Richard Wolffe, "Finding His Faith," Newsweek, July 21, 2008.
272. See, for example, Fox Butterfi eld, "First Black Elected to Head Harvard's Law Review," New York Times, February 6, 1990.
273. Mendell, Obama, 122.
274. Charles Peters, "Judge Him by His Laws," Washington Post, January 4, 2008
275. Janny Scott, "In Illinois, Obama Proved Pragmatic and Shrewd," New York Times, July 30, 2007.
276. Peter Rouse, interview, Frontline, The Choice 2008, PBS, October 14, 2008, http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/choice2008/interviews/rouse.html.
277. Jon Cohen, "Gallup: Americans Give Obama Transition the Thumbs Up," Washington Post online, "44: The Obama Presidency" blog, December 2, 2008, http://voices.washingtonpost.com/44/2008/12/02/gallup_americans_give_obama_tr.html.
278. Obama made this statement in response to a reporter's question following his December 1, 2008, announcement of his national security team. The term groupthink was coined by the social psychologist Irving Janis to refer to a tendency of congenial advisory groups to accept fl awed policies out of a reluctance to be disagreeable to their associates
279. Irving L. Janis, Groupthink: Psychological Studies of Policy Decisions and Fiascoes, 2d ed. (Boston: Houghton Miffl in, 1982).
280. For a report of interviews with Obama's law school students, see Alexandra Starr, "Case Study," New York Times Magazine, September 21, 2008.
281. Peter Baker, "Transition Holds Clues to Obama Governance," New York Times, January 20, 2009.
282. The Hotline On Call, "Hotline After Dark-For Love of the Game," November 4, 2008, http://hotlineoncall.nationaljournal.com/archives/2008/11/hotline_after_d_479.php.
283. Joel Achenbach, "In a Heated Race, Obama's Cool Won the Day," Washington Post, November 6, 2008.
284. Arthur Schlesinger, Jr., "Rating the Presidents: Washington to Clinton," Political Science Quarterly 112 (1997): 179-190.
285. David Maraniss, First in His Class: The Biography of Bill Clinton (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1995), 280-281.
286. Eleanor Roosevelt, This Is My Story (New York: Harper, 1937), 167.
287. Dwight D. Eisenhower, Columbia University Oral History Interview, July 20, 1967, 103.
288. Chester L. Cooper, Lost Crusade: America in Vietnam (Greenwich, Conn.: Dodd, Mead, 1970), 223.
289. Richard E. Neustadt, Presidential Power: The Politics of Leadership (New York: Wiley, 1960).
290. See Chapter 4 and John P. Burke, Fred I. Greenstein, with Larry Berman and Richard Immerman, How Presidents Test Reality (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 1988), chaps. 2-5, 32.
291. Richardson interview, Arts and Entertainment Network documentary: Biography: Richard Nixon: Man and President (New York, 1996).