When to prevent cardiovascular disease? As early as possible: Lessons from prospective cohorts beginning in childhood

Current Opinion in Cardiology

Volumn 28, Issue 5, 2013, Pages 561-568

  Magnussen, Costan G ^a,b   Smith, Kylie J ^a   Juonala, Markus ^b,c  

^a UNIVERSITY OF TASMANIA   (Australia)

^b UNIVERSITY OF TURKU   (Finland)

^c TURKU UNIVERSITY HOSPITAL   (Finland)

Author keywords

cardiovascular disease; carotid intima media thickness; modifiable risk factors; pediatric; review

Indexed keywords

HIGH DENSITY LIPOPROTEIN CHOLESTEROL; LOW DENSITY LIPOPROTEIN CHOLESTEROL;

CALORIC INTAKE; CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASE; CARDIOVASCULAR RISK; CHILDHOOD DISEASE; CHILDHOOD OBESITY; CHOLESTEROL BLOOD LEVEL; DISEASE ASSOCIATION; DYSLIPIDEMIA; HUMAN; HYPERTENSION; IMMOBILIZATION; IMPAIRED GLUCOSE TOLERANCE; INSULIN RESISTANCE; LIFESTYLE MODIFICATION; MEDITERRANEAN DIET; METABOLIC SYNDROME X; NON INSULIN DEPENDENT DIABETES MELLITUS; PRIORITY JOURNAL; REVIEW; RISK FACTOR; SYSTOLIC BLOOD PRESSURE;

ADOLESCENT; CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASES; CAROTID INTIMA-MEDIA THICKNESS; CHILD; COHORT STUDIES; DIET; HUMANS; HYPERLIPIDEMIAS; HYPERTENSION; INSULIN RESISTANCE; METABOLIC SYNDROME X; OBESITY; OVERWEIGHT; PROSPECTIVE STUDIES; PULSE WAVE ANALYSIS; RISK REDUCTION BEHAVIOR; SEDENTARY LIFESTYLE; SMOKING; TOBACCO SMOKE POLLUTION; VASCULAR STIFFNESS; VASODILATION;

EID: 84883342757     PISSN: 02684705     EISSN: 15317080     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1097/HCO.0b013e32836428f4     Document Type: Review

References (83)

1. Strong WB. Atherosclerosis: Its Pediatric Aspects. New York: Grune & Stratton; 1978.
2. Berenson GS, Srinivasan SR, Bao W, et al. Association between multiple cardiovascular risk factors and atherosclerosis in children and young adults. The Bogalusa Heart Study. N Engl J Med 1998; 338:1650-1656.
3. McGill HC Jr, McMahan CA, Gidding SS. Preventing heart disease in the 21st century: implications of the Pathobiological Determinants of Atherosclerosis in Youth (PDAY) study. Circulation 2008; 117:1216-1227.
4. Davis PH, Dawson JD, Riley WA, Lauer RM. Carotid intimal-medial thickness is related to cardiovascular risk factors measured from childhood through middle age: the Muscatine Study. Circulation 2001; 104:2815-2819.
5. Mahoney LT, Burns TL, Stanford W, et al. Coronary risk factors measured in childhood and young adult life are associated with coronary artery calcification in young adults: the Muscatine Study. J Am Coll Cardiol 1996; 27:277-284.
6. Li S, Chen W, Srinivasan SR, et al. Childhood cardiovascular risk factors and carotid vascular changes in adulthood: the Bogalusa Heart Study. JAMA 2003; 290:2271-2276.
7. Frontini MG, Srinivasan SR, Xu J, et al. Usefulness of childhood nonhigh density lipoprotein cholesterol levels versus other lipoprotein measures in predicting adult subclinical atherosclerosis: the Bogalusa Heart Study. Pediatrics 2008; 121:924-929.
8. Li S, Chen W, Srinivasan SR, et al. Race (black-white) and gender divergences in the relationship of childhood cardiovascular risk factors to carotid artery intima-media thickness in adulthood: the Bogalusa Heart Study. Atherosclerosis 2007; 194:421-425.
9. Raitakari OT, Juonala M, Kahonen M, et al. Cardiovascular risk factors in childhood and carotid artery intima-media thickness in adulthood: the Cardiovascular Risk in Young Finns Study. JAMA 2003; 290:2277-2283.
10. Juonala M, Viikari JS, Ronnemaa T, et al. Associations of dyslipidemias from childhood to adulthood with carotid intima-media thickness, elasticity, and brachial flow-mediated dilatation in adulthood: the Cardiovascular Risk in Young Finns Study. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 2008; 28:1012-1017.
11. Juonala M, Viikari JS, Kahonen M, et al. Childhood levels of serum apolipoproteins B and A-I predict carotid intima-media thickness and brachial endothelial function in adulthood: the cardiovascular risk in young Finns study. J Am Coll Cardiol 2008; 52:293-299.
12. Hartiala O, Magnussen CG, Kajander S, et al. Adolescence risk factors are predictive of coronary artery calcification at middle age: the cardiovascular risk in young Finns study. J Am Coll Cardiol 2012; 60:1364-1370.
13. Magnussen CG, Venn A, Thomson R, et al. The association of pediatric lowand high-density lipoprotein cholesterol dyslipidemia classifications and change in dyslipidemia status with carotid intima-media thickness in adulthood evidence from the cardiovascular risk in Young Finns study, the Bogalusa Heart study, and the CDAH (Childhood Determinants of Adult Health) study. J Am Coll Cardiol 2009; 53:860-869.
14. Magnussen CG, Raitakari OT, Thomson R, et al. Utility of currently recommended pediatric dyslipidemia classifications in predicting dyslipidemia in adulthood: evidence from the Childhood Determinants of Adult Health (CDAH) study, Cardiovascular Risk in Young Finns Study, and Bogalusa Heart Study. Circulation 2008; 117:32-42.
15. Magnussen CG, Thomson R, Cleland VJ, et al. Factors affecting the stability of blood lipid and lipoprotein levels from youth to adulthood: evidence from the Childhood Determinants of Adult Health Study. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med 2011; 165:68-76.
16. Ferreira I, van de Laar RJ, Prins MH, et al. Carotid stiffness in young adults: a life-course analysis of its early determinants: the Amsterdam Growth and Health Longitudinal Study. Hypertension 2012; 59:54-61.
17. Juonala M, Magnussen CG, Venn A, et al. Influence of age on associations between childhood risk factors and carotid intima-media thickness in adulthood: the Cardiovascular Risk in Young Finns Study, the Childhood Determinants of Adult Health Study, the Bogalusa Heart Study, and the Muscatine Study for the International Childhood Cardiovascular Cohort (i3C) Consortium. Circulation 2010; 122:2514-2520.
18. Juonala M, Viikari JS, Kahonen M, et al. Life-time risk factors and progression of carotid atherosclerosis in young adults: the Cardiovascular Risk in Young Finns study. Eur Heart J 2010; 31:1745-1751.
19. Kivimaki M, Magnussen CG, Juonala M, et al. Conventional and Mendelian randomization analyses suggest no association between lipoprotein(a) and early atherosclerosis: the Young Finns Study. Int J Epidemiol 2011; 40:470-478.
20. Li S, Chen W, Srinivasan SR, Berenson GS. Childhood blood pressure as a predictor of arterial stiffness in young adults: the bogalusa heart study. Hypertension 2004; 43:541-546.
21. Juonala M, Jarvisalo MJ, Maki-Torkko N, et al. Risk factors identified in childhood and decreased carotid artery elasticity in adulthood: the Cardiovascular Risk in Young Finns Study. Circulation 2005; 112:1486-1493.
22. Juonala M, Viikari JS, Ronnemaa T, et al. Elevated blood pressure in adolescent boys predicts endothelial dysfunction: the cardiovascular risk in young Finns study. Hypertension 2006; 48:424-430.
23. Raitakari OT, Juonala M, Taittonen L, et al. Pulse pressure in youth and carotid intima-media thickness in adulthood: the cardiovascular risk in young Finns study. Stroke 2009; 40:1519-1521.
24. KaelberDC, Pickett F. Simple table to identify children and adolescents needing further evaluation of blood pressure. Pediatrics 2009; 123:e972-e974.
25. Mitchell CK, Theriot JA, Sayat JG, et al. A simplified table improves the recognition of paediatric hypertension. J Paediatr Child Health 2011; 47:22-26.
26. National High Blood Pressure Education Program Working Group on High Blood Pressure in Children and Adolescents. The fourth report on the diagnosis, evaluation, and treatment of high blood pressure in children and adolescents. Pediatrics 2004; 114 (2 suppl 4th report):555-576.
27. Aatola H, Magnussen CG, Koivistoinen T, et al. Simplified definitions of elevated pediatric blood pressure and high adult arterial stiffness. Pediatrics 2013; 132:1 e70-e76.
28. Hansen ML, Gunn PW, Kaelber DC. Underdiagnosis of hypertension in children and adolescents. JAMA 2007; 298:874-879.
29. van de Laar RJ, Stehouwer CD, Boreham CA, et al. Continuing smoking between adolescence and young adulthood is associated with higher arterial stiffness in young adults: the Northern Ireland Young Hearts Project. J Hypertens 2011; 29:2201-2209.
30. Paul SL, Blizzard L, Patton GC, et al. Parental smoking and smoking experimentation in childhood increase the risk of being a smoker 20 years later: the Childhood Determinants of Adult Health Study. Addiction 2008; 103:846-853.
31. Gall SL, Abbott-Chapman J, Patton GC, et al. Intergenerational educational mobility is associated with cardiovascular disease risk behaviours in a cohort of young Australian adults: The Childhood Determinants of Adult Health (CDAH) Study. BMC Public Health 2010; 10:55.
32. Juonala M, Magnussen CG, Raitakari OT. Parental smoking produces longterm damage to vascular function in their children. Curr Opin Cardiol 2013; 28:569-574.
33. Juonala M, Magnussen CG, Venn A, et al. Parental smoking in childhood and brachial artery flow-mediated dilatation in young adults: the Cardiovascular Risk in Young Finns study and the Childhood Determinants of Adult Health study. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 2012; 32:1024-1031.
34. Raitakari OT, Adams MR, McCredie RJ, et al. Arterial endothelial dysfunction related to passive smoking is potentially reversible in healthy young adults. Ann Intern Med 1999; 130:578-581.
35. Ferreira I, Twisk JW, van Mechelen W, et al. Current and adolescent body fatness and fat distribution: relationships with carotid intima-media thickness and large artery stiffness at the age of 36 years. J Hypertens 2004; 22:145-155.
36. Oren A, Vos LE, Uiterwaal CS, et al. Change in body mass index from adolescence to young adulthood and increased carotid intima-media thickness at 28 years of age: the Atherosclerosis Risk in Young Adults study. Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord 2003; 27:1383-1390.
37. Freedman DS, Patel DA, Srinivasan SR, et al. The contribution of childhood obesity to adult carotid intima-media thickness: the Bogalusa Heart Study. Int J Obes (Lond) 2008; 32:749-756.
38. Juonala M, Raitakari M, S A Viikari J, Raitakari OT. Obesity in youth is not an independent predictor of carotid IMT in adulthood. The Cardiovascular Risk in Young Finns Study. Atherosclerosis 2006; 185:388-393.
39. Huynh Q, Blizzard L, Sharman J, et al. Relative contributions of adiposity in childhood and adulthood to vascular health of young adults. Atherosclerosis 2013; 228:259-264.
40. Toprak A, Wang H, Chen W, et al. Relation of childhood risk factors to left ventricular hypertrophy (eccentric or concentric) in relatively young adulthood (from the Bogalusa Heart Study). Am J Cardiol 2008; 101:1621-1625.
41. Kivimaki M, Smith GD, Timpson NJ, et al. Lifetime body mass index and later atherosclerosis risk in young adults: examining causal links using Mendelian randomization in the Cardiovascular Risk in Young Finns study. Eur Heart J 2008; 29:2552-2560.
42. Juonala M, Magnussen CG, Berenson GS, et al. Childhood adiposity, adult adiposity, and cardiovascular risk factors. N Engl J Med 2011; 365:1876-1885.
43. Juhola J, Magnussen CG, Viikari JS, et al. Tracking of serum lipid levels, blood pressure, and body mass index from childhood to adulthood: the Cardiovascular Risk in Young Finns Study. J Pediatr 2011; 159:584-590.
44. Juonala M, Juhola J, Magnussen CG, et al. Childhood environmental and genetic predictors of adulthood obesity: the cardiovascular risk in young Finns study. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2011; 96:E1542-1549.
45. Li S, Chen W, Srinivasan SR, et al. Relation of childhood obesity/cardiometabolic phenotypes to adult cardiometabolic profile: the Bogalusa Heart Study. Am J Epidemiol 2012; 176 (suppl 7):S142-S149.
46. Grundy SM, Cleeman JI, Daniels SR, et al. Diagnosis and management of the metabolic syndrome: an American Heart Association/National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute Scientific Statement. Circulation 2005; 112:2735-2752.
47. Steinberger J, Daniels SR, Eckel RH, et al. Progress and challenges in metabolic syndrome in children and adolescents: a scientific statement from the American Heart Association Atherosclerosis, Hypertension, and Obesity in the Young Committee of the Council on Cardiovascular Disease in the Young; Council on Cardiovascular Nursing; and Council on Nutrition, Physical Activity, and Metabolism. Circulation 2009; 119:628-647.
48. Chen W, Srinivasan SR, Li S, et al. Metabolic syndrome variables at low levels in childhood are beneficially associated with adulthood cardiovascular risk: the Bogalusa Heart Study. Diabetes Care 2005; 28:126-131.
49. Magnussen CG, Koskinen J, Chen W, et al. Pediatric metabolic syndrome predicts adulthood metabolic syndrome, subclinical atherosclerosis, and type 2 diabetes mellitus but is no better than body mass index alone: the Bogalusa Heart Study and the Cardiovascular Risk in Young Finns Study. Circulation 2010; 122:1604-1611.
50. Koivistoinen T, Hutri-Kahonen N, Juonala M, et al. Metabolic syndrome in childhood and increased arterial stiffness in adulthood: the Cardiovascular Risk In Young Finns Study. Ann Med 2011; 43:312-319.
51. Morrison JA, Friedman LA, Gray-McGuire C. Metabolic syndrome in childhood predicts adult cardiovascular disease 25 years later: the Princeton Lipid Research Clinics Follow-up Study. Pediatrics 2007; 120:340-345.
52. Magnussen CG, Koskinen J, Juonala M, et al. A diagnosis of the metabolic syndrome in youth that resolves by adult life is associated with a normalization of high carotid intima-media thickness and type 2 diabetes mellitus risk: the Bogalusa heart and cardiovascular risk in young Finns studies. J Am Coll Cardiol 2012; 60:1631-1639.
53. Koskinen J, Magnussen CG, Taittonen L, et al. Arterial structure and function after recovery from the metabolic syndrome: the cardiovascular risk in Young Finns Study. Circulation 2010; 121:392-400.
54. Pate RR, Pratt M, Blair SN, et al. Physical activity and public health: A recommendation from the Centers for Disease control and prevention and the American College of Sports Medicine. JAMA 1995; 273:402-407.
55. Ferreira I, Twisk JW, Van Mechelen W, et al. Current and adolescent levels of cardiopulmonary fitness are related to large artery properties at age 36: the Amsterdam Growth and Health Longitudinal Study. Eur J Clin Invest 2002; 32:723-731.
56. Ferreira I, Twisk JW, Stehouwer CD, et al. Longitudinal changes in VO2max: associations with carotid IMT and arterial stiffness. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2003; 35:1670-1678.
57. van de Laar RJ, Ferreira I, van Mechelen W, et al. Lifetime vigorous but not light-to-moderate habitual physical activity impacts favorably on carotid stiffness in young adults: the amsterdam growth and health longitudinal study. Hypertension 2010; 55:33-39.
58. van de Laar RJ, Ferreira I, van Mechelen W, et al. Habitual physical activity and peripheral arterial compliance in young adults: the Amsterdam growth and health longitudinal study. Am J Hypertens 2011; 24:200-208.
59. Pahkala K, Heinonen OJ, Simell O, et al. Association of physical activity with vascular endothelial function and intima-media thickness. Circulation 2011; 124:1956-1963.
60. Jose KA, Blizzard L, Dwyer T, et al. Childhood and adolescent predictors of leisure time physical activity during the transition from adolescence to adulthood: a population based cohort study. Int J Behav Nutr Phys Act 2011; 8:54.
61. Uijtdewilligen L, Singh AS, Twisk JW, et al. Adolescent predictors of objectively measured physical activity and sedentary behaviour at age 42: the Amsterdam Growth and Health Longitudinal Study (AGAHLS). Int J Behav Nutr Phys Act 2011; 8:107.
62. Cleland VJ, Ball K, Magnussen C, et al. Socioeconomic position and the tracking of physical activity and cardiorespiratory fitness from childhood to adulthood. Am J Epidemiol 2009; 170:1069-1077.
63. Mikkila V, Rasanen L, Laaksonen MM, et al. Long-term dietary patterns and carotid artery intima media thickness: the Cardiovascular Risk in Young Finns Study. Br J Nutr 2009; 102:1507-1512.
64. van de Laar RJ, Stehouwer CD, van Bussel BC, et al. Adherence to a Mediterranean dietary pattern in early life is associated with lower arterial stiffness in adulthood: the Amsterdam Growth and Health Longitudinal Study. J Intern Med 2013; 273:79-93.
65. van de Laar RJ, Stehouwer CD, van Bussel BC, et al. Lower lifetime dietary fiber intake is associated with carotid artery stiffness: the Amsterdam Growth and Health Longitudinal Study. Am J Clin Nutr 2012; 96:14-23.
66. Aatola H, Koivistoinen T, Hutri-Kahonen N, et al. Lifetime fruit and vegetable consumption and arterial pulse wave velocity in adulthood: the Cardiovascular Risk in Young Finns Study. Circulation 2010; 122:2521-2528.
67. Jaaskelainen P, Magnussen CG, Pahkala K, et al. Childhood nutrition in predicting metabolic syndrome in adults: the cardiovascular risk in Young Finns Study. Diabetes Care 2012; 35:1937-1943.
68. Kaikkonen JE, Jula A, Mikkila V, et al. Childhood serum fatty acid quality is associated with adult carotid artery intima media thickness in women but not in men. J Nutr 2013; 143:682-689.
69. Kaikkonen JE, Jula A, Mikkila V, et al. Childhood serum cholesterol ester fatty acids are associated with blood pressure 27 y later in the Cardiovascular Risk in Young Finns Study. Am J Clin Nutr 2012; 95:1422-1431.
70. Moilanen T, Rasanen L, Viikari J, et al. Fatty acid composition of serum cholesteryl esters in 3- to 18-year-old Finnish children and its relation to diet. Am J Clin Nutr 1985; 42:708-713.
71. te Velde SJ, Snijder MB, van Dijk AE, et al. Dairy intake from adolescence into adulthood is not associated with being overweight and metabolic syndrome in adulthood: the Amsterdam Growth and Health Longitudinal Study. J Hum Nutr Diet 2011; 24:233-244.
72. Stoof SP, Twisk JW, Olthof MR. Is the intake of sugar-containing beverages during adolescence related to adult weight status? Public Health Nutr 2013; 16:1257-1262.
73. Smith KJ, Gall SL, McNaughton SA, et al. Skipping breakfast: longitudinal associations with cardiometabolic risk factors in the Childhood Determinants of Adult Health Study. Am J Clin Nutr 2010; 92:1316-1325.
74. Berz JP, Singer MR, Guo X, et al. Use of a DASH food group score to predict excess weight gain in adolescent girls in the National Growth and Health Study. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med 2011; 165:540-546.
75. Kannel WB, Wolf PA, Garrison RJ. The Framingham Study: an epidemiological investigation of cardiovascular disease. Bethesda, MD: National Heart Lung and Blood Institute; 1987.
76. Berenson GS. Childhood risk factors predict adult risk associated with subclinical cardiovascular disease. The Bogalusa Heart Study. Am J Cardiol 2002; 90:3L-7L.
77. Krishnan P, Balamurugan A, Urbina E, et al. Cardiovascular risk profile of asymptomatic healthy young adults with increased carotid artery intima-media thickness: the Bogalusa Heart Study. J La State Med Soc 2003; 155:165-169.
78. Urbina EM, Srinivasan SR, Tang R, et al. Impact of multiple coronary risk factors on the intima-media thickness of different segments of carotid artery in healthy young adults (The Bogalusa Heart Study). Am J Cardiol 2002; 90:953-958.
79. Juonala M, Viikari JS, Laitinen T, et al. Interrelations between brachial endothelial function and carotid intima-media thickness in young adults: the cardiovascular risk in young Finns study. Circulation 2004; 110:2918-2923.
80. McMahan CA, Gidding SS, Viikari JS, et al. Association of pathobiologic determinants of atherosclerosis in youth risk score and 15-year change in risk score with carotid artery intima-media thickness in young adults (from the Cardiovascular Risk in Young Finns Study). Am J Cardiol 2007; 100:1124-1129.
81. Lloyd-Jones DM, Hong Y, Labarthe D, et al. Defining and setting national goals for cardiovascular health promotion and disease reduction: the American Heart Association's strategic Impact Goal through 2020 and beyond. Circulation 2010; 121:586-613.
82. Laitinen TT, Pahkala K, Magnussen CG, et al. Ideal cardiovascular health in childhood and cardiometabolic outcomes in adulthood: the Cardiovascular Risk in Young Finns Study. Circulation 2012; 125:1971-1978.
83. Dwyer T, Sun C, Magnussen CG, et al. Cohort Profile: The International Childhood Cardiovascular Cohort (i3C) Consortium. Int J Epidemiol 2013; 42:86-96.