Where's the archivist in digital curation? exploring the possibilities through a matrix of knowledge and skills

Archivaria

Volumn 72, Issue , 2011, Pages 123-168

  Lee, Christopher A ^a   Tibbo, Helen ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF NORTH CAROLINA   (United States)

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EID: 84881659539     PISSN: 03186954     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Article

References (153)

1. Elizabeth Yakel, "Digital Curation," OCLC Systems and Services, vol. 23, no. 4 (2007), pp. 335-40.
2. The Digital Curation Centre offers a somewhat different definition: "maintaining and adding value to a trusted body of digital research data for current and future use; it encompasses the active management of data throughout the research lifecycle." See DCC Charter and Statement of Principles, http://www.dcc.ac.uk/about-us/dcc-charter (accessed on 12 July 2011).
3. The DCC definition emphasizes that digital curation extends beyond pres ervation activities. However, its focus on "the research lifecycle" does not clearly include phenomena such as families keeping their own histories or curation of government records.
4. "Curation." Oxford English Dictionary, 2nd ed. (Oxford, UK, 1989).
5. See for example, the 1967 colloquium entitled, "The Application of Electronic Data Processing in the Curation and Use of Biological Collections" discussed by Theodore J. Crovello in "Problems in the Use of Electronic Data Processing in Biological Collections," Taxon, vol. 16, no. 6 (1967), pp. 481-94
6. James Hicks and Pearl M. Hicks, "A Selected Bibliography of Plant Collection and Herbarium Curation," Taxon, vol. 27, no. 1 (1978), pp. 63-99;
7. Michael G. Bassett, ed., Curation of Palaeontological Collections: A Joint Colloquium of the Palaeontological Association and Geological Curators' Group (London, 1979).
8. "Curator." Oxford English Dictionary, 2nd ed. (Oxford, UK, 1989).
9. L.R. Binford, "Interassemblage Variability: The Mousterian and the 'Functional' Argument," in The Explanation of Culture Change: Models in Prehistory; Proceedings, ed. Colin Renfrew (Pittsburgh, 1973), pp. 227-54.
10. Michael J. Shott, "An Exegesis of the Curation Concept," Journal of Anthropological Research, vol. 52, no. 3 (Autumn 1996), pp. 259-80.
11. See for example, Great Lakes Archaeological Research Center Inc., Archaeological Investigations, Navigation Pool II, Upper Mississippi River Basin, Vol. 2, "Reports of Investigation No. 151" (Waukesha, WI, 1984)
12. Nancy Evans, "Trends in Planetary Data Analysis: Executive Summary of the Planetary Data Workshop" (Washington, DC, 1984)
13. Space Physics Division, Office of Space Science, "Report of the Community-Wide Workshop on NASA's Space Physics Data System" (NASA, 1993)
14. Judith A. Blake, Carol J. Bult, Michael J. Donoghue, Julian Humphries, and Chris Fields, "Interoperability of Biological Data Bases: A Meeting Report," Systematic Biology, vol. 43, no. 4 (1994), pp. 585-89
15. Robert J. Robbins, ed., "Report of the Invitational DOE Workshop on Genome Informatics, 26-27 April 1993, Baltimore, Maryland," Journal of Computational Biology, vol. 1, no. 3 (1994), pp. 173-90.
16. Daniel E. Atkins, Kelvin K. Droegemeier, Stuart I. Feldman, Hector Garcia-Molina, Michael L. Klein, Paul Messina, David G. Messerschmitt, Jeremiah P. Ostriker, and Margaret H. Wright, Revolutionizing Science and Engineering through Cyberinfrastructure: Report of the National Science Foundation Blue-Ribbon Advisory Panel on Cyberinfrastructure (Washington, DC, 2003)
17. Philip Lord and Alison Macdonald, E-Science Curation Report: Data Curation for E-Science in the UK: An Audit to Establish Requirements for Future Curation and Provision (London, UK, 2003).
18. Neil Beagrie and Philip Pothen, "The Digital Curation: Digital Archives, Libraries and E-Science Seminar," Ariadne 30 (2001), http://www.ariadne.ac.uk/issue30/digital-curation/(accessed on 12 July 2011).
19. See http://web.archive.org/web/*/http://www.jisc.ac.uk/index.cfm?name=funding_7_02 (accessed on 12 July 2011).
20. Joyce Ray, "Sharks, Digital Curation, and the Education of Information Professionals," Museum Management and Curatorship, vol. 24, no. 4 (2009), pp. 357-68.
21. Helen R. Tibbo and Christopher A. Lee, "Convergence through Capabilities: Digital Curation Education for Libraries, Archives and Museums," in Archiving 2010: Final Program and Proceedings, June 1-4, 2010, Den Haag, The Netherlands (Springfield, VA, 2010), pp. 53-57.
22. Neil Beagrie, "The Digital Curation Centre," Learned Publishing, vol. 17, no. 1 (2004), pp. 7-9.
23. We are certainly not the first authors to make this argument. See for example, Margaret Hedstrom, "Building Record-Keeping Systems: Archivists Are Not Alone on the Wild Frontier," Archivaria 44 (Fall 1997), pp. 44-71.
24. Margaret Hedstrom, "Exploring the Concept of Temporal Interoperability as a Framework for Digital Preservation," Paper presented at the Third DELOS Network of Excellence Workshop on Interoperability and Mediation in Heterogeneous Digital Libraries, Darmstadt, Germany, 8-9 September 2001, http://www.ercim.eu/publication/ws-proceedings/DelNoe03/10.pdf (accessed on 12 July 2011).
25. For example, of the "ten basic characteristics of digital preservation repositories" identi fied by the Center for Research Libraries, only one focuses specifically on the "technical infrastructure adequate to continuing maintenance and security of its digital objects" (2007), http://www.crl.edu/archiving-preservation/digital-archives/metrics-assessing-and-certifying/core-re (accessed on 12 July 2011).
26. James H. Moor, "What Is Computer Ethics?" Metaphilosophy, vol. 16, no. 4 (1985), pp. 266-75.
27. Lawrence Lessig, Code: Version 2.0 (New York, 2006), pp. 25-28, 155-277.
28. Lessig borrows the term "latent ambiguity" from Samuel Williston, A Treatise on the Law of Contracts, 3rd ed., ed. by Walter H.E. Jaeger (Mount Kisco, NY, 1957), pp. 627, 898.
29. For information about collaboration across the digital curation education initiatives, see the International Digital Curation Education and Action (IDEA) Working Group, http://ideaworkgroup.org, and the International Curation Education (ICE) Forum, http://www.dcc.ac.uk/events/workshops/international-curation-education-ice-forum (both accessed on 12 July 2011).
30. IMLS (Institute for Museum and Library Services) Grant Award # RE-05-06-0044. For a summary of activities and the final report of DigCCurr I, see http://ils.unc.edu/digccurr/(accessed on 12 July 2011).
31. ESOPI-21 is IMLS Grant Award # RE-05-09-0085-09 and ESOPI2 is IMLS Grant Award # RE-05-11-0076. For more information about the project, see http://ils.unc.edu/esopi21/(accessed on 12 July 2011). As of the production of this article, ESOPI2 was just getting underway, with a 1 July 2011 start date.
32. IMLS Sponsor Award #LG-05-09-0040.
33. Tibbo H. and Lee CA, "Convergence through Capabilities," pp. 53-57.
34. Barney G. Glaser and Anselm L. Strauss, The Discovery of Grounded Theory: Strategies for Qualitative Research (Chicago, 1967).
35. Susan Leigh Star, "Grounded Classification: Grounded Theory and Faceted Classification," Library Trends, vol. 47, no. 2 (1998), pp. 218-32.
36. Juliet M. Corbin and Anselm Strauss, "Grounded Theory Research: Procedures, Canons, and Evaluative Criteria," Qualitative Sociology, vol. 13, no. 1 (1990), pp. 3-21.
37. For a more detailed discussion of the Open Archival Information System (OAIS), see Christopher A. Lee, "Open Archival Information System (OAIS) Reference Model," in Encyclopedia of Library and Information Sciences, 3rd ed., eds. Marcia J. Bates and Mary Niles Maack (Boca Raton, FL, 2009), pp. 4020-30.
38. Consultative Committee for Space Data Systems, Reference Model for an Open Archival Information System (OAIS), CCSDS 650.0-B-1 (Washington, DC, 2002), p. 1-1 [hereinafter OAIS].
39. Ibid., p. 1-11.
40. Ibid., p. 1-10.
41. Ibid., pp. 4-1, 4-2.
42. Ibid., p. 4-2.
43. Ibid., p. 4-18.
44. Ibid., p. 4-19.
45. Ibid., p. 1-7.
46. Ibid., p. 1-8.
47. Ibid., p. 1-7.
48. Ibid., p. 1-12.
49. Ibid., p. 1-8.
50. Ibid., p. 4-19.
51. Ibid., p. 1-13.
52. Ibid., p. 1-12.
53. Ibid., p. 1-8.
54. Ibid., p. 1-10.
55. Task Force on Archiving of Digital Information, Preserving Digital Information: Report of the Task Force on Archiving of Digital Information (Washington, DC, 1996), p. 12.
56. Daniel Greenstein and Abby Smith, "Digital Preservation in the United States: Survey of Current Research, Practice, and Common Understandings," in New-Model Scholarship: How Will It Survive? ed. Abby Smith (Washington, DC, 2003), p. 43.
57. Donald Waters, "Good Archives Make Good Scholars: Reflections on Recent Steps Toward the Archiving of Digital Information," in The State of Digital Preservation: An International Perspective, ed. Council on Library and Information Resources (Washington, DC, 2002), p. 80.
58. Gail M. Hodge, "Digital Preservation: Overview of Current Developments," Information Services & Use, vol. 22, nos. 2/3 (2002), pp. 73-82.
59. Neil Beagrie, National Digital Preservation Initiatives: An Overview of Developments in Australia, France, the Netherlands, and the United Kingdom and of Related International Activity (Washington, DC, 2003), p. 45.
60. Brian F. Lavoie, The Open Archival Information System Reference Model: Introductory Guide (Dublin, OH, 2004), p. 2.
61. Christopher A. Lee, "Defining Digital Preservation Work: A Case Study of the Development of the Reference Model for an Open Archival Information System" (PhD diss., University of Michigan, 2005), pp. 142-46, 165-67, 180-82, 257-64, 287-94.
62. Wendy Duff, "Ensuring the Preservation of Reliable Evidence: A Research Project Funded by the NHPRC," Archivaria 42 (Fall 1996), pp. 28-45
63. Wendy Duff, "Harnessing the Power of Warrant," American Archivist 61 (Spring 1998), pp. 88-105.
64. Luciana Duranti, Terry Eastwood, and Heather MacNeil, The Preservation of the Integrity of Electronic Records (Vancouver, 1997)
65. Luciana Duranti and Heather MacNeil, "The Protection of the Integrity of Electronic Records: An Overview of the UBC-MAS Research Project," Archivaria 42 (Fall 1996), pp. 46-67.
66. Luciana Duranti and Kenneth Thibodeau, "The InterPARES International Research Project," Information Management Journal, vol. 35, no. 1 (2001), pp. 44-46, 48-50.
67. Luciana Duranti and Randy Preston, eds., International Research on Permanent Authentic Records in Electronic Systems (InterPARES) 2: Experiential, Interactive and Dynamic Records (Rome, 2008).
68. Luciana Duranti, "An Overview of InterPARES 3 (2007-2012)," Archives & Social Studies: A Journal of Interdisciplinary Research, vol. 1, no. 1 (2007), pp. 577-603.
69. Glenda Acland, "The Australian Recordkeeping Metadata Schema - Version 1.0: Note from the Research Team," Archivaria 49 (Spring 2000), pp. 241-47
70. Sue McKemmish, Glenda Acland, and Barbara Reed, "Towards a Framework for Standardising Recordkeeping Metadata: The Australian Recordkeeping Metadata Schema," Records Management Journal 9 (1999), pp. 177-202
71. Sue McKemmish, Glenda Acland, Nigel Ward, and Barbara Reed, "Describing Records in Context in the Continuum: The Australian Recordkeeping Metadata Schema," Archivaria 48 (Fall 1999), pp. 3-43.
72. Assistant Secretary of Defense for Networks and Information Integration, Electronic Records Management Software Applications Design Criteria Standard, DOD 5015.02 - STD (Washington, DC, 2007).
73. International Organization for Standardization, Information and Documentation - Records Management (Geneva, 2001).
74. David Bearman, "Record-Keeping Systems," Archivaria 36 (Fall 1993), pp. 16-36.
75. See for example, Michael L. Brodie and Michael Stonebraker, Migrating Legacy Systems: Gateways, Interfaces & the Incremental Approach (San Francisco, CA, 1995)
76. Willem-Jan van den Heuvel, Aligning Modern Business Processes and Legacy Systems: A Component-Based Perspective (Cambridge, MA, 2007).
77. David B. Gracy II, "Our Future is Now," American Archivist, vol. 48, no. 1 (1985), pp. 12-21.
78. Christopher A. Lee, Helen R. Tibbo, and John C. Schaefer, "DigCCurr: Building an International Digital Curation Curriculum & the Carolina Digital Curation Fellowship Program," in Archiving 2007: Final Program and Proceedings, May 21-24, 2007, Arlington, VA, ed. Scott A. Stovall (Springfield, VA, 2007), pp. 105-109.
79. Susan Leigh Star and Karen Ruhleder, "Steps Toward an Ecology of Infrastructure: Design and Access for Large Information Spaces," Information Systems Research, vol. 7, no. 1 (1996), pp. 111-34.
80. A variety of disciplines use the term "life cycle" to designate all points in the "life" of information. The Matrix is not tied to a specific "records life cycle" (as opposed to a records continuum) orientation toward records activities. Following the lead of Frank Upward ("Modelling the Continuum as Paradigm Shift in Recordkeeping and Archiving Processes, and Beyond - a Personal Reflection," Records Management Journal, vol. 10, no. 3 [2000], pp. 115-39, see specifically 129-30), we have instead used the term "lifespan."
81. Chris Rusbridge, Peter Burnhill, Seamus Ross, Peter Buneman, David Giaretta, Liz Lyon, and Malcolm Atkinson, "The Digital Curation Centre: A Vision for Digital Curation," paper presented at From Local to Global: Data Interoperability - Challenges and Technologies, Mass Storage and Systems Technology Committee of the IEEE Computer Society, Sardinia, Italy, 20-24 June 2005, http://eprints.erpanet.org/82/01/DCC_Vision.pdf (accessed on 12 July 2011).
82. Christopher A. Lee, "A Framework for Contextual Information in Digital Collections," Journal of Documentation, vol. 67, no. 1 (2011), pp. 95-143.
83. Abstraction is a very closely related concept to encapsulation, but the former is more concep tual and strategic, while the latter is more system-focused and tactical.
84. Shoshana Zuboff, In the Age of the Smart Machine: The Future of Work and Power (New York, 1988), p. 9.
85. International Organization for Standardization, ISO/IEC 2382-1:1993. Information technol ogy - Vocabulary - Part 1: Fundamental terms (Geneva, 1993).
86. OAIS, p. 1-11.
87. Andrew B. Hargadon, and Douglas Yellowlees, "When Innovations Meet Institutions: Edison and the Design of the Electric Light," Administrative Science Quarterly, vol. 46, no. 3 (2001), pp. 476-501
88. Stijn Hoorens, Jeff Rothenberg, Constantijn van Orange, Martijn van der Mandele, and Ruth Levitt, Addressing the Uncertain Future of Preserving the Past: Towards a Robust Strategy for Digital Archiving and Preservation (Santa Monica, 2007)
89. Eric Matheson Leifers, Actors as Observers: A Theory of Skill in Social Relationships (New York, 1991)
90. Urs von Burg, The Triumph of Ethernet: Technological Communities and the Battle for the LAN Standard (Stanford, 2001).
91. Margaret Hedstrom and Christopher A. Lee, "Significant Properties of Digital Objects: Definitions, Applications, Implications," in Proceedings of the DLM-Forum 2002, Barcelona, 6-8 May 2002: @ccess and Preservation of Electronic Information: Best Practices and Solutions (Luxembourg, 2002), pp. 218-27.
92. Brian Lavoie, Lorraine Eakin, Amy Friedlander, Francine Berman, Paul Courant, Clifford Lynch, and Daniel Rubinfeld, Sustaining the Digital Investment: Issues and Challenges of Economically Sustainable Digital Preservation (La Jolla, 2010), p. 19.
93. Lee CA, "A Framework for Contextual Information in Digital Collections," p. 110.
94. A version of the table that lists sources of items is available from the DigCCurr project site, http://www.ils.unc.edu/digccurr/digccurr-matrix.html (accessed on 12 July 2011).
95. The full matrix developed by the DigCCurr project further elaborates many sub-functions, drilling down as far as six levels in some cases and constituting several hundred total functions at various levels; Table 4, however, conveys only the top twenty-four functions.
96. As discussed earlier, we have adopted many terms and definitions from the OAIS model. It defines "Archive" as "an organization that intends to preserve information for access and use by a Designated Community" (p. 1-8).
97. Hedstrom M. and Lee CA, pp. 218-27.
98. Recall that the OAIS defines Producer as "the role played by those persons, or client systems, who provide the information to be preserved. This can include other OAISs or internal OAIS persons or systems" (p. 1-12).
99. This function addresses analysis and evaluating of the current Producer information environ ment. This function and its sub-functions are strongly influenced by the DIRKS (Designing and Implementing Record Keeping Systems) methodology. Efforts to change or influence that environment are addressed in Advocacy and Outreach above.
100. OAIS, p. 1-8.
101. OAIS, p. 1-8.
102. Common Services plays a unique role within both the OAIS and this taxonomy of functions. It includes a set of underlying technical services that are necessary for success ful digital curation but are carried out by someone else (not directly by a digital curation professional). It is very important for digital curation professionals to be aware - at least at a basic level - of what the Common Services are, how they relate to each other, and some of the most viable ways for them to be provided (e.g., in order to evaluate, supervise, and contract for the services). However, Common Services are assumed, by definition, to fall outside the direct purview of digital curation. Common Services are not directly repre sented in Figure 1. Within the OAIS, they are "supporting services" that must be in place for computer systems to operate and perform properly. Although Common Services are necessary for an OAIS
103. Reagan W. Moore, "Building Preservation Environments with Data Grid Technology," American Archivist, vol. 69, no. 1 (2006), pp. 139-58.
104. The OAIS places "Add Descriptive Information" under Ingest. However, we have broken out description as its own function, in order to recognize that it can be done at many points in the lifespan of information. It is not only a part of the ingest process.
105. This is at a higher level of abstraction than both Data Management and Archival Storage. It ensures that the data associated with Content Information that is addressed in Data Management, Archival Storage and Access is sufficiently detailed, complete, and accurate. Note that Representation Information is considered part of the Content Information, and it is addressed primarily in Preservation Planning and Implementations.
106. International Organization for Standardization, ISO 15489-1:2001:Information and documentation - Records management - Part 1: General (Geneva, 2001), p. 2.
107. "Harvesting." Oxford English Dictionary, 2nd ed. (Oxford, UK, 1989).
108. The main conceptual boundary between Transfer and Ingest is: getting an object into the archives environment generally, which can include a staging area (Transfer), and the formal incorporation of the object as part of an AIP into the Archive (Ingest).
109. OAIS, p. 1-11.
110. Ibid., p. 4-2.
111. Recall that a Consumer is defined by the OAIS model as "the role played by those persons, or client systems, who interact with OAIS services to find preserved information of interest and to access that information in detail. This can include other OAISs, as well as internal OAIS persons or systems" (p. 1-8).
112. The sub-functions are often presented as a serialized set of stages (as in the waterfall devel opment model). While some sub-functions naturally follow from others, we are not assuming any particular development methodology. One could iterate through the sub-functions in whatever order and as many times as the organization deems necessary.
113. US National Archives and Records Administration (NARA), ERA Program Management Information, http://wayback.archive.org/web/*/http://archives.gov/era/program-mgmt.html (accessed on 13 July 2011).
114. Reagan Moore, "Towards a Theory of Digital Preservation," International Journal of Digital Curation, vol. 3, no. 1 (2008), pp. 63-75.
115. Much of the value added by a user can be incorporated into the Description function (e.g., user annotations, user tagging of content). However, users can also add services that are incorporated into other functions.
116. "Culture." Oxford English Dictionary, 3rd ed. (Oxford, UK, March 2008), online version, June 2011, http://www.oed.com/view/Entry/45746 (accessed on 13 July 2011).
117. These four levels of abstraction are based on the Study Group on the Functional Requirements for Bibliographic Records, Functional Requirements for Bibliographic Records: Final Report, Vol. 19, ed. Marie-France Plassard (München, 1998), http://www.ifla.org/en/publications/functional-requirements-for-bibliographic-records (accessed on 13 July 2011).
118. JoAnne Yates and Wanda Orlikowski, "Genres of Organizational Communication: A Structurational Approach to Studying Communication and Media," Academy of Management Review, vol. 17, no. 2 (1992), pp. 299-326.
119. A reviewer of this article pointed out quite correctly that there are many areas of knowl edge that are important to digital curation, such as "knowledge of the uses of information, the value of cultural resources, societal expectations of memory, ideas about persistence, concepts of archives and 'archiving', awareness of user needs, and user behaviour." These are all areas that we have addressed in other dimensions of the matrix. In other words, we have elevated all of them above the level of "merely instrumental" knowledge.
120. Luciana Duranti, "Archives as a Place," Archives and Manuscripts 24 (1996), pp. 242-55.
121. Seungwon Yang, Barbara M. Wildemuth, Seonho Kim, Uma Murthy, Jeffrey P. Pomerantz, Sanghee Oh, and Edward A. Fox, "Further Development of a Digital Library Curriculum: Evaluation Approaches and New Tools," in Asian Digital Libraries: Looking Back 10 Years and Forging New Frontiers: 10th International Conference on Asian Digital Libraries, ICADL 2007, Hanoi, Vietnam, December 10-13, 2007: Proceedings, eds. Dion Hoe Lian Goh, Tru Hoang Cao, Ingeborg Sølvberg, and Edie Rasmussen (Berlin, 2007), pp. 434-43.
122. Yakel E, pp. 335-40.
123. Seamus Ross, "Digital Preservation, Archival Science and Methodological Foundations for Digital Libraries," Keynote Address at the 11th European Conference on Digital Libraries (ECDL), Budapest (17 September 2007), p. 19, http://eprints.erpanet.org/131/(accessed on 13 July 2011).
124. F. Gerald Ham, "Archival Strategies for the Post Custodial Era," American Archivist 44 (1981), pp. 207-16.
125. See for example, Terry Cook, "The Concept of the Archival Fonds: Theory, Description, and Provenance in the Post-Custodial Era," in The Archival Fonds: From Theory to Practice, ed. Terry Eastwood (Ottawa, 1992), pp. 31-85.
126. Frank Upward, "Structuring the Records Continuum Part One: Post-Custodial Principles and Properties," Archives and Manuscripts, vol. 24, no. 2 (November 1996), pp. 268-85
127. Jay Atherton, "From Life Cycle to Continuum: Some Thoughts on the Records Management-Archives Relationship," Archivaria 21 (Winter 1985-86), pp. 43-51
128. Sue McKemmish, "Placing Records Continuum Theory and Practice," Archival Science, vol. 1, no. 4 (2001), pp. 333-59.
129. Terry Cook, "What Is Past Is Prologue: A History of Archival Ideas since 1898, and the Future Paradigm Shift," Archivaria 43 (Spring 1997), p. 40.
130. Society of American Archivists, Guidelines for a Graduate Program in Archival Studies (Chicago, 2002).
131. Lawrence Lessig, Free Culture: How Big Media Uses Technology and the Law to Lock Down Culture and Control Creativity (New York, 2004), pp. 21-30.
132. Joseph Alois Schumpeter, Capitalism, Socialism, and Democracy (New York, 1942)
133. Richard R. Nelson and Sidney G. Winter, An Evolutionary Theory of Economic Change (Cambridge, MA, 1982);
134. Thomas Parke Hughes, Networks of Power: Electrification in Western Society, 1880-1930 (Baltimore, 1983).
135. Linda Argote, "Organizational Memory," in Organizational Learning: Creating, Retaining, and Transferring Knowledge (Dordrecht, 1999), pp. 67-97
136. Linda Argote, Sara L. Beckman, and Dennis Epple, "The Persistence and Transfer of Learning in Industrial Settings," Management Science, vol. 36, no. 2 (1990), pp. 140-54
137. Linda Argote, Paul Ingram, John M. Levine, and Richard L. Moreland, "Knowledge Transfer in Organizations: Learning from the Experience of Others," Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, vol. 82, no. 1 (2000), pp. 1-8
138. Gabriel Szulanski, "Exploring Internal Stickiness: Impediments to the Transfer of Best Practice within the Firm," Strategic Management Journal, vol. 17, Winter Special Issue (1996), pp. 27-43
139. Gabriel Szulanski, "The Process of Knowledge Transfer: A Diachronic Analysis of Stickiness," Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, vol. 82, no. 1 (2000), pp. 9-27.
140. Argote L, Beckman SL, and Epple D, pp. 140-54
141. Joel A. Baum and Paul Ingram, "Survival-Enhancing Learning in the Manhattan Hotel Industry, 1898-1980," Management Science, vol. 44, no. 7 (1998), pp. 996-1016
142. Marci J. Tyre and Wanda J. Orlikowski, "Windows of Opportunity: Temporal Patterns of Technological Adaptation in Organizations," Organization Science, vol. 5, no. 1 (1994), pp. 98-118.
143. Society of American Archivists, Core Values of Archivists (May 2011), http://www2.archivists.org/statements/core-values-of-archivists (accessed on 13 July 2011).
144. According to Andrew Abbott (The System of Professions: An Essay on the Division of Expert Labor [Chicago, 1988], pp. 69-79), "[t]he claim to full and final jurisdiction is only one of the possible settlements of jurisdictional dispute," i.e., arrangements for the division of labour across different groups related to a particular type of work. There are at least five other forms of settlement: 1) subordination of one under the other; 2) division of labour; 3) "intellectual jurisdiction," in which one profession retains control of cognitive elements but allows others to engage in the work's practice; 4) one profession has advisory control over some aspects of the work; and 5) division according to the nature of the client.
145. See http://ils.unc.edu/digccurr/institute.html (accessed on 15 July 2011).
146. See the Digital Preservation Outreach and Education (DPOE) website, http://www.digitalpreservation.gov/education/(accessed on 15 July 2011).
147. See the Digital Archives Continuing Education (DACE) Task Force from the Society of American Archivists Council, 26 May 2010, http://saa.archivists.org/Scripts/4Disapi.dll/4DCGI/committees/SAATF-DACE.html?CommCode=SAA**TF-DACE (accessed on 13 July 2011).
148. To view the strategic plan, see http://www2.archivists.org/sites/all/files/0511-StratPlan_PublicPosting_060111.pdf (accessed on 13 July 2011).
149. Action Item: Digital Archives Specialist Curriculum and Certificate Program (Geof Huth, DACE Task Force Report; Council Action Item prepared by Solveig De Sutter), 11 May 2011, p. 14, http://www.archivists.org/council/Council0511/0511-III-D-DAS.pdf (accessed on 13 July 2011).
150. Ibid., p. 14.
151. Ibid., p. 6.
152. Ibid., p. 7.
153. Ibid., p. 8.