Community immunity

Vaccines: Sixth Edition

Volumn , Issue , 2012, Pages 1395-1412

  Fine, Paul E M ^a   Mulholland, Kim ^a,b  

^a LONDON SCHOOL OF HYGIENE AND TROPICAL MEDICINE   (United Kingdom)

^b MURDOCH CHILDREN'S RESEARCH INSTITUTE   (Australia)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 84880699709     PISSN: None     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book    
DOI: 10.1016/B978-1-4557-0090-5.00071-9     Document Type: Chapter

References (196)

1. Fine P.E.M. Herd immunity: history, theory, practice. Epidemiol Rev 1993, 15:265-302.
2. Fox J.P., Elveback L., Scott W., et al. Herd immunity: basic concept and relevance to public health immunization practices. Am J Epidemiol 1971, 94:179-189.
3. Anderson R.M. The concept of herd immunity and the design of community-based immunization programmes. Vaccine 1992, 10:928-935.
4. Topley W.W.C., Wilson G.S. The spread of bacterial infection: the problem of herd immunity. J Hyg 1923, 21:243-249.
5. Fine P.E.M., Eames K., Heymann D.L. "Herd immunity": a rough guide. Clin Infect Dis 2011, 52:911-916.
6. Dietz K. Transmission and control of arbovirus diseases. Epidemiology 1975, 104-121. Society for Industrial and Applied Mathematics, Philadelphia, PA. D. Ludwig, K.L. Cooke (Eds.).
7. Longini I.M., Halloran M.E., Nizam A. Model-based estimation of vaccine effects from community vaccine trials. Stat Med 2002, 21:481-495.
8. Ferguson N.M., Cummings D.A.T., Cauchemez S., et al. Strategies for mitigating an influenza pandemic. Nature 2006, 442:448-452.
9. Garnett G.P. Role of herd immunity in determining the effect of vaccines against sexually transmitted disease. J Infect Dis 2005, 191(suppl 1):S97-S106.
10. Ali M., Emch M., von Seidlin L., et al. Herd immunity conferred by killed oral cholera vaccines in Bangladesh: a reanalysis. Lancet 2005, 366:44-49.
11. John T.J., Samuel R. Herd immunity and herd effect: new insights and definitions. Eur J Epidemiol 2000, 16:601-606.
12. Fine P.E.M. Herd immunity: history, theory, practice. Epidemiol Rev 1993, 15:265-302.
13. Fox J.P., Elveback L., Scott W., et al. Herd immunity: basic concept and relevance to public health immunization practices. Am J Epidemiol 1971, 94:179-189.
14. Anderson R.M. The concept of herd immunity and the design of community-based immunization programmes. Vaccine 1992, 10:928-935.
15. Jenner E. The Origin of the Vaccine Inoculation 1801, Shury, London.
16. Dubos R., Dubos J. The White Plague 1953, Victor Gollancz, London.
17. Salmon D.A., Teret S.P., Macintyre C.R., et al. Compulsory vaccination and conscientious or philosophical exemptions: past present and future. Lancet 2006, 367:436-442.
18. Farr W. Second Annual Report of the Registrar-General of Births, Deaths, and Marriages in England 1840, Her Majesty's Stationery Office, London.
19. Topley W.W.C., Wilson G.S. The spread of bacterial infection: the problem of herd immunity. J Hyg 1923, 21:243-249.
20. Greenwood M. Epidemics and Crowd Diseases 1935, Williams & Norgate, London.
21. The Eradication of Infectious Diseases 1998, John Wiley, Chichester, UK. W.R. Dowdle, D.R. Hopkins (Eds.).
22. Fine P.E.M., Eames K., Heymann D.L. "Herd immunity": a rough guide. Clin Infect Dis 2011, 52:911-916.
23. Hamer W.H. Epidemic disease in England: the evidence of variability and of persistency of type. Lancet 1906, 1:733-739.
24. Anderson R.M., May R.M. Infectious Diseases of Humans: Dynamics and Control 1991, Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK.
25. Macdonald G. The Epidemiology and Control of Malaria 1957, Oxford University Press, London.
26. Dietz K. The estimation of the basic reproduction number for infectious diseases. Stat Methods Med Res 1993, 2:23-41.
27. Hethcote H.W. Measles and rubella in the United States. Am J Epidemiol 1983, 117:2-13.
28. Dietz K. Transmission and control of arbovirus diseases. Epidemiology 1975, 104-121. Society for Industrial and Applied Mathematics, Philadelphia, PA. D. Ludwig, K.L. Cooke (Eds.).
29. Fine P.E.M. The interval between successive cases of an infectious disease. Am J Epidemiol 2003, 158:1039-1047.
30. Mills C.E., Robins J.M., Lipsitch M. Transmissibility of 1918 pandemic influenza. Nature 2004, 432:904-906.
31. Ferguson N.M., Cummings D.A., Cauchemez S., et al. Strategies for containing an emerging influenza pandemic in Southeast Asia. Nature 2005, 437:209-214.
32. Schenzle D. An age-structured model of pre- and post-vaccination measles transmission. IMA J Math Appl Med Biol 1984, 1:169-191.
33. Anderson R.M., May R.M. Age-related changes in the rate of disease transmission: implications for the design of vaccination programmes. J Hyg (Camb) 1985, 94:365-436.
34. Katzmann W., Dietz K. Evaluation of age-specific vaccination strategies. Theor Popul Biol 1984, 25:125-137.
35. Knox E.G. Strategy for rubella vaccination. Int J Epidemiol 1980, 9:13-23.
36. Anderson R.M., Crombie J.A., Grenfell B.T. The epidemiology of mumps in the UK: preliminary study of virus transmission, herd immunity and the potential impact of vaccination. Epidemiol Infect 1987, 99:65-84.
37. May R.M., Anderson R.M. Spatial heterogeneity and the design of immunization programmes. Math Biosci 1984, 72:83-111.
38. Hethcote H.W., Van Ark J.W. Epidemiological models for heterogeneous populations: proportionate mixing, parameter estimation, and immunization programs. Math Biosci 1987, 84:85-118.
39. Grenfell B.T., Bjornstad O.N., Kappey J. Travelling waves and spatial hierarchies in measles epidemics. Nature 2001, 414:716-723.
40. Strebel P.M., Cochi S.L. Waving goodbye to measles. Nature 2001, 414:695-696.
41. Anderson R.M., May R.M. Spatial, temporal, and genetic heterogeneity in host populations and the design of immunization programmes. IMA J Math Appl Med Biol 1984, 1:233-266.
42. Smith P.G., Rodrigues L.C., Fine P.E.M. Assessment of the protective efficacy of vaccines against common diseases using case-control and cohort studies. Int J Epidemiol 1984, 13:137-153.
43. Longini I.M., Halloran M.E., Nizam A. Model-based estimation of vaccine effects from community vaccine trials. Stat Med 2002, 21:481-495.
44. World Health Assembly Official Records of the World Health Organization: 1959: Resolutions and Decisions of the 12th World Health Assembly (WHA 12.54) 1959, World Health Organization, Geneva.
45. Fenner F., Henderson D.A., Arita I., et al. Smallpox and Its Eradication 1988, World Health Organization, Geneva.
46. Gani R., Leach R. Transmission potential of smallpox in contemporary populations. Nature 2001, 414:748-751.
47. Arita I., Wickett J., Fenner F. Impact of population density on immunization programmes. J Hyg 1986, 96:459-466.
48. Henderson D.A. Epidemiology in the global eradication of smallpox. Int J Epidemiol 1972, 1:25-30.
49. Hammerlund E., Lewis M.W., Hansen S.G., et al. Duration of antiviral immunity after smallpox vaccination. Nature Med 2003, 9:1131-1137.
50. Taub D.D., Ershler W.B., Janowski M., et al. Immunity from smallpox vaccine persists for decades: a longitudinal study. Am J Med 2008, 121:1058-1064.
51. Henderson D.A. The looming threat of bioterrorism. Science 1999, 283:1279-1282.
52. Enserink M. How devastating would a smallpox attack really be?. Science 2002, 297:50-51.
53. House T., Hall I., Danon L., et al. Contingency planning for a deliberate release of smallpox in Great Britain: the role of geographical scale and contact structure. BMC Infect Dis 2010, 10:25.
54. Fauci A.S. Smallpox vaccination policy: the need for a dialogue. N Engl J Med 2002, 346:1319-1320.
55. Couch R.B., Winokur P., Edwards K.M. Reducing the dose of smallpox vaccine reduces vaccine-associated morbidity without reducing vaccination success rates or immune responses. J Infect Dis 2007, 195:826-832. National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases Smallpox Vaccine Study Group.
56. Nokes D.J., Anderson R.M. Measles, mumps, and rubella vaccine: what coverage to block transmission?. Lancet 1988, 2:1374.
57. Farrington C.P. Modelling forces of infection for measles, mumps, and rubella. Stat Med 1990, 9:953-967.
58. Fine P.E.M., Clarkson J.A. Measles in England and Wales, I: an analysis of factors underlying seasonal patterns. Int J Epidemiol 1982, 11:5-14.
59. Fine P.E.M., Clarkson J.A. Measles in England and Wales, II: the impact of the measles vaccination programme on the distribution of immunity in the population. Int J Epidemiol 1982, 11:15-25.
60. Black F.L. The role of herd immunity in the control of measles. Yale J Biol Med 1982, 55:351-360.
61. Sencer D.J., Dull H.B., Langmuir A.D. Epidemiologic basis for eradication of measles in 1967. Public Health Rep 1967, 82:253-256.
62. Hopkins D.R., Hinman A.R., Koplan J.P., et al. The case for global measles eradication. Lancet 1982, 1:1396-1398.
63. Henderson D.A. Global measles eradication. Lancet 1982, 2:208.
64. World Health Organization Measles Mortality Reduction and Regional Elimination: Strategic Plan, 2000-2005 2001, (WHO/V&B/01.13), World Health Organization, Geneva.
65. de Quadros C.A. Can measles be eradicated globally?. Bull WHO 2004, 82:134-138.
66. Heymann D.L., Fine P.E.M., Griffiths U.K., et al. Measles eradication: the past is prologue. Lancet 2010, 376:1719-1720.
67. Yorke J.A., Nathanson N., Pianigiani G., et al. Seasonality and the requirements for perpetuation and eradication of viruses in populations. Am J Epidemiol 1979, 109:103-123.
68. Fahlgren K. Two doses of MMR vaccine: sufficient to eradicate measles, mumps, and rubella?. Scand J Soc Med 1988, 16:129-135.
69. de Quadros C.A., Izurieta H., Venczel L., et al. Measles eradication in the Americas: progress to date. J Infect Dis 2004, 189:S227-S235.
70. Otten M., Kezaala R., Fall A., et al. Public health impact pf accelerated measles control in the WHO African Region 2000-03. Lancet 2005, 366:832-839.
71. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Measles, rubella, and congenital rubella syndrome: United States and Mexico, 1997-1999. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 2000, 49:1048-1050. 1059.
72. Gay N., Ramsay M., Cohen B., et al. The epidemiology of measles in England and Wales since the 1994 vaccination campaign. Commun Dis Rep 1997, 7:17-21.
73. Panum P.L. Observations made during the epidemic of measles on the Faroe Islands in the year 1846 1940, Delta Omega Society;.
74. Whittle H., Aaby P., Samb B., et al. Poor serologic responses five to seven years after immunization with high and standard titer measles vaccines. Paediatr Infect Dis J 1999, 18:53-57.
75. Mulholland E.K. Measles and pertussis in developing countries with good vaccine coverage. Lancet 1995, 345:305-307.
76. Anderson R.M., May R.M. Vaccination against rubella and measles: quantitative investigation of different policies. J Hyg (Camb) 1983, 90:259-325.
77. van Druten J.A.M., de Boo T., Plantinga A.D. Measles, mumps, and rubella: control by vaccination. Dev Biol Stand 1986, 65:53-63.
78. Panagiotopoulos T., Antoniadou I., Valassi-Adam E. Increase in congenital rubella occurrence after immunisation in Greece: retrospective survey and systematic review. BMJ 1999, 319:1462-1467.
79. Ueda K., Nishida Y., Oshima K., et al. An explanation for the high incidence of congenital rubella syndrome in Ryukyu. Am J Epidemiol 1978, 107:344-351.
80. Gao L., Hethcote H. Simulations of rubella vaccination strategies in China. Math Biosci 2006, 202:371-385.
81. World Health Organization. Immunization profile: China. (accessed 04 April 2012). http://apps.who.int/immunization_monitoring/en/globalsummary/countryprofileresult.cfm?C='chn'.
82. Meissner H.C., Reef S.E., Cochi S. Elimination of rubella from the United States: a milestone on the way to global elimination. Pediatrics 2006, 117:933-935.
83. Kim Farley R., Bart S., Stetler H., et al. Clinical mumps vaccine efficacy. Am J Epidemiol 1985, 121:593-597.
84. Sullivan K.M., Halpin T.J., Marks J.S., et al. Effectiveness of mumps vaccine in a school outbreak. Am J Dis Child 1985, 139:909-912.
85. Savage E., Ramsay M., White J., et al. Mumps outbreaks across England and Wales in 2004: observational study. BMJ 2005, 330:1119-1120.
86. Seward J.F., Watson B.M., Peterson C.L., et al. Varicella disease after introduction of varicella vaccine in the United States, 1995-2000. JAMA 2002, 287:606-611.
87. Yih W.K., Brooks D.R., Lett S.M., et al. The incidence of varicella and herpes zoster in Massachusetts as measured by the Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System (BRFSS) during a period of increasing varicella vaccine coverage, 1998-2003. BMC Public Health 2005, 5:68.
88. Hall S., Seward J., Jumaan A.O., et al. Second varicella infections: are they more common than previously thought?. Pediatrics 2002, 109:1068-1073.
89. Thomas S.L., Wheeler J.G., Hall A.J. Contacts with varicella or with children and protection against zoster in adults: a case-control study. Lancet 2002, 360:678-682.
90. Brisson M., Gay N.J., Edmunds W.J., et al. Exposure to varicella boosts immunity to herpes-zoster: implications for mass vaccination against chickenpox. Vaccine 2002, 20:2500-2507.
91. Whitley R.J. Changing dynamics of varicella-zoster virus infections in the 21st century: the impact of vaccination. J Infect Dis 2005, 191:1999-2001.
92. Edmunds W.J., Brisson M. The effect of vaccination on the epidemiology of varicella-zoster virus. J Infect 2002, 44:211-219.
93. Halloran M.E. Epidemiologic effects of varicella vaccination. Infect Dis Clin North Am 1996, 3:631-655.
94. Rimland D., Moanna A. Increasing incidence of herpes zoster among veterans. Clin Infect Dis 2010, 50:1000-1005.
95. Oxman M.N., Levin M.J., Johnson G.R., et al. A vaccine to prevent Herpes zoster and postherpetic neuralgia in older adults. N Engl J Med 2005, 352:2271-2284.
96. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. ACIP Prevention of Herpes Zoster. (accessed 05 April 2012). http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/rr5705a1.htm?s_cid=rr5705a1_e.
97. Department of Health (UK). (accessed 05 April 2012). http://www.dh.gov.uk/prod_consum_dh/groups/dh_digitalassets/@dh/@ab/documents/digitalasset/dh_114908.pdf.
98. Bayer O., Heininger U., Heiligensetzer C., et al. Metaanalysis of vaccine effectiveness in varicella outbreaks. Vaccine 2007, 25:6655-6660.
99. Bruer J. Varicella vaccination for healthcare workers. Brit Med J 2005, 330:433-434.
100. Preziosi M.P., Yam A., Wassilak S.G., et al. Epidemiology of pertussis in a West African community before and after introduction of a widespread vaccination program. Am J Epidemiol 2002, 155:891-896.
101. Trollfors B., Taranger J., Lagergard T., et al. Immunization of children with pertussis toxoid decreases spread of pertussis within the family. Pediatr Infect Dis J 1998, 17:196-199.
102. Fine P.E.M., Clarkson J.A. The recurrence of whooping cough: possible implications for assessment of vaccine efficacy. Lancet 1982, 2:666-669.
103. Grenfell B.T., Anderson R.M. Pertussis in England and Wales: an investigation of transmission dynamics and control by mass vaccination. Proc R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 1989, 236:213-253.
104. Kretzschmar M., Teunis P.F.M., Pebody R.G. Incidence and reproduction numbers of pertussis: estimates from serological and social contact data in five European countries. PLoS Med 2010, 7(6). e1000291.
105. Fine P.E.M., Clarkson J.A. Reflections on the efficacy of pertussis vaccines. Rev Infect Dis 1987, 9:866-883.
106. Edwards K.M., Decker M.D. Pertussis vaccines. Vaccines 2008, 21:467-517. Saunders Elsevier, China. 5th. S. Plotkin, W. Orenstein, P. Offit (Eds.).
107. Farrington C.P. The measurement of age-specific vaccine efficacy. Int J Epidemiol 1992, 21:1014-1020.
108. Cherry J.D. The role of Bordetella pertussis infections in adults in the epidemiology of pertussis. Dev Biol Stand 1997, 89:181-186.
109. Fine P.E.M. Epidemiological considerations for whooping cough eradication. Pathogenesis and Immunity to Pertussis 1988, 451-467. John Wiley, Chichester, UK. A.L. Wardlaw, R. Parton (Eds.).
110. Fine P.E.M. Implications of different study designs for the evaluation of acellular pertussis vaccines. Dev Biol Stand 1997, 89:123-133.
111. Pertussis Vaccine Trials 1997, Karger, Basel, Switzerland. F. Brown, D. Greco, P. Mastrantonio (Eds.).
112. Fine P.E.M. Adult pertussis: a salesman's dream, and an epidemiologist's nightmare. Biologicals 1997, 25:195-198.
113. Edwards K.M. Is pertussis a frequent cause of cough in adolescents and adults? should routine pertussis immunization be recommended?. Clin Infect Dis 2001, 32:1698-1699.
114. Ward J.I., Cherry J.D., Chang S.J, et al. Efficacy of an acellular pertussis vaccine among adolescents and adults. N Engl J Med 2006, 353:1555.
115. Committee on Infectious Diseases Prevention of pertussis among adolescents: recommendations for use of tetanus toxoid, reduced diphtheria toxoid, and acellular pertussis (Tdap) vaccine. Pediatrics 2006, 117:965-978.
116. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Advisory Committee on Immunization Practice recommends adult vaccination with new tetanus, diphtheria and pertussis vaccine (Tdap) 2005, Press release; 9 Nov.
117. http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/mm6041a4.htm?s_cid=mm6041a4_w.
118. Coudeville L., Van Rie A., Getsios D., et al. Adult vaccination strategies for the control of pertussis in the United States: an economic evaluation including the dynamic population effects. PLoS ONE 2009, 4(7):e6284. 10.1371/journal.pone.0006284.
119. Healy C.M., Rench M.A., Baker C.J. Implementation of cocooning against pertussis in a high risk population. Clin Infect Dis 2011, 52:157-162.
120. Miller L.W., Older J.J., Drake J., et al. Diphtheria immunization: effect upon carriers and the control of outbreaks. Am J Dis Child 1972, 123:197-199.
121. Jones E.E., Kim-Farley R.G., Algunaid M., et al. Diphtheria: a possible foodborne outbreak in Hodeida, Yemen Arab Republic. Bull World Health Organ 1985, 63:287-293.
122. Marcuse E.K., Grand M.G. Epidemiology of diphtheria in San Antonio, Texas, 1970. JAMA 1973, 224:305-310.
123. Simonson O., Kjeldsen K., Bentzon M.W., et al. Susceptibility to diphtheria in populations vaccinated before and after elimination of indigenous diphtheria in Denmark. Acta Pathol Microbiol Immunol Scand 1987, 95:225-231.
124. McQuillan G.M., Kruszon-Moran D., Deforest A., et al. Serologic immunity to diphtheria and tetanus in the United States. Ann Intern Med 2002, 136:660-666.
125. Maple P.A., Jones C.S., Wall E.C., et al. Immunity to diphtheria and tetanus in England and Wales. Vaccine 2000, 19:167-173.
126. Christenson B., Hellstrom U., Sylvan S.P., et al. Impact of a vaccination campaign on adult immunity to diphtheria. Vaccine 2000, 19:1133-1140.
127. Chen R.T., Broome C.V., Weinstein R.A., et al. Diphtheria in the United States, 1971-1981. Am J Public Health 1985, 75:1393-1397.
128. Doull J.A., Lara H. The epidemiologic importance of diphtheria carriers. Am J Hyg 1925, 5:508-529.
129. Bergamini M., Fabrizi P., Pagani S., et al. Evidence of increased carriage of Corynebacterium spp. in healthy individuals with low antibody titres against diphtheria toxoid. Epidemiol Infect 2000, 125:105-112.
130. Moxon E.R., Anderson P. Meningitis caused by Haemophilus influenzae in infant rats: protective immunity and antibody priming by gastrointestinal colonization with Escherichia coli. J Infect Dis 1979, 140:471-478.
131. Dagan R., Fraser D., Roitman M., et al. Effectiveness of a nationwide infant immunization program against Haemophilus influenzae b. Vaccine 1998, 17:134-141.
132. Adegbola R.A., Secka O., Lahai G., et al. Elimination of Haemophilus influenzae type b (Hib) disease from The Gambia after the introduction of routine immunisation with Hib conjugate vaccine: a prospective study. Lancet 2005, 366:144-150.
133. Peltola H., Aavitsland P., Hansen K.G., et al. Perspective: a five-country analysis of the impact of four different Haemophilus influenzae type b conjugates and vaccination strategies in Scandinavia. J Infect Dis 1999, 179:223-229.
134. Trotter C.L., Ramsay M.E., Slack M.P.E. Rising incidence of Haemophilus influenzae type b disease in England and Wales indicates a need for a second catch-up vaccination campaign. Commun Dis Public Health 2003, 6:55-58.
135. Soininen A., Pursiainen H., Kilpi T., et al. Natural development of antibodies to pneumococcal capsular polysaccharides depends on the serotype: association with pneumococcal carriage and acute otitis media in young children. J Infect Dis 2001, 184:569-576.
136. Kyaw M.H., Lynfield R., Schaffner W., et al. Effect of introduction of the pneumococcal vaccine on drug resistant Streptococcus pneumoniae. N Engl J Med 2006, 354:1455-1463.
137. Vestrheim D.F., Hoiby E.A., Bergsaker M.R., et al. Indirect effect of conjugate pneumococcal vaccination in a 2 + 1 schedule. Vaccine 2010, 28:2214-2221.
138. Hanna J.N., Humphreys J.L., Murphy D.M. Invasive pneumococcal disease in indigenous people in north Queensland: an update, 2005-2007. Med J Aust 2008, 189:43-46.
139. Singleton R.J., Hennessy T.W., Bulkow L.R., et al. Invasive pneumococcal disease caused by nonvaccine serotypes among Alaska native children with high levels of 7-valent pneumococcal conjugate vaccine coverage. JAMA 2007, 297:1784-1792.
140. Musher D.M. Pneumococcal vaccine-direct and indirect ('herd') effects. N Engl J Med 2006, 354:1522-1524.
141. Cutts F.T., Zaman S.M., Enwere G., et al. Efficacy of nine-valent pneumococcal vaccine against pneumonia and invasive pneumococcal disease in The Gambia: randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Lancet 2005, 365:1139-1146.
142. Newell K.W., Duenas Lehman A., et al. The use of toxoid for the prevention of tetanus neonatorum: final report of a double-blind controlled field trial. Bull World Health Organ 1966, 35:863-871.
143. Melnick J.L. Advantages and disadvantages of killed and live poliomyelitis vaccines. Bull World Health Organ 1978, 56:21-38.
144. Fine P.E.M., Carneiro I.A.M. Transmissibility and persistence of oral polio vaccine viruses. Am J Epidemiol 1999, 150:1001-1021.
145. Nkowane B.M., Wassilak S.G.F., Orenstein W.A., et al. Vaccine-associated paralytic poliomyelitis, United States: 1973 through 1984. JAMA 1987, 257:1335-1340.
146. Bottiger M. A study of the sero-immunity that has protected the Swedish population against poliomyelitis for 25 years. Scand J Infect Dis 1987, 19:595-601.
147. Hovi T., Cantell K., Huovilainen A., et al. Outbreak of paralytic poliomyelitis in Finland: widespread circulation of antigenically altered poliovirus type 3 in a vaccinated population. Lancet 1986, 1:1427-1432.
148. Schaap G.J., Bijkerk H., Coutinho R.A. The spread of wild polio virus in the well-vaccinated Netherlands in connection with the 1978 epidemic. Prog Med Virol 1984, 29:124-140.
149. Grassly N.C., Jafari H., Bahl S., et al. Mucosal immunity after vaccination with monovalent and trivalent oral poliovirus vaccine in India. J Infect Dis 2009, 200:794-801.
150. Fine P.E.M. Polio: measuring the protection that matters most. J Infect Dis 2009, 200:673-675.
151. Sutter R.W., John T.J., Jain H., et al. Immunogenicity of bivalent types 1 and 3 oral poliovirus vaccine: a randomised, double-blind, controlled trial. Lancet 2010, 376:1682-1688.
152. Kew O.M., Sutter R.W., de Gourville E., et al. Vaccine-derived polioviruses and the endgame strategy for global polio eradication. Annu Rev Microbiol 2005, 59:587-635.
153. Wringe A., Fine P.E.M., Sutter R.W., et al. Estimating the extent of vaccine-derived poliovirus infection. PLoS ONE 2008, 3:1-10.
154. Fine P.E.M., Sutter R.W., Orenstein W.A. Stopping a polio outbreak in the post-eradication era. Dev Biol (Basel) 2001, 105:129-147.
155. John T.J., Vashishtha V.M. Eradication of vaccine polioviruses: why, when & how?. Indian J Med Res 2009, 130:491-494.
156. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Prevention and control of influenza: recommendations of the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP). MMWR Recomm Rep 2005, 54(RR-8):1-40.
157. Monto A.S., Davenport F.M., Napier J.A., et al. Modification of an outbreak of influenza in Tecumseh, Michigan by vaccination of schoolchildren. J Infect Dis 1970, 22:16-25.
158. Rudenko L.G., Slepushkin A.N., Monto A.S., et al. Efficacy of live attenuated and inactivated influenza vaccines in schoolchildren and their unvaccinated contacts in Novgorod, Russia. J Infect Dis 1993, 168:881-887.
159. Glezen W.P. Herd protection against influenza. J Clin Virol 2006, 37:237-243.
160. King J.C., Stoddard J.J., Gaglani M.J., et al. Effectiveness of school-based influenza vaccination. N Engl J Med 2006, 355:2423-2432.
161. Reichert T.A., Sugaya N., Fedson D.S., et al. The Japanese experience with vaccinating schoolchildren against influenza. N Engl J Med 2001, 344:889-896.
162. Now Public. WHO's declaration of H1N1 pandemic: swine flu virus. (accessed 05 April 2012). http://www.nowpublic.com/health/full-text-whos-declaration-h1n1-pandemic-swine-flu-virus.
163. Ferguson N.M., Cummings D.A.T., Cauchemez S., et al. Strategies for mitigating an influenza pandemic. Nature 2006, 442:448-452.
164. Longini I.M., Nizam A., Xu S., et al. Containing pandemic influenza at source. Science 2005, 309:1083-1087.
165. Longini I.M., Halloran M.E. Strategy for distribution of influenza vaccine to high risk groups and children. Am J Epidemiol 2005, 161:303-306.
166. WHO Pandemic influenza preparedness and response: WHO guidance document. Geneva: Global Influenza Programme, WHO; 2009. (accessed 05 April 2012). http://whqlibdoc.who.int/publications/2009/9789241547680_eng.pdf.
167. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Prevention and control of influenza with vaccines: recommendations of the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP), 2010. MMWR 2010, 59:1-62.
168. Villa L.L., Costa R.L.R., Petta C.A., et al. Prophylactic quadrivalent human papillomavirus (types 6, 11, 16, 18) L1 virus-like particle vaccine in young women: a randomized double-blind placebo-controlled multicentre phase II efficacy trial. Lancet Oncol 2005, 6:271-278.
169. Garnett G.P. Role of herd immunity in determining the effect of vaccines against sexually transmitted disease. J Infect Dis 2005, 191(suppl 1):S97-S106.
170. Dasbach E.J., Elbasha E.H., Insinga R.P. Mathematical models for predicting the epidemiologic and economic impact of vaccination against human papillomavirus infection and disease. Epidemiol Rev 2006, 28:88-100.
171. http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/mm6050a3.htm.
172. Brotherton J.M., Kaldor J.M., Garland S.M. Monitoring the control of human papillomavirus infection and related diseases in Australia: towards a national HPV surveillance strategy. Sexual Health 2010, 7:310-319.
173. Donovan B., Franklin N., Guy R., et al. Quadrivalent human papillomavirus vaccination and trends in genital warts in Australia: analysis of national sentinel surveillance data. Lancet Infect Dis 2011, 11:39-44.
174. Kochi A., Nunn P., Dye C., et al. Global burden of disease. Lancet 1997, 350:142.
175. Fine P.E.M., Carneiro I.A.M., Milstein J.B., et al. Issues Relating to the Use of BCG in Immunization Programmes 1999, (WHO/V&B/99.23)., World Health Organization, Geneva.
176. Fine P.E.M., Sterne J.A.C., Ponnighaus J.M., et al. Delayed-type hypersensitivity, mycobacterial vaccines and protective immunity. Lancet 1994, 344:1245-1249.
177. Styblo K., Meijer J. Impact of BCG vaccination programmes in children and young adults on the tuberculosis problem. Tubercle 1976, 57:17-43.
178. Aronson N.E., Santosham M., Comstock G.W., et al. Long-term efficacy of BCG vaccine in American Indians and Alaska Natives: a 60-year follow-up study. JAMA 2004, 291:2086-2091.
179. Sutherland I., Lindgren I. The protective effect of BCG vaccination as indicated by autopsy studies. Tubercle 1979, 60:225-231.
180. Soysal A., Millington K.A., Bakir M., et al. Effect of BCG vaccination on risk of Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection in children with household tuberculosis contact: a prospective community-based study. Lancet 2005, 366:1443-1451.
181. Trunz B.B., Fine P.E.M., Dye C. Effect of BCG vaccination on childhood tuberculous meningitis and military tuberculosis worldwide: a metaanalysis and assessment of cost-effectiveness. Lancet 2006, 367:1175-1182.
182. Fine P.E.M. Variation in protection by BCG: implications of and for heterologous immunity. Lancet 1995, 346:1339-1345.
183. Fine P.E.M., Vynnycky E. The effect of heterologous immunity upon the apparent efficacy of (eg BCG) vaccines. Vaccine 1998, 16:1923-1928.
184. Merle C.S., Cunha S.S., Rodrigues L.C. BCG vaccination and leprosy protection: review of current evidence and status of BCG in leprosy control. Expert Rev Vaccines 2010, 9:209-222.
185. Brooker S., Bethony J.M., Rodrigues L.C., et al. Epidemiologic, immunologic and practical considerations in developing and evaluating a human hookworm vaccine. Expert Rev Vaccines 2005, 4:35-50.
186. Good M.F., Xu H., Wykes M., et al. Development and regulation of cell-mediated immune responses to the blood stages of malaria: implications for vaccine research. Ann Rev Immunol 2005, 23:69-99.
187. Smith T.A., Chitnis N., Briët O.J., et al. Uses of mosquito-stage transmission-blocking vaccines against Plasmodium falciparum. Trends Parasitol 2011, 27:190-196.
188. Jariwala A.R., Oliveira L.M., Diemert D.J., et al. Potency testing for the experimental Na-GST-1 hookworm vaccine. Expert Rev Vaccines 2010, 9:1219-1230.
189. Halloran M.E., Haber M., Longini I.M., et al. Direct and indirect effects in vaccine efficacy and effectiveness. Am J Epidemiol 1991, 133:323-331.
190. Bjune G., Hoiby E.A., Gronnesby J.K., et al. Effects of outer membrane vesicle vaccine against group B meningococcal disease in Norway. Lancet 1991, 338:1093-1096.
191. Ali M., Emch M., von Seidlin L., et al. Herd immunity conferred by killed oral cholera vaccines in Bangladesh: a reanalysis. Lancet 2005, 366:44-49.
192. Patel M.M., Tate J., Cortese M., et al. The impact of indirect benefits of vaccination on postlicensure vaccine effectiveness estimates: a scenario analysis. Vaccine 2010, 28:7987-7992.
193. John T.J., Samuel R. Herd immunity and herd effect: new insights and definitions. Eur J Epidemiol 2000, 16:601-606.
194. Klock L.E., Rachelefsky G.S. Failure of rubella herd immunity during an epidemic. N Engl J Med 1973, 288:69-72.
195. Nguipdop-Djono P, Thomas SL, Fine PEM. Correlates of vaccine-induced protection: methods and implications. WHO/IVB/10.00, in press.
196. Orenstein W.A., Hinman A.R. The immunization system in the United States-the role of school immunization laws. Vaccine 1999, 17(suppl):S19-S24.