Introduction: Reconsidering recycling

Contemporary European History

Volumn 22, Issue 3, 2013, Pages 347-370

  Oldenziel, Ruth ^a   Weber, Heike ^b  

^a EINDHOVEN UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY   (Netherlands)

^b UNIVERSITY OF WUPPERTAL   (Germany)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 84879928412     PISSN: 09607773     EISSN: 14692171     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1017/S0960777313000192     Document Type: Review

References (127)

1. Matthew Gandy, Recycling and the Politics of Urban Waste (London: Earthscan Publications, 1994).
2. The categories of 'industrial' or 'hazardous waste' have only been introduced since the 1960s. Thus far, detailed historical studies on production waste are lacking. Environmental historians have studied the environmental impact of industries pertaining to emissions or wastewater but have left out the issue of material wastes. These were either reused in other industries or buried on-site.
3. They include: Gandy, Recycling; Samantha MacBride, Recycling Reconsidered: The Present Failure and Future Promise of Environmental Action in the United States (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 2012);
4. Finn Arne Jørgenson, Making a Green Machine: The Infrastructure of Beverage Container Recycling (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 2011);
5. Raymond G. Stokes, Roman Köster and Stephen C. Sambrook, The Business of Waste: Great Britain and Germany, 1945 to the Present (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, forthcoming, 2013);
6. Roman Köster, 'Vom Recycling zur Mülllawine und zurück', Politische Ökologie 30 (June 2012), 17-22;
7. Reinhold Reith, 'Recycling: Stoffströme in der Geschichte', in Sylvia Hahn and Reinhold Reith, eds, Querschnitte 8: Umwelt-Geschichte: Arbeitsfelder, Forschungsansätze, Perspektiven (Vienna, Munich: Oldenbourg, 2001), 99-120;
8. Timothy Cooper, 'War on Waste? The Politics of Waste and Recycling in Post-War Britain, 1950-1975', Capitalism Nature Socialism, 20, 4 (2009), 53-72.
9. Environmental historians such as Tucker or Cronon integrate social and environmental history: see Richard P. Tucker, Insatiable Appetite: The United States and the Ecological Degradation of the Tropical World (Berkeley, Los Angeles, London: University of California Press, 2000);
10. Frank Uekötter, Umweltgeschichte im 19. und 20. Jahrhundert (Munich: Oldenbourg, 2007);
11. Carolyn Merchant, The Columbia Guide to American Environmental History (New York: Columbia University Press, 2002).
12. Frank Trentmann, ed., Governance, Citizens, and Consumers: Agency and Resistance in Contemporary Politics (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2007);
13. Adri Albert de la Bruhèze and Ruth Oldenziel, eds, Manufacturing Products, Manufacturing Consumers (Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press, 2009).
14. Gandy, Recycling, 14.
15. Reinhold, 'Recycling'; Stephen Macekura, 'The Limits of the Global Community: The Nixon Administration and Global Environmental Politics', Cold War History, 11, 4 (2011), 489-518;
16. Jacob Darwin Hamblin, 'Environmentalism for the Atlantic Alliance: NATO's Experiment with the "Challenges of Modern Society"', Environmental History, 15, 1 (2010), 54-75;
17. Michael R. Vickery, 'Conservative Politics and the Politics of Conservation: Richard Nixon and the Environmental Protection Agency', in Tarla Rai Peterson, ed., Green Talk in the White House: The Rhetorical Presidency Encounters Ecology (College Station, Tex.: Texas A&M University Press, 2004), 113-33.
18. Arsen Darnay and William A. Franklin, Salvage Markets for Materials in Solid Wastes (Kansas City: United States Environmental Protection Agency, 1972). The cover shows the ancient symbol of the World Snake (Uroboros) to symbolise the circularity of recycling.
19. For New York, where kerb-side recycling started between 1970 and 1973, see: MacBride, Recycling, 49-85;
20. Adam Rome, '"Give Earth a Chance": The Environmental Movement and the 1960s', The Journal of American History, 90, 2 (2003), 525-54.
21. Jan-Henrik Meyer, 'Appropriating the Environment: How the European Institutions Received the Novel Idea of the Environment and Made it Their Own Research College "The Transformative Power of Europe"', Kolleg-Forschergruppe (KFG) Working Paper no. 31 (Berlin: Free University Berlin, 2011). Only in 1985 was a directive on packaging liquids issued, but it was left to national governments whether to introduce bottle bills or negotiate agreements with industry.
22. for the US see MacBride, Recycling Reconsidered; Robert Friedel, 'American Bottles: the Road to No Return', paper presented at 'Re/Cycling Histories: Users and the Paths to Sustainability in Everyday Life', Rachel Carson Center for Environment and Society, Munich, 27-9 May 2011.
23. For the US, where the traditional scrap firms now called themselves 'Original Recyclers', see Carl A. Zimring, Cash for your Trash: Scrap Recycling in America (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 2005), 138-42;
24. for Germany and Great Britain, see: Stokes et al., Business of Waste.
25. Emily Brownell, 'Negotiating the new economic order of waste', Environmental History, 16 (2011), 262-89;
26. Catherine Alexander and Joshua Reno, Economies of Recycling: The Global Transformation of Materials, Values and Social Relations (London, New York: Zed Books, 2012).
27. For Great Britain, see Cooper, 'War'; Stokes et al., Business of Waste; the French and West German developments are being researched by Heike Weber in a larger, comparative project on twentiethcentury household waste under the title 'Nach dem Konsum: Zur Geschichte des Hausmülls im deutsch- französischen Vergleich, 1890er bis 1970er Jahre'.
28. See the corresponding ten volumes, Materialien zum Abfallwirtschaftsprogramm '75 (Berlin: Umweltbundesamt, 1976). For German waste politics: Jakob Calice and Heike Weber, 'Germany', in Carl A. Zimring and William L. Rathje, eds, Encyclopedia of Consumption and Waste: The Social Science of Garbage (Thousand Oaks: Sage, 2012), 319-21.
29. Rolf Schiller, 'Getrennte Hausmüllsammlung: Untersuchung über die Trennung und Verwertung von Papier, Glas aus Hausmüll, dargestellt am Beispiel der Stadt Konstanz: Abschlußbericht' (Friedrichshafen, by order of the Bundesminister des Innern and the Umweltbundesamt, Dornier System GmbH, 1977).
30. Klaus Lösch, 'Probleme des Abfallaufkommens und der Abfallbeseitigung dargestellt am Beispiel bundesdeutscher Städte', PhD thesis, University of Bremen, 1984, 166.
31. Groupe d'Études sur l'Élimination des Résidus Urbains (GEERS), ed., Déchets solides: Propositions pour une politique: Rapport du groupe d'études sur l'élimination des résidus solides (Paris: la Documentation française, 1974);
32. Claude Gruson, La Lutte contre le gaspillage: Une nouvelle politique économique, une nouvelle politique de l'environnement (Paris: Ministère de la Qualité de la Vie; Groupe Interministériel d'Évaluation de l'Environnement, 1974).
33. See Nicolas Marty, 'L'Articulation entre normes et marchés: La Construction de la qualité de l'eau embouteillée en Europe, XIXe-XXe siècles', Mémoire inédit présenté pour l'habilitation à diriger des recherches, Université de Perpignan via Domitia, 2009.
34. See J. Colardeau, 'La Collecte sélective', Techniques et sciences municipales, 10 (1977), 401-5.
35. Reiner Keller, Müll: Die gesellschaftliche Konstruktion des Wertvollen: Die öffentliche Diskussion über Abfall in Deutschland und Frankreich (Opladen: Westdeutscher Verlag, 1998).
36. Protagonists of the 'degrowth' debate include Serge Latouche and Niko Paech, among others. See Michael Braungart and William McDonough, Cradle to Cradle: Remaking the Way We Make Things (New York: North Point Press, 2002).
37. See also Matthew Hilton, 'The Cold War and the Kitchen in a Global Context: The Debate over the United Nations Guidelines on Consumer Protection', in Ruth Oldenziel and Karin Zachmann, eds, Cold War Kitchen: Americanization, Technology, and European Users (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 2009), 341-61.
38. For the distinct paths into mass-scale societies, see for example: Heinz-Gerhard Haupt and Claudius Torp, eds, Die Konsumgesellschaft in Deutschland, 1890-1990: Ein Handbuch (Frankfurt am Main: Campus, 2009);
39. Emanuela Scarpellini, Material Nation: A Consumer's History of Modern Italy (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2011);
40. Sabine Haustein, Vom Mangel zum Massenkonsum: Deutschland, Frankreich und Großbritannien im Vergleich 1945-1970 (Frankfurt am Main: Campus, 2007);
41. Oldenziel and Zachmann, eds, Cold War Kitchen.
42. On the leading role of the European Union, see: Jan-Henrik Meyer and Bruno Poncharal, 'L'Européanisation de la politique environnementale dans les années 1970', Vingtième Siècle: Revue d'histoire, 113, 1 (2012), 117-26;
43. Meyer, 'Appropriating the Environment';
44. On the many facets of waste in society, see Zimring and Rathje, Encyclopedia; see also: Heike Weber, 'Abfall', in Stefanie Samida, Manfred K. H. Eggert and Hans Peter Hahn, eds, Materielle Kultur: Ein interdisziplinäres Handbuch (Stuttgart: J. B. Metzler, forthcoming, 2013).
45. Martin O'Brien, A Crisis of Waste? Understanding the Rubbish Society (New York and London: Routledge, 2008), 6.
46. Gay Hawkins, The Ethics of Waste: How we Relate to Rubbish (Lanham: Rowman and Littlefield Publishers, 2005).
47. Mary Douglas, Purity and Danger: An Analysis of Concepts of Pollution and Taboo (London: Routledge, 1966);
48. Michael Thompson, Rubbish Theory: The Creation and Destruction of Value (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1979). Nicky Gregson has analysed the 'divestment' strategies through which citizens dispose of things: Nicky Gregson and Louise Crewe, Second-Hand Cultures (Oxford, New York: Berg, 2003);
49. NickyGregson, AlanMetcalfe and Louise Crewe, 'Practices ofObjectMaintenance and Repair: How Consumers Attend to Consumer Objects within the Home', Journal of Consumer Culture, 9, 2 (2009), 248-72;
50. Nicky Gregson, Living with Things: Ridding, Accommodation, Dwelling (Wantage: Sean Kingston, 2007). A rich scholarship exists on the literary and cultural constructions of dirt and, more generally, the metaphors of rubbish or garbage, see for instance: John Scanlan, On Garbage (London: Reaction Books, 2005).
51. See David N. Pellow, Garbage Wars: The Struggle for Environmental Justice in Chicago (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 2002) and his Resisting Global Toxics: Transnational Movements for Environmental Justice (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 2007);
52. Martin Medina, The World's Scavengers: Salvaging for Sustainable Consumption and Production (Lanham: AltaMira Press, 2007);
53. Delphine Corteel and Stéphane Le Lay, eds, Les Travailleurs du déchet (Toulouse: Editions Érès, 2011);
54. Martina Schäfer, Irmgard Schultz and GabrielleWendorf, eds, Gender-Perspektiven in der sozial-ökologischen Forschung (Munich:Oekom, 2006).
55. O'Brien, A Crisis, 6.
56. Sabine Barles, L'Invention des déchets urbains, France: 1790-1970 (Seyssel: Champ Vallon, 2005), 237-9; Ludolf Kuchenbuch, 'Abfall: Eine Stichwortgeschichte', in Hans-Georg Soeffner, ed., Kultur und Alltag: Soziale Welt, Sonderband (Special Issue) 6 (Göttingen: Schwartz, 1988), 155-70.
57. Hans Martin, 'Die moderne Müllverwertung unter besonderer Berücksichtigung der landwirtschaftlichen Nutzung', PhD thesis, Landwirtschaftliche Hochschule Bonn-Popelsdorf, 1930, 9.
58. Martin V. Melosi, Garbage in the Cities: Refuse, Reform, and the Environment (Pittsburgh Pa.: University of Pittsburgh Press, 2005);
59. Carl Henneking, Die Müllbeseitigung in nordamerikanischen Großstädten (Leipzig: Leineweber, 1907).
60. See Barles, L'Invention;
61. Zsuzsa Gille, From the Cult of Waste to the Trash Heap of History: The Politics of Waste in Socialist and Post-socialist Hungary (Bloomington Ind.: Indiana University Press, 2007), 34.
62. Urban sanitation studies have contributed many studies on waste, among them the following more recent ones: Melosi, Garbage; Peter Payer, ed., Sauberes Wien: Stadtreinigung und Abfallbeseitigung seit
63. (Vienna: Holzhausen, 2006);
64. Stéphane Frioux, 'Les Réseaux de la modernité: Amélioration de l'environnement et diffusion de l'innovation dans la France urbaine, fin XIXe siècle-années 1950', PhD thesis, Université Lumière-Lyon II, 2009.
65. Susan Strasser, Waste and Want: A Social History of Trash (New York: Metropolitan Books, 1999).
66. Sabine Barles, 'A metabolic approach to the city: nineteenth-and twentieth-century Paris', in Dieter Schott, Bill Luckin and Geneviève Massard-Guilbaud, eds, Resources of the City: Contributions to an Environmental History of Modern Europe (Aldershot: Ashgate, 2005), 28-47.
67. Reinhold Reith, 'Recycling im späten Mittelalter und der frühen Neuzeit: Eine Materialsammlung', Frühneuzeit-Info, 14 (2003), 47-65;
68. Donald Woodward, '"Swords into Ploughshares": Recycling in Pre-Industrial England', The Economic History Review, 38 (1995), 175-91.
69. On that point see Zimring, Cash for your Trash, who has analysed the American scrap trade with a focus on metal scrap.
70. Jon Stobart and Ilja van Damme, eds, Modernity and the Second-Hand Trade: European Consumption Cultures and Practices, 1700-1900 (Basingstoke: PalgraveMacmillan, 2010). On the importance of secondhand markets for textiles, see: Laurence Fontaine, ed., Alternative Exchanges: Second-Hand Circulations from the Sixteenth Century to Today (Oxford: Berghahn Books, 2008).
71. For twentieth-century Beijing, Goldstein identifies similar functions of scavengers, stating that 'we might even be able to chart a changing imaginary of citizenship, society or nationhood through the changing daily-life habits and rhythms of recycling in urban China over the last century.' Joshua Goldstein, 'The Remains of the Everyday: One Hundred Years of Recycling in Beijing', in Madeleine Yue Dong and Joshua Goldstein, eds, Everyday Modernity in China (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 2006), 260-302, here 261.
72. For the US see Strasser, Waste and Want.
73. For the American tradition of waste landscaping, see Craig E. Colten, 'Chicago's Waste Lands: Refuse Disposal and Urban Growth, 1840-1990', Journal of Historical Geography, 20 (1994), 124-42;
74. Weber, 'Les Ordures ménagères'.
75. See Carl Zimring, 'Dirty Work: How Hygiene and Xenophobia Marginalized the American Waste Trades, 1870-1930', Environmental History, 9 (2004), 80-101;
76. Timothy Cooper, 'Challenging the "refuse revolution": War, waste and the rediscovery of recycling, 1900-1950', Historical Research, 81, (2008), 710-31.
77. See Ernst Schein, 'Organisation und Technik des deutschen Rohproduktenhandels', inaugural dissertation in Economics (Inaugural- Dissertation, Wirtschaftswissenschaft), Handelshochschule Berlin, Ohlau, 1931, 24.
78. See John McNeill and George Vrtis, 'Thrift and Waste in American History', in Joshua J. Yates and James Davison Hunter, eds, Thrift and Thriving in America: Capitalism and Moral Order from the Puritans to the Present (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2011), 508-35.
79. Marguerite Lamy, Bien acheter pour mieux vivre (Paris: Dunod, 1932;
80. See the following special issue on repairing, edited by Georg Stöger and Reinhold Reith: Reparieren oder die Lebensdauer der Gebrauchsgüter, in Technikgeschichte (Special Issue: Repair and Maintenance), 79, 3 (2012), 227-53, here 232.
81. On British austerity politics, see: Ina Zweiniger-Bargielowska, Austerity in Britain. Rationing, controls, and consumption 1939-1955 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000).
82. For the term 'moral economies', see Edward P. Thompson, 'The Moral Economy of the English Crowd in the Eighteenth Century', Past and Present, 50 (1971), 76-136. Here we use the term in the plural to indicate that, while individuals, institutions and groups are motivated by values, morals and mentalities, they do not necessarily share unified moral systems. See also the Moral Economies of Modern Societies research programme of the International Max Planck Research School: www.mpib-berlin.mpg.de/de/forschung/ doktorandenprogramme/imprs-moral-economies (accessed 12 Apr. 2013).
83. See 'Le verre perdu', Emballage (1965), 161-3, here 163.
84. See Roman Köster, 'Abschied von der "verlorenen Verpackung": Die Geschichte des Recyclings von Hausmüll 1945-1990', in Technikgeschichte (forthcoming 2014).
85. Consumer organisations were engrossed with developing product tests and rational-economic guides to consumer choice rather than responding to the awakening of the environmental movement and its fundamental critique of consumer society's waste streams, see Matthew Hilton, Prosperity for All: Consumer Activism in an Era of Globalization (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2009), chapter 1.
86. On the culture of reuse in the Soviet Union, see: Ekaterina Gerasimova and Sofia Chuikina, 'The Repair Society', Russian Studies in History, 48 (2009), 58-74. On consumption in East Germany: Ina Merkel, Utopie und Bedürfnis: Die Geschichte der Konsumkultur in der DDR (Cologne, Weimar, Berlin: Böhlau, 1999);
87. Milena Veenis, Material Fantasies. East German Expectations about the Western Consumer World (Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press, 2012).
88. Gille, Cult of Waste; on the GDR see Susanne Hartard and Michael Huhn, Strukturanalyse des SERO-Systems der DDR im Hinblick auf Effizienz und Eignung unter marktwirtschaftlichen Bedingungen (Bonn: Umweltbundesamt, 1992);
89. Susanne Hartard and Michael Huhn, 'Das SERO-System', in Hermann Behrens and Jens Hoffmann/Institut für Umweltgeschichte und Regionalentwicklung et al., eds, Umweltschutz in der DDR: Analysen und Zeitzeugenberichte, ii: Mediale und sektorale Aspekte (Munich: Oekonom, 2008), 309-34;
90. Jakob Calice,'"Sekundärrohstoffe: eine Quelle, die nie versiegt": Konzeption und Argumentation des Abfallverwertungssystems in der DDR aus umwelthistorischer Perspektive', University of Vienna, Diplomarbeit, 2005;
91. Jakob Calice, 'Garbage recycling rhetoric in the GDR: an environmental historic perspective', Trans-disciplinary Journal of Emergence, 3, 2 (2005), online at: http://textfeld.ac.at/text/713/(accessed April 12, 2013);
92. Dirk Maier,'"Mehr Achtung für den Lumpenmann": Altstofferfassung und Materialwirtschaft in der DDR der 1950er und 1960er Jahre', in Mamoun Fansa and Sabine Wolfram, eds, Müll: Facetten von der Steinzeit bis zum Gelben Sack (Mainz: Zabern, 2003), 131-9;
93. Joachim Haun, 'Systemvergleich markt-und planwirtschaftlicher Wirtschaftssysteme im Hinblick auf die wirtschaftliche Entwicklung der Abfallund Sekundärrohstoffwirtschaft im Bereich häuslicher Rückstä nde', PhD thesis, Regensburg, 1998; Bernd Spindler, Die Verwertung von Sekundärrohstoffen in der DDR (Bonn: Gesamtdt. Inst., 1985): Ol'ga Gurova, 'The Life Span of Things in Soviet Society', Russian Studies in History, 48, 1 (2009), 46-57.
94. Haun, Systemvergleich, 41.
95. Maier, 'Mehr Achtung', 136.
96. Hartard and Huhn, SERO-System.
97. Gurova, 'The Life Span of Things'.
98. The resulting report is the study by Hartard and Huhn, Strukturanalyse. On united Germany's 'Green Dot' system see Bette K. Fishbein, Germany, Garbage, and the Green Dot: Challenging the Throwaway Society (New York: Inform, 1996).
99. See for instance, Roger Chickering, Freiburg im Ersten Weltkrieg: Totaler Krieg und städtischer Alltag 1914-1918 (Paderborn: Schöningh, 2009);
100. Eric Alary, Bénédicte Vergez-Chaignon and Gilles Gauvin, Les Français au quotidien 1939-1949 (Saint-Amand-Montrond: Perrin, 2006).
101. Chickering, Freiburg, 153-97.
102. Henry J. Spooner, Wealth from Waste (London: Routledge Efficiency Books, 1918). See also: Cooper, 'Challenging the "refuse revolution"'.
103. Stuart Chase, The Challenge of Waste, rev. edn (New York: League for Industrial Democracy, 1925), 9.
104. On the Nazi waste regime, see Friedrich Huchting, 'Abfallwirtschaft im Dritten Reich', Technikgeschichte, 48 (1981), 252-72;
105. Friedrich Huchting, Prüfung alter Verwertungstechnologien aus Mangel-und Kriegszeiten: Forschungsbericht 10301104 (Berlin: Umweltbundesamt, 1980);
106. Susanne Köstering, 'Pioniere der Rohstoffbeschaffung: Lumpensammler im Nationalsozialismus, 1934-1939', WerkstattGeschichte, 17, (1997), 45-65;
107. Susanne Köstering, '"Millionen im Müll? "Altmaterialverwertung nach dem Vierjahresplan', in Köstering and Rüb, Müll, 139-49.
108. Franz-Josef Brüggemeier, Mark Cioc and Thomas Zeller, eds, How Green Were the Nazis? Nature, Environment, and Nation in the Third Reich (Athens, O.: Ohio University Press, 2006);
109. Frank Uekötter, The Green and the Brown. A History of Conservation in Nazi Germany (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006).
110. Also in Götz Aly, Hitlers Volksstaat: Raub, Rassenkrieg und nationaler Sozialismus (Frankfurt am Main: Fischer, 2005).
111. Riley, Salvage.
112. Hugh Rockoff, 'Keep on Scrapping: The Salvage Drives of the Second World War', NBER (National Bureau of Economic Research), Working Paper no. 13418 (Sept. 2007);
113. online: www.nber.org/papers/w13418 (accessed 24 April 2013).
114. On Great Britain: Stokes et al., Business of Waste.
115. Reith, 'Materialsammlung'.
116. For the field of industrial production and the reuse of production wastes, see Pierre Desrochers, 'How Did the Invisible Hand Handle Industrial Waste? By-product Development before the Modern Environmental Era', Enterprise and Society, 8 (2007), 348-74.
117. Strasser, Waste and Want;
118. Christopher Hamlin, 'Sewage: Waste or Resource, A Historical Perspective', Environment, 22 (Oct. 1980), 16-20, here 17.
119. Christian Pfister, ed., Das 1950er Syndrom: Der Weg in die Konsumgesellschaft (Berne: Haupt, 1995);
120. Christian Pfister, 'The "1950s Syndrome" and the Transition from a Slow-Going to a Rapid Loss of Global Sustainability', in Uekötter, The Turning Points, 90-118.
121. The '1970s diagnosis' of Patrick Kupper, 'Die "1970er Diagnose": Grundsätzliche Überlegungen zu einem Wendepunkt der Umweltgeschichte?', Archiv für Sozialgeschichte, 43 (2003), 325-48. See Uekötter, The Turning Points.
122. Jens Ivo Engels, 'Modern Environmentalism', in Uekötter, The Turning Points, 119-31, here 130.
123. For environmental modernisation see Arthur Mol, David Sonnenfeld and Gert Spaargaren, eds, The Ecological Modernisation Reader: Environmental Reform in Theory and Practice (London and New York: Routledge, 2009). In much of the waste experts' discourse in the 1970s and municipal politics, landfill was seen as the most environmentally-friendly disposal technology, see HeikeWeber, 'Modern Landfills', in Zimring and Rathje, Encyclopedia, 470-4.
124. The idea had also inspired the nineteenth century issue of how to treat the faeces of urbanites, i.e. conserving materials in 'circles': HeikeWeber, 'Abfallrecycling-Bäume und Kreise als Leitmetaphern eines Schließens von Stoffströmen', in Kijan Espahangizi and Barbara Orland, eds, Stoffe in Bewegung: Eine historische Epistemologie der materiellen Welt (Zeitenblicke, see online: www.zeitenblicke.de/, forthcoming).
125. Critics have thus suggested we use the term 'down' cycling. See Alexander and Reno, Economies of Recycling; a prominent case is the 'recycling' of toxic e-wastes, see Elizabeth Grossman, High Tech Trash: Digital Devices, Hidden Toxics, and Human Health (Washington: Island Press, 2007).
126. MacBride, Recycling.
127. Fridolin Krausmann, S. Gingrich, N. Eisenmenger, K. H. Erb, H. Haberl and M. Fischer-Kowalski, 'Growth in Global Materials Use, GDP, and Population during the Twentieth Century', Ecological Economics, 68, 10 (2009), 2696-705.