Early to Middle Eocene vegetation dynamics at the Wilkes Land Margin (Antarctica)

Review of Palaeobotany and Palynology

Volumn 197, Issue , 2013, Pages 119-142

  Contreras, Lineth ^a,b   Pross, Jörg ^a,b   Bijl, Peter K ^c   Koutsodendris, Andreas ^a   Raine, J Ian ^d   van de Schootbrugge, Bas ^a   Brinkhuis, Henk ^c,e  

^a GOETHE UNIVERSITY   (Germany)

^b BIODIVERSITY AND CLIMATE RESEARCH CENTRE BIK F   (Germany)

^c UTRECHT UNIVERSITY   (Netherlands)

^d GNS SCIENCE   (New Zealand)

^e ROYAL NETHERLANDS INSTITUTE FOR SEA RESEARCH   (Netherlands)

Author keywords

Antarctica; Eocene; Palynology; Vegetation dynamics

Indexed keywords

DATA SET; EOCENE; LATITUDE; PALEOBOTANY; PALYNOLOGY; TROPICAL ENVIRONMENT; TROPICAL FOREST; VEGETATION DYNAMICS; VEGETATION STRUCTURE; VEGETATION TYPE;

ANTARCTICA;

EID: 84879701928     PISSN: 00346667     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.revpalbo.2013.05.009     Document Type: Article

References (117)

1. Anderson J.B., Warny S., Askin R.A., Wellner J.S., Bohaty S.M., Kirshner A.E., Livsey D.N., Simms A.R., Smith T.R., Ehrmann W., Lawver L.A., Barbeau D., Wise S.W., Kulhanek D.K., Weaver F.M., Majewski W. Progressive Cenozoic cooling and the demise of Antarctica's last refugium. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 2011, 108:11356-11360.
2. APSA Members The Australasian Pollen and Spores Atlas V.1.0 2007, Australian National University, Canberra, (http://apsa.anu.edu.au/).
3. Askin R.A. Spores and pollen from the McMurdo Sound erratics. Antarctic Research Series 2000, 76:161-181.
4. Askin R.A., Raine J.I. Oligocene and Early Miocene terrestrial palynology of the Cape Roberts Drillhole CRP-2/2A, Victoria Land Basin, Antarctica. Terra Antartica 2000, 7:493-501.
5. Baker W.J., Couvreur T.L.P. Global biogeography and diversification of palms sheds light on the evolution of tropical lineages. II. Diversification history and origin of regional assemblages. Journal of Biogeography 2013, 40:286-298.
6. Barreda V., Palazzesi L. Patagonian vegetation turnovers during the Paleogene-Early Neogene: origin of arid-adapted floras. The Botanical Review 2007, 73:31-50.
7. Barrett P.J. Antarctic paleoenvironment through Cenozoic times - a review. Terra Antartica 1996, 3:103-119.
8. Bartish I.V., Antonelli A., Richardson J.E., Swenson U. Vicariance or long-distance dispersal: historical biogeography of the pantropical subfamily Chrysophylloideae (Sapotaceae). Journal of Biogeography 2011, 38:177-190.
9. Bayer C., Kubitski K. Malvaceae. Flowering Plants, Dicotyledons: Malvales, Capparales, and Non-betalain Caryophyllales 2003, 225-311. Springer, Germany. K. Kubitski, C. Bayer (Eds.).
10. Bijl P.K., Schouten S., Sluijs A., Reichart G.J., Zachos J.C., Brinkhuis H. Early Palaeogene temperature evolution of the southwest Pacific Ocean. Nature 2009, 461:776-779.
11. Bijl P.K., Pross J., Warnaar J., Stickley C.E., Huber M., Guerstein R., Houben A.J.P., Sluijs A., Visscher H., Brinkhuis H. Environmental forcings of Paleogene Southern Ocean dinoflagellate biogeography. Paleoceanography 2011, 26. (PA1202). 10.1029/2009PA001905.
12. Bijl P.K., Bendle J.A., Bohaty S.M., Pross J., Schouten S., Tauxe L., Stickley C.E., McKay R.M., Röhl U., Olney M., Sluijs A., Escutia C., Brinkhuis H. Eocene cooling linked to early flow across the Tasmanian Gateway. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 2013, Expedition 318 Scientists, http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1220872110 (in press).
13. Bush M.B., Rivera R. Pollen dispersal and representation in a neotropical rain forest. Global Ecology and Biogeography 1998, 7:379-392.
14. Carpenter R.J., Jordan G.J., Macphail M.K., Hill R.S. Near-tropical Early Eocene terrestrial temperatures at the Australo-Antarctic margin, western Tasmania. Geology 2012, 40:267-270.
15. Chinnock R.J. Huperzia, flora of Australia Online http://www.anbg.gov.au/abrs/online-resources/flora/.
16. Chinnock R.J., Bell G.H. Gleicheniaceae, flora of Australia Online http://www.anbg.gov.au/abrs/online-resources/flora/.
17. Couper R.A. New Zealand Mesozoic and Cainozoic plant microfossils. New Zealand Geological Survey Paleontological Bulletin 1960, 32:1-88.
18. Crouch E.M., Visscher H. Terrestrial vegetation record across the initial Eocene thermal maximum at the Tawanui marine section, New Zealand. Geological Society of America Special Paper 2003, 369:351-363. The Geological Society of America, Boulder, Colorado. S. Wing, P.D. Gingerich, B. Schmitz, E. Thomas (Eds.).
19. Dettmann M.E. Upper Mesozoic microfloras from South-eastern Australia. Proceedings of the Royal Society of Victoria 1963, 77:1-148.
20. Dickison W. Strasburgeriaceae. Flowering Plants, Eudicots. Berberidopsidales, Buxales, Crossosomatales, Fabales p.p., Geraniales, Gunnerales, Myrtales p.p., Proteales, Saxifragales, Vitales, Zygophyllales, Clusiaceae Alliance, Passifloraceae Alliance, Dilleniaceae, Huaceae, Picramniaceae, Sabiaceae 2007, 446-448. Springer, Germany. K. Kubitski (Ed.).
21. Dodson J.R. Modern pollen spectra from Chatham Island, New Zealand. New Zealand Journal of Botany 1976, 14:341-347.
22. Eberle J., Greenwood D.R. Life at the top of the greenhouse Eocene world - a review of the Eocene flora and vertebrate fauna from Canada's High Arctic. Geological Society of America Bulletin 2011, 124:3-21.
23. Expedition 318 Scientists Site U1356. Proceedings of the Integrated Ocean Drilling Program 2011, 318:1-103. 10.2204/iodp.proc.318.104.2011. C. Escutia, H. Brinkhuis, A. Klaus, the Expedition 318 Scientists (Eds.).
24. Farley M.B. Palynomorphs from surface water of the Eastern and Central Caribbean Sea. Micropaleontology 1987, 33:254-262.
25. Fedorov A.A. The structure of the tropical rain forest and speciation in the humid tropics. Journal of Ecology 1966, 54:1-11.
26. Francis J.E. Fossil wood from Eocene high latitude forests, McMurdo Sound, Antarctica. Antarctic Research Series 2000, 76:253-260.
27. Francis A.P., Currie D.J. A globally consistent richness-climate relationship for angiosperms. American Naturalist 2003, 161:523-536.
28. Francis J.E., Marenssi S., Levy R., Hambrey M., Thorn V.C., Mohr B., Brinkhuis H., Warnaar J., Zachos J., Bohaty S., DeConto R. Chapter 8 From greenhouse to icehouse - the Eocene/Oligocene in Antarctica. Antarctic Climate Evolution 2008, 309-368. Elsevier, The Netherlands. F. Florindo, M. Siegert (Eds.).
29. Gayó E., Hinojosa L.F., Villagrán C. On the persistence of tropical paleofloras in central Chile during the Early Eocene. Review of Palaeobotany and Palynology 2005, 137:41-50.
30. George A.S. Anacolosa, Flora of Australia Online http://www.anbg.gov.au/abrs/online-resources/flora/.
31. Goldstein S.L., Hemming S.R. 6.17 - Long-lived isotopic tracers in oceanography, paleoceanography, and ice-sheet dynamics. Treatise on Geochemistry 2003, 453-489. Pergamon, Oxford. D. Holland, K.K. Turekian (Eds.).
32. Gotelli N.J., Colwell R.K. Quantifying biodiversity: procedures and pitfalls in the measurement and comparison of species richness. Ecology Letters 2001, 4:379-391.
33. Govaerts R., Frodin D.G. World checklist and bibliography of Araceae (and Acoraceae) 2002, Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, UK, 560 pp.
34. Greenwood D.R., Moss P.T., Rowett A.I., Vadala A.J., Keefe R.L. Plant communities and climate change in southeastern Australia during the early Paleogene. Geological Society of America Special Paper 2003, 369:365-380. The Geological Society of America, Boulder, Colorado. S. Wing, P.D. Gingerich, B. Schmitz, E. Thomas (Eds.).
35. Greenwood D.R., Archibald S.B., Mathewes R.W., Moss P.T. Fossil biotas from the Okanagan Highlands, southern British Columbia and northeastern Washington State: climates and ecosystems across an Eocene landscape. Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences 2005, 42:167-185.
36. Harrington G.J. Impact of Paleocene/Eocene greenhouse warming on North American paratropical forests. Palaios 2001, 16:266-278.
37. Harrington G.J. Structure of the North American vegetation gradient during the late Paleocene/early Eocene warm climate. Evolutionary Ecology Research 2004, 6:36-48.
38. Harrington G.J., Jaramillo C. Paratropical floral extinction in the Late Palaeocene-Early Eocene. Journal of the Geological Society of London 2007, 164:323-332.
39. Harrington G.J., Eberle J., Le-Page B.A., Dawson M., Hutchison J.H. Arctic plant diversity in the Early Eocene greenhouse. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series B. Biological Sciences 2012, 279:1515-1521.
40. Harris W.K. Basal Tertiary microfloras from the Princetown area, Victoria, Australia. Palaeontographica Abteilung B 1965, 115:75-106.
41. Harris W.F., Mildenhall D.C. Wellington Quaternary palynology: Aranuian and Otiran pollen diagrams from Soil Bureau site, Taita and Wallaceville Swamp, Hutt Valley, New Zealand. New Zealand Geological Survey Report PAL 1984, 69:1-27.
42. Hay W.W., DeConto R.M., Wold C.N., Wilson K.M., Voigt S., Schulz M., Wold-Rossby A., Dullo W.C., Ronov A.B., Balukhovsky A.N., et al. Alternative global Cretaceous paleogeography. Geological Society of America Special Paper 1999, 332:1-47. The Geological Society of America, Boulder, Colorado. E. Barrera, C. Johnson (Eds.).
43. Hayek L.C., Buzas M.A. Surveying Natural Populations 2010, Columbia University Press, New York, 590 pp.
44. Helby R., Morgan R., Partridge A.D. A palynological zonation of the Australian Mesozoic. Memoirs of the Association of Australasian Palaeontologists 1987, 4:1-94.
45. Hill R.S. The history of selected Australian taxa. History of the Australian Vegetation: Cretaceous to Recent 1994, 390-419. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. R.S. Hill (Ed.).
46. Hill M.O., Gauch H.G. Detrended correspondence analysis: an improved ordination technique. Vegetatio 1980, 43:47-58.
47. Hinojosa L.F., Villagran C. Historia de los bosques del sur de Sudamérica. I: Antecedentes climáticos del Terciario del cono sur de América. Revista Chilena de Historia Natural 1997, 70:225-239.
48. Houben A.J., Bijl P.K., Pross J., Bohaty S.M., Passchier S., Stickley C.E., Röhl U., Sugisaki S., Tauxe L., van de Flierdt T., Olney M., Sangiorgi F., Sluijs A., Escutia C., Brinkhuis H. Reorganization of Southern Ocean plankton ecosystem at the onset of Antarctic glaciation. Science 2013, 340:341-344. Expedition 318 Scientists.
49. Huber M., Caballero R. The early Eocene equable climate problem revisited. Climate of the Past 2011, 7:603-633.
50. Huber M., Brinkhuis H., Stickley C.E., Doos K., Sluijs A., Warnaar J., Schellenberg S.A., Williams G.L. Eocene circulation of the Southern Ocean: was Antarctica kept warm by subtropical waters. Paleoceanography 2004, 19. (PA4026). 10.1029/2004pa001014.
51. Hutchins L.W. The bases for temperature zonation in geographical distribution. Ecological Monographs 1947, 17:325-335.
52. Jaffré T. Distribution and ecology of the conifers of New Caledonia. Ecology of the Southern Conifers 1995, 171-196. Melbourne University Press, Melbourne. N.J. Enright, R.S. Hill (Eds.).
53. Jansonius J., Hills L.V., Hartkopf-Fröder C. Genera file of fossil pollen and spores - Supplement 12 1998, Special publication, Department of Geology and Geophysics, University of Calgary.
54. Jansson R., Davies T.J. Global variation in diversification rates of flowering plants: energy vs. climate change. Ecology Letters 2008, 11:173-183.
55. Jaramillo C. Response of tropical vegetation to Paleogene warming. Paleobiology 2002, 28:222-243.
56. Jaramillo C., Ochoa D., Contreras L., Pagani M., Carvajal-Ortiz H., Pratt L.M., Krishnan S., Cardona A., Romero M., Quiroz L., Rodriguez G., Rueda M.J., de la Parra F., Moron S., Green W., Bayona G., Montes C., Quintero O., Ramirez R., Mora G., Schouten S., Bermudez H., Navarrete R., Parra F., Alvaran M., Osorno J., Crowley J.L., Valencia V., Vervoort J. Effects of rapid global warming at the Paleocene-Eocene boundary on neotropical vegetation. Science 2010, 330:957-961.
57. Jardine P.E., Harrington G.J. The Red Hills Mine palynoflora: a diverse swamp assemblage from the late Paleocene of Mississippi. Palynology 2008, 32:183-204.
58. Kemp E.M. Tertiary climatic evolution and vegetation history in the southeast Indian Ocean region. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 1978, 24:169-208.
59. Kershaw A.P. Australasia. Vegetation History 1988, 237-306. Kluwer Academic Publisher, Dordrecht, The Netherlands. B. Huntley, T. Webb (Eds.).
60. Kershaw A.P., Wagstaff B. The southern conifer family Araucariaceae: history, status and value for paleoenvironment reconstruction. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 2001, 32:397-414.
61. Kreft H., Jetz W. Global patterns and determinants of vascular plant diversity. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 2007, 104:5925-5930.
62. Legendre P., Legendre L. Numerical Ecology 1998, Elsevier, The Netherlands, 853 pp.
63. Lewis A.R., Marchant D.R., Ashworth A.C., Hedenas L., Hemming S.R., Johnson J.V., Leng M.J., Machlus M.L., Newton A.E., Raine J.I., Willenbring J.K., Williams M., Wolfe A.P. Mid-Miocene cooling and the extinction of tundra in continental Antarctica. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 2008, 105:10676-10680.
64. Lowry P.P. Diversity, endemism, and extinction in the flora of New Caledonia: a review. Rare, Threatened, and Endangered Floras of the Pacific Rim 1996, 181-206. Institute of Botany, Academica Sinica, Taipei. C.-I. Peng, P.P. Lowry (Eds.).
65. Macphail M.K., Truswell E.M. Palynolgy of Site 116, Prydz Bay, East Antartica. Proceedings of the Ocean Drilling Program, Scientific Results 2004, 188:1-43.
66. Macphail M.K., Alley N.F., Truswell E.M., Sluiter I.R.K. Early Tertiary vegetation: evidence from spores and pollen. History of the Australian Vegetation: Cretaceous to Recent 1994, 189-261. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. R.S. Hill (Ed.).
67. Martin H.A. Evolution of the Australian flora and vegetation through the Tertiary: evidence from pollen. Alcheringa 1978, 2:181-202.
68. McGlone M.S., Mildenhall D.C., Pole M.S. History and paleoecology of New Zealand Nothofagus forests. The Ecology and Biogeography of Nothofagus Forests 1996, 293-353. Yale University Press, New Haven. T.T. Veblen, R.S. Hill, J. Read (Eds.).
69. Mildenhall D.C., Moore P.R. A late Holocene pollen sequence at Turakirae Head, and climate and vegetational changes in the Wellington area in the last 10.000years. New Zealand Journal of Science 1983, 26:447-459.
70. Miller K.G., Fairbanks R.G., Mountain G.S. Tertiary oxygen isotope synthesis, sea level history, and continental margin erosion. Paleoceanography 1987, 2:1-19.
71. Morley R.J. Origin and Evolution of Tropical Rain Forests 2000, John Wiley & Sons, United Kingdom, 362 pp.
72. Moss P.T., Kershaw A.P., Grindrod J. Pollen transport and deposition in riverine and marine environments within the humid tropics of northeastern Australia. Review of Palaeobotany and Palynology 2005, 134:55-69.
73. Muller J. Palynology of recent Orinoco delta and shelf sediments: reports of the Orinoco Shelf Expedition. Micropaleontology 1959, 5:1-32.
74. Nichols D.J., Ames H.T., Traverse A. On Arecipites Wodehouse, Monocolpopollenites Thomson & Pflug, and the Species "Monocolpopollenites Tranquillus". Taxon 1973, 22:241-256.
75. NIWA CliFlo: NIWA's National Climate Database on the Web http://cliflo.niwa.co.nz/.
76. Oksanen J., Blanchet F.G., Kindt R., Legendre P., Minchin P.R., O'Hara R.B., Simpson G.L., Solymos P., Henry M., Stevens H., Wagner H. Vegan: Community Ecology Package R package version 2.0-2. http://CRAN.R-project.org/package=vegan.
77. Paijmans K. New Guinea Vegetation 1976, CSIRO, Canberra, 213 pp.
78. Passchier S., Bohaty S.M., Jiménez-Espejo F., Pross J., Röhl U., van de Flierdt T., Escutia C., Brinkhuis H. Early Eocene- to -middle Miocene cooling and aridification of East Antarctica. Geochemistry, Geophysics, Geosystems 2013, 10.1002/ggg.20106.
79. Pennington R.T., Lavin M., Oliveira-Filho A. Woody plant diversity, evolution, and ecology in the tropics: perspectives from seasonally dry tropical forests. Annual Review of Ecology, Evolution, and Systematics 2009, 40:437-457.
80. Pesin E., Blaize S., Lacoste D. Atlas climatique de la Nouvelle-Calédonie 1995, Météo-France, Nouméa, New Caledonia, 103 pp.
81. Pole M.S., Macphail M.K. Eocene Nypa from Regatta Point, Tasmania. Review of Palaeobotany and Palynology 1996, 92:55-67.
82. Pole M.S., Hill B.D., Harwood D.M. Eocene plant macrofossils from erratics, McMurdo Sound, Antartica. Antarctic Research Series 2000, 76:243-251.
83. Prentice I.C., Cramer W., Harrison S.P., Leemans R., Monserud R.A., Solomon A.M. A global biome model based on plant physiology and dominance, soil properties and climate. Journal of Biogeography 1992, 19:117-134.
84. Pross J., Contreras L., Bijl P.K., Greenwood D.R., Bohaty S.M., Schouten S., Bendle J.A., Röhl U., Tauxe L., Raine J.I., Huck C.E., van de Flierdt T., Jamieson S.S.R., Stickley C.E., van de Schootbrugge B., Escutia C., Brinkhuis H., IODP Expedition 318 Scientists Persistent near-tropical warmth on the Antarctic continent during the early Eocene epoch. Nature 2012, 488:73-77.
85. Punyasena S.W., Dalling J.W., Jaramillo C., Turner B.L. Comment on "The response of vegetation on the Andean flank in western Amazonia to Pleistocene climate change". Science 2011, 333:1825.
86. R Development Core Team R: A language and environment for statistical computing 2011, http://www.R-project.org/, R Foundation for Statistical Computing, Vienna, Austria.
87. Raine J.I. Terrestrial palynomorphs from Cape Roberts Project Drillhole CRP-1, Ross Sea, Antarctica. Terra Antartica 1998, 5:539-548.
88. Raine J.I., Mildenhall D.C., Kennedy E.M. New Zealand fossil spores and pollen: an illustrated catalogue. GNS Science Miscellaneous Series 2008, 4.
89. Raine J.I., Kennedy E.M., Crouch E.M. New Zealand Paleogene vegetation and climate, climatic and biotic events of the Paleogene. GNS Science Miscellaneous Series 2009, 18:117-122.
90. Raup D.M. Taxonomic diversity estimation using rarefaction. Paleobiology 1975, 1:333-342.
91. Sloan L.C., Rea D.K. Atmospheric carbon dioxide and early Eocene climate: a general circulation modeling sensitivity study. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 1996, 119:275-292.
92. Specht R.L., Specht A. Australian Plant Communities: Dynamics of Structure, Growth and Biodiversity 1999, Oxford University Press, Singapore, 492 pp.
93. Specht R.L., Dettmann M.E., Jarzen D.M. Community associations and structure in the Late Cretaceous vegetation of southeast Australasia and Antarctica. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 1992, 94:283-309.
94. Stevenson J., Dodson J.R., Prosser I.P. A late Quaternary record of environmental change and human impact from New Caledonia. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 2001, 168:97-123.
95. Tauxe L., Stickley C.E., Sugisaki S., Bijl P.K., Bohaty S.M., Brinkhuis H., Escutia C., Flores J.A., Houben A.J.P., Iwai M., Jiménez-Espejo F., McKay R., Passchier S., Pross J., Riesselman C.R., Röhl U., Sangiorgi F., Welsh K., Klaus A., Fehr A., Bendle J.A., Dunbar R., González J., Hayden T., Katsuki K., Olney M., Pekar S.F., Shrivastava P.K., van de Flierdt T., Williams T., Yamane M. Chronostratigraphic framework for the IODP Expedition 318 cores from the Wilkes Land margin: Constraints for paleoceanographic reconstruction. Paleoceanography 2012, 27. (PA2214). 10.1029/2012PA002308.
96. Traverse A. Paleopalynology 1988, Allen and Unwin, Boston, 600 pp.
97. Traverse A. Sedimentation of palynomorphs and palynodebris: an introduction. Sedimentation of Organic Particles 1994, 1-8. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. A. Traverse (Ed.).
98. Trénel P., Gustafsson M.H., Baker W.J., Asmussen-Lange C.B., Dransfield J., Borchsenius F. Mid-Tertiary dispersal, not Gondwanan vicariance explains distribution patterns in the wax palm subfamily (Ceroxyloideae: Arecaceae). Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution 2007, 45:272-288.
99. Truswell E.M. Recycled Cretaceous and Tertiary pollen and spores in Antarctic marine sediments: a catalogue. Palaeontographica Abteilung B 1983, 186:121-174.
100. Truswell E.M. Palynomorph assemblages from marine Eocene sediments on the west Tasmanian continental margin and the South Tasman Rise. Australian Journal of Earth Sciences 1997, 44:633-654.
101. Truswell E.M., Macphail M.K. Polar forests on the edge of extinction: what does the fossil spore and pollen evidence from East Antarctica say?. Australian Systematic Botany 2009, 22:57-106.
102. Veblen T.T. Regeneration patterns in Araucaria araucana forests in Chile. Journal of Biogeography 1982, 9:11-28.
103. Veblen T.T., Hill R.S., Read J. The Ecology and Biogeography of Nothofagus Forests 1996, Yale University Press, New Haven, 403 pp.
104. Volkova L., Bennett L.T., Tausz M. Effects of sudden exposure to high light levels on two tree fern species Dicksonia antarctica (Dicksoniaceae) and Cyathea australis (Cyatheaceae) acclimated to different light intensities. Australian Journal of Botany 2009, 57:562-571.
105. Warny S., Askin R. Vegetation and organic-walled phytoplankton at the end of the Antarctic greenhouse world: Latest Eocene cooling events. American Geophysical Union Special Publication 2011, 63:193-210. Geopress, American Geophysical Union, Washington D.C. J.B. Anderson, J.S. Wellner (Eds.).
106. Wilf P., Johnson K.R., Cuneo N.R., Smith M.E., Singer B.S., Gandolfo M.A. Eocene plant diversity at Laguna del Hunco and Rio Pichileufu, Patagonia, Argentina. American Naturalist 2005, 165:634-650.
107. Wilson P.G. Myrtaceae. Flowering Plants, Eudicots. Sapindales, Cucurbitales, Myrtaceae 2011, 212-271. Springer, Germany. K. Kubitski (Ed.).
108. Wilson D.S., Jamieson S.S.R., Barrett P.J., Leitchenkov G., Gohl K., Larter R.D. Antarctic topography at the Eocene-Oligocene boundary. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 2012, 335:24-34.
109. Wing S., Harrington G.J. Floral response to rapid warming in the earliest Eocene and implication for concurrent faunal change. Paleobiology 2001, 27:539-563.
110. Wing S.L., Harrington G.J., Bowen G.J., Koch P.L. Floral change during the initial Eocene Thermal Maximum in the Powder River Basin, Wyoming. Geological Society of America Special Paper 2003, 369:425-440. The Geological Society of America, Boulder, Colorado. S. Wing, P.D. Gingerich, B. Schmitz, E. Thomas (Eds.).
111. Wolfe J.A. A paleobotanical interpretation of Tertiary climates in the northern hemisphere. American Scientist 1978, 66:694-703.
112. Wolfe J.A. Temperature parameters of humid to mesic forests of eastern Asia and relation to forests of other regions of northern hemisphere and Australasia. U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 1979, 1106:1-37.
113. Woodward F.I. Climate and Plant Distribution 1987, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 174 pp.
114. Woodward F.I., Lomas M.R., Kelly C.K. Global climate and the distribution of plant biomes. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological Sciences 2004, 359:1465-1476.
115. Zachos J., Stott L.D., Lohmann K.C. Evolution of early Cenozoic marine temperatures. Paleoceanography 1994, 9:353-387.
116. Zachos J.C., Pagani M., Sloan L., Thomas E., Billups K. Trends, rhythms, and aberrations in global climate 65Ma to present. Science 2001, 292:686-693.
117. Zachos J.C., Dickens G.R., Zeebe R.E. An early Cenozoic perspective on greenhouse warming and carbon-cycle dynamics. Nature 2008, 451:279-283.