Body Surveillance and Body Shame in College Men: Are Men Who Self-Objectify Less Hopeful?

Sex Roles

Volumn 69, Issue 1-2, 2013, Pages 29-41

  Cole, Brian P ^a   Davidson, M Meghan ^a   Gervais, Sarah J ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF NEBRASKA LINCOLN   (United States)

Author keywords

Broaden and build; Hope; Men; Objectification; Positive psychology

Indexed keywords

EID: 84879687801     PISSN: 03600025     EISSN: 15732762     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1007/s11199-013-0282-3     Document Type: Article

References (85)

1. Addis, M. E., & Mahalik, J. R. (2003). Men, masculinity, and the contexts of help seeking. American Psychologist, 58, 5-14. doi: 10. 1037/0003-066X. 58. 1. 5.
2. American Psychological Association, Division 51 (2013). About us: who we are. Retrieved from http://www. division51. org/aboutus/whoweare. htm.
3. Aubrey, J. (2006). Effects of sexually objectifying media on self-objectification and body surveillance in undergraduates: Results of a 2-year panel study. Journal of Communication, 56, 366-386. doi: 10. 1111/j. 1460-2466. 2006. 00024. x.
4. Babyak, M. A., Snyder, C. R., & Yoshinobu, L. (1993). Psychomteric properties of the hope scale: A confirmatory factor analysis. Journal of Research in Personality, 27, 154-169. doi: 10. 1006/jrpe. 1993. 1011.
5. Baird, A., & Grieve, F. (2006). Exposure to male models in advertisements leads to a decrease in men's body satisfaction. North American Journal of Psychology, 8, 115-121.
6. Barnum, D. D., Snyder, C. R., Rapoff, M. A., Mani, M. M., & Thompson, R. (1998). Hope and social support in the psychological adjustment of children who have survived burn injuries and their matched controls. Children's Health Care, 27, 15-30. doi: 10. 1207/s15326888chc2701_2.
7. Bartky, S. L. (1990). Femininity and domination: Studies in the phenomenology of oppression. New York, NY: Routledge.
8. Berendes, D., Keefe, F. J., Somers, T. J., Kothadia, S. M., Porter, L. S., & Cheavens, J. S. (2010). Hope in the context of lung cancer: Relationships of hope to symptoms and psychological distress. Journal of Pain and Symptom Management, 40, 174-182. doi: 10. 1016/j. jpainsymman. 2010. 01. 014.
9. Berg, C. J., Rapoff, M. A., Snyder, C. R., & Belmont, J. M. (2007). The relationship of children's hope to pediatric asthma treatment adherence. The Journal of Positive Psychology, 2, 176-184. doi: 10. 1080/17439760701409629.
10. Berger, J. (1972). Ways of seeing. London, England: Penguin.
11. Bernard, P., Gervais, S. J., Allen, J., Campomizzi, S. & Klein, O. (2012). Self-objectification and recognition of sexually objectified bodies: a vicious circle. Manuscript in press at British Journal of Social Psychology.
12. Beyers, W., Goossens, L., Vansant, I., & Moors, E. (2003). Structural model of autonomy in middle and late adolescence: Connectedness, separation, detachment, and agency. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 32, 351-365. doi: 10. 1023/A: 1024922031510.
13. Bordo, S. (1999). The male body: A new look at men in public and in private. New York, NY: Farrar, Straus, and Giroux.
14. Breines, J. G., Crocker, J., & Garcia, J. A. (2008). Self-objectification and well-being in women's daily lives. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 34, 583-598. doi: 10. 1177/0146167207313727.
15. Calogero, R. M., Tantleff-Dunn, S., & Thompson, J. K. (2011). Self-objectification in women: Causes, consequences, and counteractions. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
16. Chang, E. C. (1998). Hope, problem-solving ability, and coping in a college student population: Some implications for theory and practice. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 54, 953-962. doi: 10. 1002/(SICI)1097-4679(199811)54: 7<953:: AID-JCLP9>3. 0. CO;2-F.
17. Cheavens, J. S., Feldman, D. B., Gum, A., Michael, S. T., & Snyder, C. R. (2006). Hope therapy in a community sample: A pilot investigation. Social Indicators Research, 77, 61-78. doi: 10. 1007/s11205-005-5553-0.
18. Cramer, K. M., & Dyrkacz, L. (1998). Differential prediction of maladjustment scores with the Snyder hope subscales. Psychological Reports, 83, 1035-1041. doi: 10. 2466/PR0. 83. 7. 1035-1041.
19. Curry, L. A., & Snyder, C. R. (2000). Hope takes the field: Mind matters in athletic performances. In C. R. Snyder & C. R. Snyder (Eds.), Handbook of hope: Theory, measures, and applications (pp. 243-259). San Diego, CA: Academic. doi: 10. 1016/B978- 012654050-5/50015-4.
20. de Beauvoir, S. (1952). The second sex (trans: Parshley, H. M.). New York, NY: Knopf.
21. Dunn, J. R., & Schweitzer, M. E. (2005). Feeling and believing: The influence of emotion on trust. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 88, 736-748. doi: 10. 1037/0022-3514. 88. 5. 736.
22. Fitzpatrick, M. R., & Stalikas, A. (2008). Positive emotions as generators of therapeutic change. Journal of Psychotherapy Integration, 18, 137-154. doi: 10. 1037/1053-0479. 18. 2. 137.
23. Franzoi, S. L., Vasquez, K., Sparapani, E., Frost, K., Martin, J., & Aebly, M. (2012). Exploring body comparison tendencies: Women are self-critical whereas men are self-hopeful. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 36, 99-109. doi: 10. 1177/0361684311427028.
24. Frederick, D. A., Fessler, D. T., & Haselton, M. G. (2005). Do representations of male muscularity differ in men's and women's magazines? Body Image, 2, 81-86. doi: 10. 1016/j. bodyim. 2004. 12. 002.
25. Frederick, D. A., Peplau, L., & Lever, J. (2006). The swimsuit issue: Correlates of body image in a sample of 52, 677 heterosexual adults. Body Image, 4, 413-419. doi: 10. 1016/j. bodyim. 2006. 08. 002.
26. Frederick, D. A., Buchanan, G. M., Sadehgi-Azar, L., Peplau, L., Haselton, M. G., Berezovskaya, A., & Lipinski, R. E. (2007a). Desiring the muscular ideal: Men's body satisfaction in the United States, Ukraine, and Ghana. Psychology of Men & Masculinity, 8, 103-117. doi: 10. 1037/1524-9220. 8. 2. 103.
27. Frederick, D. A., Forbes, G. B., Grigorian, K. E., & Jarcho, J. M. (2007b). The UCLA body project I: Gender and ethnic differences in self-objectification and body satisfaction among 2, 206 undergraduates. Sex Roles, 57, 317-327. doi: 10. 1007/s11199-007-9251-z.
28. Fredrickson, B. L. (1998). What good are positive emotions? Review of General Psychology, 2, 300-319. doi: 10. 1037/1089-2680. 2. 3. 300.
29. Fredrickson, B. L. (2000). Cultivating positive emotions to optimize health and well-being. Prevention & Treatment, 3, 1-25. doi: 10. 1037/1522-3736. 3. 1. 31a.
30. Fredrickson, B. L. (2001). The role of positive emotions in positive psychology: The broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions. American Psychologist, 56, 218-226. doi: 10. 1037/0003-066X. 56. 3. 218.
31. Fredrickson, B. L., & Branigan, C. (2005). Positive emotions broaden the scope of attention and thought-action repertoires. Cognition and Emotion, 19, 313-332. doi: 10. 1080/02699930441000238.
32. Fredrickson, B. L., & Roberts, T. A. (1997). Objectification theory: Toward understanding women's lived experiences and mental health risks. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 21, 170-206. doi: 10. 1111/j. 1471-6402. 1997. tb00108. x.
33. Freund, R. J., Littell, R. C., & Creighton, L. (2003). Regression using JMP. Cary, NC: SAS Institute, Inc.
34. Gable, S. L., Gonzaga, G. C., & Strachman, A. (2006). Will you be there for me when things go right? Supportive responses to positive event disclosures. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 95, 904-917. doi: 10. 1037/0022-3514. 91. 5. 904.
35. Gervais, S. J., Vescio, T. K., & Allen, J. (2011). The consequences of the objectifying gaze for women and men. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 35, 5-17. doi: 10. 1177/0361684310386121.
36. Hagen, K., Myers, B. J., & Mackintosh, V. H. (2005). Hope, social support, and behavioral problems in at-risk children. The American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 75, 211-219. doi: 10. 1037/0002-9432. 75. 2. 211.
37. Hallsworth, L., Wade, T., & Tiggemann, M. (2005). Individual differences in male body-image: An examination of self-objectification in recreational body builders. British Journal of Health Psychology, 10, 453-465. doi: 10. 1348/135910705X26966.
38. Harrison, K., & Cantor, J. (1997). The relationship between media consumption and eating disorders. Journal of Communication, 47, 40-67. doi: 10. 1111/j. 1460-2466. 1997. tb02692. x.
39. Harvey, J. A., & Robinson, J. D. (2003). Eating disorders in men: Current considerations. Journal of Clinical Psychology in Medical Settings, 10, 297-306. doi: 10. 1023/A: 1026357505747.
40. Heimerdinger-Edwards, S. R., Vogel, D. L., & Hammer, J. H. (2011). Extending sexual objectification theory and research to minority populations, couples, and men. The Counseling Psychologist, 39, 140-152. doi: 10. 1177/0011000010383894.
41. Hilleary, S. M., Shorey, H. S., Etchison, S., & Snyder, C. R. (2003, May). Hope and avoidant attachment: Is hope adaptive in a social vacuum? Poster presented at the Midwestern Psychological Association Convention, Chicago, Illinois.
42. Irving, L. M., Snyder, C. R., Cheavens, J., Gravel, L., Hanke, J., Hilberg, P., & Nelson, N. (2004). The relationships between hope and outcomes at the pretreatment, beginning, and later phases of psychotherapy. Journal of Psychotherapy Integration, 14, 419-443. doi: 10. 1037/1053-0479. 14. 4. 419.
43. Kilbourne, J., & Pipher, M. (1999). Deadly persuasion: Why women and girls must fight the addictive power of advertising. New York, NY: Free Press.
44. Kozee, H. B., Tylka, T. L., Augustus-Horvath, C. L., & Denchik, A. (2007). Development and psychometric evaluation of the interpersonal sexual objectification scale. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 31, 176-189. doi: 10. 1111/j. 1471-6402. 2007. 00351. x.
45. Kwon, P. (2002). Hope, defense mechanisms, and adjustment: Implications for false hope and defensive hopelessness. Journal of Personality, 70, 207-231. doi: 10. 1111/1467-6494. 05003.
46. Lopez, S. J., Snyder, C. R., & Teramoto-Pedrotti, J. T. (2003). Hope: Many definitions, many measures. In S. J. Lopez & C. R. Snyder (Eds.), Positive psychological assessment: A handbook of models and measures (pp. 91-107). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
47. Magyar-Moe, J. L. (2009). Therapist's guide to positive psychological interventions. Burlington, MA: Academic.
48. Mallinckrodt, B., Abraham, W., Wei, M., & Russell, D. W. (2006). Advances in testing the statistical significance of mediation effects. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 53, 372-378. doi: 10. 1037/0022-0167. 53. 3. 372.
49. Martins, Y., Tiggemann, M., & Kirkbride, A. (2007). Those speedos become them: The role of self-objectification in gay and heterosexual men's body image. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 33, 634-647. doi: 10. 1177/0146167206297403.
50. Martins, Y., Tiggemann, M., & Churchett, L. (2008). The shape of things to come: Gay men's satisfaction with specific body parts. Psychology of Men and Masculinity, 9, 248-256. doi: 10. 1037/a0012473.
51. McKinley, N. M. (1998). Gender differences in undergraduates' body esteem: The mediating effect of objectified body consciousness and actual/ideal weight discrepancy. Sex Roles, 39, 113-123. doi: 10. 1023/A: 1018834001203.
52. McKinley, N. (2006). The developmental and cultural contexts of objectified body consciousness: A longitudinal analysis of two cohorts of women. Developmental Psychology, 42, 679-687. doi: 10. 1037/0012-1649. 42. 4. 679.
53. McKinley, N. M., & Hyde, J. S. (1996). The objectified body consciousness scale: Development and validation. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 20, 181-215. doi: 10. 1111/j. 1471-6402. 1996. tb00467. x.
54. Menshealth. com. (2012, September 10). Retrieved from http://www. menshealth. com/.
55. Mercurio, A. E., & Landry, L. J. (2008). Self-objectification and well-being: The impact of self-objectification on women's overall sense of self-worth and life satisfaction. Sex Roles, 58, 458-466. doi: 10. 1007/s11199-007-9357-3.
56. Michael, S. T., & Snyder, C. R. (2005). Getting unstuck: The roles of hope, finding meaning, and rumination in adjustment to bereavement among college students. Death Studies, 29, 435-458. doi: 10. 1080/07481180590932544.
57. Michaels, M. S., Parent, M. C., & Moradi, B. (2012). Does exposure to muscularity-idealizing images have self-objectification consequences for heterosexual and sexual minority men? Psychology of Men & Masculinity. Advance Online Publication. doi: 10. 1037/a0027259.
58. Moradi, B., & Huang, Y. P. (2008). Objectification theory and psychology of women: A decade of advances and future directions. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 32, 377-398. doi: 10. 1111/j. 1471-6402. 2008. 00452. x.
59. Muehlenkamp, J. J., & Saris-Baglama, R. N. (2002). Self-objectification and its psychological outcomes for college women. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 26, 371-379. doi: 10. 1111/1471-6402. t01-1-00076\.
60. Muthén, L. K., & Muthén, B. O. (1998-2010). Mplus user's guide. Los Angeles, CA: Author.
61. Nussbaum, M. (1999). Sex and social justice. Oxford England: Oxford University Press.
62. Otake, K., Waugh, C. E., Fredrickson, B. L. (2013). Positive emotions unlock other-focused thinking. Manuscript in preparation.
63. Parent, M. C., & Moradi, B. (2011). His biceps become him: A test of objectification theory's application to drive for muscularity and propensity for steroid use in college men. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 58, 246-256. doi: 10. 1037/a0021398.
64. Rand, K. L., & Cheavens, J. S. (2009). Hope theory. In S. J. Lopez & C. R. Snyder (Eds.), Oxford handbook of positive psychology (2nd ed., pp. 323-333). New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
65. Ridgeway, R. T., & Tylka, T. L. (2005). College men's perceptions of ideal body composition and shape. Psychology of Men & Masculinity, 6, 209-220. doi: 10. 1037/1524-9220. 6. 3. 209.
66. Rohlinger, D. (2002). Eroticizing men: Cultural influences on advertising and male objectification. Sex Roles, 46, 61-74. doi: 10. 1023/A: 1016575909173.
67. Sanchez, D. T., & Kiefer, A. K. (2007). Body concerns in and out of the bedroom: Implications for sexual pleasure and problems. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 36, 808-820. doi: 10. 1007/s10508-007-9205-0.
68. Schwartz, J. P., Grammas, D. L., Sutherland, R., Siffert, K. J., & Bush-King, I. (2010). Masculine gender roles and differentiation: Predictors of body image and self-objectification in men. Psychology of Men & Masculinity, 11, 208-224. doi: 10. 1037/a0018255.
69. Shorey, H. S., & Snyder, C. R. (2004). Development and validation of the domain hope scale- revised. Unpublished manuscript, University of Kansas, Lawrence, Kansas.
70. Snyder, C. R. (1999). Hope, goal-blocking thoughts, and test-related anxieties. Psychological Reports, 84, 206-208. doi: 10. 2466/PR0. 84. 1. 206-208.
71. Snyder, C. R. (2002). Hope theory: Rainbows in the mind. Psychological Inquiry, 13, 249-275. doi: 10. 1207/S15327965PLI1304_01.
72. Snyder, C. R., Harris, C., Anderson, J. R., Holeran, S. A., Irving, L. M., Sigmon, S. T., ... Harney, P. (1991). The will and the ways: Development and validation of an individual-differences measure of hope. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 60, 570-585. doi: 10. 1037//0022-3514. 60. 4. 570.
73. Snyder, C. R., Sympson, S. C., Ybasco, F. C., Borders, T. F., Babyak, M. A., & Higgins, R. L. (1996). Development and validation of the state hope scale. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 70, 321-335. doi: 10. 1037/0022-3514. 70. 2. 321.
74. Snyder, C. R., Cheavens, J., & Sympson, S. C. (1997). Hope: An individual motive for social commerce. Group Dynamics: Theory, Research, and Practice, 1, 107-118. doi: 10. 1037/1089-2699. 1. 2. 107.
75. Snyder, C. R., Rand, K. L., & Sigmon, D. R. (2005). Hope theory: A member of the positive psychology family. In C. R. Snyder & S. J. Lopez (Eds.), Handbook of positive psychology (pp. 257-276). New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
76. Strelan, P., & Hargreaves, D. (2005). Reasons for exercise and body esteem: Men's responses to self-objectification. Sex Roles, 53, 495-503. doi: 10. 1007/s11199-005-7137-5.
77. Sympson, S. C. (1999). Validation of the domain specific hope scale. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Department of Psychology, University of Kansas, Lawrence.
78. Tennen, H., & Affleck, G. (1999). Finding benefits in adversity. In C. R. Snyder (Ed.), Coping: The psychology of what works (pp. 279-304). New York: Oxford University Press.
79. Tiggemann, M., & Kuring, J. K. (2004). The role of body objectification in disordered eating and depressed mood. British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 43, 299-311. doi: 10. 1348/0144665031752925.
80. Tiggemann, M., & Slater, A. (2001). A test of objectification theory in former dancers and non-dancers. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 25, 57-64. doi: 10. 1111/1471-6402. 00007.
81. Waugh, C. E., & Fredrickson, B. L. (2006). Nice to know you: Positive emotions, self-other overlap, and complex understanding in the formation of a new relationship. The Journal of Positive Psychology, 1, 93-106. doi: 10. 1080/17439760500510569.
82. Williams, J., & MacKinnon, D. P. (2008). Resampling and distribution of the product methods for testing indirect effects in complex models. Structural Equation Modeling, 15, 23-51. doi: 10. 1080/10705510701758166.
83. Wiseman, M., & Moradi, B. (2010). Body image and eating disorder symptoms in sexual minority men: A test and extension of objectification theory. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 57, 154-166. doi: 10. 1037/a0018937.
84. Wrobleski, K., & Snyder, C. R. (2005). Hopeful thinking in older adults: Back to the future. Experimental Aging Research, 31, 217-233. doi: 10. 1080/03610730590915452.
85. Zurbriggen, E. L., Ramsey, L. R., & Jaworski, B. K. (2011). Self- and partner-objectification in romantic relationships: Associations with media consumption and relationship satisfaction. Sex Roles, 64, 449-462. doi: 10. 1007/s11199-011-9933-4.