Interventions for the treatment of uveitic macular edema: A systematic review and meta-analysis

Clinical Ophthalmology

Volumn 7, Issue , 2013, Pages 1109-1144

  Karim, Rushmia ^a   Sykakis, Evripidis ^b   Lightman, Susan ^c   Fraser Bell, Samantha ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF SYDNEY   (Australia)

^b WHIPPS CROSS UNIVERSITY HOSPITAL   (United Kingdom)

^c UNIVERSITY COLLEGE LONDON   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

Uveitic macular edema; Uveitis

Indexed keywords

ACETAZOLAMIDE; ADALIMUMAB; ALPHA INTERFERON; ALPHA TOCOPHEROL; ANTIINFLAMMATORY AGENT; BEVACIZUMAB; CORTICOSTEROID; DEXAMETHASONE; EFALIZUMAB; ETANERCEPT; FLUOCINOLONE ACETONIDE; IMMUNOMODULATING AGENT; IMMUNOSUPPRESSIVE AGENT; INFLIXIMAB; METHOTREXATE; METHYLPREDNISOLONE; MYCOPHENOLIC ACID 2 MORPHOLINOETHYL ESTER; OCTREOTIDE; PEGAPTANIB; PLACEBO; PREDNISOLONE; RANIBIZUMAB; TRIAMCINOLONE ACETONIDE; VASCULOTROPIN INHIBITOR;

ABSENCE OF SIDE EFFECTS; ACROMEGALY; ANOREXIA; AUTOIMMUNE DISEASE; BEHCET DISEASE; BONE NECROSIS; CARCINOID; CATARACT; CENTRAL MACULAR THICKNESS; CHORIORETINOPATHY; CILIARY DISK; DEPRESSION; DIURESIS; DIZZINESS; DROWSINESS; DRUG DOSE COMPARISON; DRUG DOSE REDUCTION; DRUG ERUPTION; DRUG IMPLANT; DRUG INDUCED HEADACHE; DRUG MECHANISM; DRUG WITHDRAWAL; ENDOPHTHALMITIS; FAT NECROSIS; FATIGUE; FLU LIKE SYNDROME; GASTROINTESTINAL SYMPTOM; GLAUCOMA; HEMATURIA; HUMAN; HYPERGLYCEMIA; HYPERTENSION; HYPOPIGMENTATION; INCIDENCE; INTRAOCULAR PRESSURE; LIMB SWELLING; LIPOATROPHY; MACULAR GRID LASER; META ANALYSIS; METASTATIC COLORECTAL CANCER; MUSCLE CRAMP; MUSCLE WEAKNESS; NAUSEA; NEUTROPENIA; OPHTHALMIC LASER; OPHTHALMOPLEGIA; OPTIC NERVE INJURY; OSTEOPOROSIS; PARESTHESIA; PARS PLANA VITRECTOMY; PEMPHIGUS VULGARIS; PEPTIC ULCER; PRIMARY CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM LYMPHOMA; PRIMARY VITREORETINAL LYMPHOMA; PSORIASIS; PTOSIS; RANDOMIZED CONTROLLED TRIAL (TOPIC); RETINA BLOOD VESSEL OCCLUSION; RETINA DETACHMENT; RETINA MACULA CYSTOID EDEMA; RETINA MACULA EDEMA; REVIEW; RHEUMATOID ARTHRITIS; SIDE EFFECT; SKIN ALLERGY; SUBCAPSULAR CATARACT; SYSTEMATIC REVIEW; UVEITIC MACULAR EDEMA; UVEITIS; VIPOMA; VISUAL ACUITY; VITRECTOMY; VITREORETINOPATHY; WEIGHT GAIN; WEIGHT REDUCTION;

EID: 84879036333     PISSN: 11775467     EISSN: 11775483     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2147/OPTH.S40268     Document Type: Review

References (113)

1. Dick A. The treatment of chronic uveitic macular oedema: Is immunosuppression enough? Br J Ophthalmol. 1994;78:1–2.
2. Okhravi N, Lightman S. Cystoid macular edema in uveitis. Ocul Immunol Inflamm. 2003;11:29–38.
3. Karim R, Tang B. Use of antivascular endothelial growth factor for diabetic macular edema. Clin Ophthalmol. 2010;4:493–517.
4. Ossewaarde-van Norel A, Rothova A. Clinical review: Update on treatment of inflammatory macular edema. Ocul Immunol Inflamm. 2011;19:75–83.
5. de Smet, M.D., Taylor, S.R.J., Bodaghi, B., Miserocchi, E., Murray, P.I., Pleyer, U., Zierhut, M., Barisani-Asenbauer, T., LeHoang, P., Lightman, S. Understanding uveitis: The impact of research on visual outcomes, Progress in Retinal and Eye Research, Volume 30, Issue 6, November 2011, Pages 452-470.
6. Angunawela RI, Heatley CJ, Williamson TH, et al. Intravitreal triamcinalone acetonide for refractory uveitic cystoid macular oedema: long term management and outcome. Acta Ophthalmol Scand. 2005;83:595–599.
7. Antcliff RJ, Spalton DJ, Stanford MR, Graham EM, Ffytche TJ, Marshall J. Intravitreal triamcinolone for uveitic cystoid macular edema: an optical coherence tomography study. Ophthalmology. 2001; 108:765–772.
8. Choudhry S, Ghosh S. Intravitreal and posterior subtenon triamcinolone acetonide in idiopathic bilateral uveitic macular oedema. Clin Experiment Ophthalmol. 2007;35:713–718.
9. Jonas JB. Intravitreal triamcinolone acetonide for treatment of intraocular oedematous and neovascular diseases. Acta Ophthalmol Scand. 2005;83:645–663.
10. Jonas JB. Intravitreal triamcinolone acetonide: a change in a paradigm. Ophthalmic Res. 2006;38:218–245.
11. Taylor S, Isa H, Joshi L, Lightman S. New developments in corticosteroid therapy for uveitis. Ophthalmologica. 2010;224 Suppl 1:46–53.
12. Jabs DA, Rosenbaum JT, Foster CS, et al. Guidelines for the use of immunosuppressive drugs in patients with ocular inflammatory disorders: recommendations of an expert panel. Am J Ophthalmol. 2000;130:492–513.
13. Tamesis RR, Rodriguez A, Christen WG, Akova YA, Messmer E, Foster CS. Systemic drug toxicity trends in immunosuppressive therapy of immune and inflammatory ocular disease. Ophthalmology. 1996;103:768–775.
14. Venkatesh P, Kumar CS, Abbas Z, Garg S. Comparison of the efficacy and safety of different methods of posterior subtenon injection. Ocul Immunol Inflamm. 2008;16:217–223.
15. Couch SM, Bakri SJ. Intravitreal triamcinolone for intraocular inflammation and associated macular edema. Clin Ophthalmol. 2009;3:41–47.
16. Kooij BV, Rothova A, de Vries P. The pros and cons of intravitreal triamcinolone injections for uveitis and inflammatory cystoid macular edema. Ocul Immunol Inflamm. 2006;14:73–85.
17. Jea SY, Byon IS, Oum BS. Triamcinolone-induced intraocular pressure elevation: intravitreal injection for macular edema and posterior subtenon injection for uveitis. Korean J Ophthalmol. 2006;20:99–103.
18. Lowder C, Belfort R, Lightman S, et al. Dexamethasone intravitreal implant for noninfectious intermediate or posterior uveitis. Arch Ophthalmol. 2011;129:545–553.
19. Kuppermann BD, Blumenkranz MS, Haller JA, et al. Randomized controlled study of an intravitreous dexamethasone drug delivery system in patients with persistent macular edema. Dexamethasone DDS Phase II Study Group. Arch Ophthalmol. 2007;125:309–317.
20. Callanan DG, Jaffe GJ, Martin DF, Pearson PA, Comstock TL. Treatment of posterior uveitis with a fluocinolone acetonide implant: three-year clinical trial results. Arch Ophthalmol. 2008;126:1191–1201.
21. Pavesio C, Zierhut M, Bairi K, Comstock TL, Usner DW. Evaluation of an intravitreal fluocinolone acetonide implant versus standard systemic therapy in non-infectious posterior uveitis. Ophthalmology. 2010;117; 567–575.
22. Jaffe G, McCallum R, Branchaud R, Skalak C, Butuner Z, Ashton P. Long-term follow-up results of a pilot trial of a fluocinolone acetonide implant to treat posterior uveitis. Ophthalmology. 2005;112: 1192–1198.
23. Jaffe G, Martin D, Callanan D, Pearson A, Levy B, Comstock T. Fluocinolone acetonide implant (Retisert) for noninfectious posterior uveitis: thirty-four-week results of a multicenter randomized clinical study. Ophthalmology. 2006;113:1020–1027.
24. Jaffe G. Reimplantation of a fluocinolone acetonide sustained drug delivery implant for chronic uveitis. Am J Ophthalmol. 2008;145: 667–675.
25. Kempen J, Altaweel M, Holbrook J, et al. Randomized comparison of systemic antiinflammatory therapy versus fluocinolone acetonide implant for intermediate, posterior, and panuveitis: the multicenter uveitis steroid treatment trial. Ophthalmology. 2011;118: 1916–1926.
26. Forrester J, Dick A, McMenamin P, Roberts F. The Eye: Basic Sciences in Practice, 3rd ed. Philadelphia: Saunders; 2008.
27. Kafkala C, Choi JY, Choopong P, Foster CS. Octreotide as a treatment for uveitic cystoid macular edema. Arch Ophthalmol. 2006;124: 1353–1355.
28. Misotten T, Van Laar JAM, Van der Loos Tl, et al. Octreotide long-acting repeatable for the treatment of chronic macular edema in uveitis. Am J Ophthalmol. 2007;144:838–843.
29. Homsi J, Daud AI. Spectrum of activity and mechanism of action of VEGF/PDGF inhibitors. Cancer Control. 2007;14:285–294.
30. Los M, Roodhart JM, Voest EE. Target practice: lessons from phase III trials with bevacizumab and vatalanib in the treatment of advanced colorectal cancer. Oncologist. 2007;12:443–450.
31. Fine HF, Baffi J, Reed GF, Csaky KG, Nussenblatt RB. Aqueous humor and plasma vascular endothelial growth factor in uveitisassociated cystoid macular edema. Am J Ophthalmol. 2001;132: 794–796.
32. Fintak DR, Shah GK, Blinder KJ, et al. Incidence of endophthalmitis related to intravitreal injection of bevacizumab and ranibizumab. Retina. 2008;28:1395–1399.
33. Ueta T, Yanagi Y, Tamaki Y, Yamaguchi T. Cerebrovascular accidents in ranibizumab. Ophthalmology. 2009;116:362.
34. Meyer CH, Michels S, Rodrigues EB, et al. Incidence of rhegmatogenous retinal detachments after intravitreal antivascular endothelial factor injections. Acta Opthalmol. 2011;89:70–75.
35. Androudi S, Tsironi E, Kalogeropoulos C, Theodoridou A, Brazitikos P. Intravitreal adalimumab for refractory uveitis-related macular edema. Ophthalmology. 2010;117:1612–1616.
36. Tranos P, Wickremasinghe S, Stangos N, Topouzis F, Tsinopoulos I, Pavesio C. Major review: macular edema. Surv Ophthalmol. 2004;49: 470–490.
37. Markomichelakis NN, Theodossiadis PG, Pantelia E, Papaefthimiou S, Theodossiadis GP, Sf ikakis PP. Infliximab for chronic cystoid macular edema associated with uveitis. Am J Ophthalmol. 2004;138: 648–650.
38. Wang J, Ibrahim M, Turkcuoglu P, et al. Intercellular adhesion molecule inhibitors as potential therapy for refractory uveitic macular edema. Ocul Immunol Inflamm. 2010;18:395–398.
39. Deuter CM, Kotter I, Gunaydin I, Stubiger N, Doycheva DG, Zierhut M. Efficacy and tolerability of interferon alpha treatment in patients with chronic cystoid macular oedema due to non-infectious uveitis. Br J Ophthalmol. 2009;93:906–913.
40. Deuter CM, Koetter I, Guenaydin I, Stuebiger N, Zierhut M. Interferon alfa-2a: a new treatment option for long lasting refractory cystoid macular edema in uveitis? A pilot study. Retina. 2006;26: 786–791.
41. Bodaghi B, Gendron G, Wechsler B, et al. Efficacy of interferon alpha in the treatment of refractory and sight threatening uveitis: a retrospective monocentric study of 45 patients. Br J Ophthalmol. 2007;91: 335–339.
42. Paire V, Lebreton O, Weber M. [Effectiveness of interferon alpha in the treatment of uveitis macular edema refractory to corticosteroid and/or immunosuppressive treatment]. J Fr Ophtalmol. 2010;33:152–162. French.
43. Kilmartin DJ, Forrester JV, Dick AD. Rescue therapy with mycophenolate mofetil in refractory uveitis. Lancet. 1998;352:35–36.
44. Siepmann K, Huber M, Stübiger N, Deuter C, Zierhut M. Mycophenolate mofetil is a highly effective and safe immunosuppressive agent for the treatment of uveitis: a retrospective analysis of 106 patients. Graefes Arch Clin Exp Ophthalmol. 2006;244:788–794.
45. Goldblum R. Therapy of rheumatoid arthritis with mycophenolate mofetil. Clin Exp Rheumatol. 1993;11 Suppl 8:S1117–S1119.
46. Doycheva D, Zierhut M, Blumenstock G, Stuebiger N, Deuter C. Long-term results of therapy with mycophenolate mofetil in chronic non-infectious uveitis. Graefes Arch Clin Exp Ophthalmol. 2011;249: 1235–1243.
47. Enk AH, Knop J. Treatment of pemphigus vulgaris with mycophenolate mofetil. Lancet. 1997;350:494.
48. Daniel E, Thorne JE, Newcomb CW, et al. Mycophenolate mofetil for ocular inflammation. Am J Ophthalmol. 2010;149:423–432.
49. Chang PY, Giuliari GP, Shaikh M, Thakuria P, Makhoul D, Foster CS. Mycophenolate mofetil monotherapy in the management of paediatric uveitis. Eye (Lond). 2011;25:427–435.
50. Muñoz-Fernández S, García-Aparicio AM, Hidalgo MV, et al. Methotrexate: an option for preventing the recurrence of acute anterior uveitis. Eye (Lond). 2009;23:1130–1133.
51. Hardwig PW, Pulido JS, Erie JC, Baratz KH, Buettner H. Intraocular methotrexate in ocular diseases other than primary central nervous system lymphoma. Am J Ophthalmol. 2006;142:883–885.
52. Smith JR, Rosenbaum JT, Wilson DJ, et al. Role of intravitreal methotrexate in the management of primary central nervous system lymphoma with ocular involvement. Ophthalmology. 2002;109:1709–1716.
53. Gangaputra S, Newcomb CW, Liesegang TL, et al. Methotrexate for ocular inflammatory diseases. Ophthalmology. 2009;116:2188–2198.
54. Becker M, Davis J. Vitrectomy in the treatment of uveitis. Am J Ophthalmol. 2005;140:1096–1105.
55. Gutfleisch M, Spital G, Mingels A, Pauleikhoff D, Lommatzsch A, Heiligenhaus A. Pars plana vitrectomy with intravitreal triamcinolone: effect on uveitic cystoid macular oedema and treatment limitations. Br J Ophthalmol. 2007;91:345–348.
56. Dugel PU, Rao NA, Ozler S, Liggett PE, Smith RE. Pars plana vitrectomy for intraocular inflammation-related cystoid macular edema unresponsive to corticosteroids. A preliminary study. Ophthalmol. 1992;99(10):1535–1541.
57. Soheilian M, Rabbanikhah Z, Ramezani A, Kiavash V, Yaseri M, Peyman GA. Intravitreal bevacizumab versus triamcinolone acetonide for refractory uveitic cystoid macular edema: a randomized pilot study. J Ocul Pharmacol Ther. 2010;26:199–206.
58. Tranos P, Scott R, Zambarakji H, Ayliffe W, Pavesio C, Charteris DG. The effect of pars plana vitrectomy on cystoid macular oedema associated with chronic uveitis: a randomized, controlled pilot study. Br J Ophthalmol. 2006;90:1107–1110.
59. Kuppermann BD, Blumenkranz MS, Haller JA, et al. Randomized controlled study of an intravitreous dexamethasone drug delivery system in patients with persistent macular edema. Arch Ophthalmol. 2007;125:309–317.
60. Whi t cup SM, Csaky KG, Podgor MJ, Chew EY, Per r y CH, Nussenblatt RB. A randomized, masked, cross-over trial of acetazolamide for cystoid macular edema in patients with uveitis. Ophthalmology. 1996;103:1054–1062.
61. Farber MD, Lam S, Tessler HH, Jennings TJ, Cross A, Rusin MM. Reduction of macular oedema by acetazolamide in patients with chronic iridocyclitis: a randomised prospective crossover study. Br J Ophthalmol. 1994;78:4–7.
62. Lashay AR, Rahimi A, Chams H, et al. Evaluation of the effect of acetazolamide on cystoid macular oedema in patients with Behcet’s disease. Eye (Lond). 2003;17:762–766.
63. Leder HA, Jabs DA, Galor A, Dunn JP, Thorne JE. Periocular triamcinolone acetonide injections for cystoid macular edema complicating noninfectious uveitis. Am J Ophthalmol. 2011;152:441–448.
64. Yoshikawa K, Ichiishi A, Kotake S, Sasamoto Y, Kosaka S. [Posterior sub-Tenon’s injections of repository corticosteroids in uveitis patients with cystoid macular edema]. Nihon Ganka Gakkai Zasshi. 1993;97:1070–1074. Japanese.
65. Teoh SC, Hogan AC, Dick AD, Lee RW. Mycophenolate mofetil for the treatment of uveitis. Am J Ophthalmol. 2008;146:752–760.
66. Young S, Larkin G, Branley M, Lightman S. Safety and efficacy of intravitreal triamcinolone for cystoid macular oedema in uveitis. Clin Experiment Ophthalmol. 2001;29:2–6.
67. Lasave AF, Zeballos DG, El-Haig WM, Diaz-Llopis M, Salom D, Arevalo JF. Short-term results of a single intravitreal bevacizumab (avastin) injection versus a single intravitreal triamcinolone acetonide (kenacort) injection for the management of refractory noninfectious uveitic cystoid macular edema. Ocul Immunol Inflamm. 2009;17: 423–430.
68. Bae JH, Lee CS, Lee SC. Efficacy and safety of intravitreal bevacizumab compared with intravitreal and posterior sub-tenon triamcinolone acetonide for treatment of uveitic cystoid macular edema. Retina. 2011;31: 111–118.
69. Kok H, Lau C, Maycock N, McCluskey P, Lightman S. Outcome of intravitreal triamcinolone in uveitis. Ophthalmology. 2005;112:1916. e1–e7.
70. Das-Bhaumik RG, Jones NP. Low-dose intraocular triamcinolone injection for intractable macular oedema and inflammation in patients with uveitis. Eye (Lond). 2006;20:934–937.
71. Atmaca LS, Yalcindag FN, Ozdemir O. Intravitreal triamcinolone acetonide in the management of cystoid macular edema in Behçet’s disease. Graefes Arch Clin Exp Ophthalmol. 2007;245:451–456.
72. Sallam A, Taylor S, Habot-Wilner Z, et al. Repeat intravitreal triamcinolone acetonide injections in uveitic macular oedema. Letter to the editor. Acta Ophthalmologica. 2011.
73. Karacorlu M, Mudun B, Ozdemir H, Karacorlu SA, Burumcek E. Intravitreal triamcinolone acetonide for the treatment of cystoid macular edema secondary to Behçet disease. Am J Ophthalmol. 2004;138: 289–291.
74. Dong Z, Namba K, Kitaichi N, Goda C, Kitamura M, Ohno S. Efficacy and complications of intravitreal injection of triamcinolone acetonide for refractory cystoid macular edema associated with intraocular inflammation. Jpn J Ophthalmol. 2008;52:374–379.
75. Maca SM, Abela-Formanek C, Kiss CG, Sacu SG, Benesch T, Barisani-Asenbauer T. Intravitreal triamcinolone for persistent cystoid macular oedema in eyes with quiescent uveitis. Clin Experiment Ophthalmol. 2009;37:389–396.
76. Androudi S, Letko E, Meniconi M, Papadaki T, Ahmed M, Foster CS. Safety and efficacy of intravitreal triamcinolone acetonide for uveitic macular edema. Ocul Immunol Inflamm. 2005;13:205–212.
77. Morrison VL, Kozak I, LaBree LD, Azen SP, Kayicioglu OO, Freeman WR. Intravitreal triamcinolone acetonide for the treatment of immune recovery uveitis macular edema. Ophthalmology. 2007;114:334–339.
78. Larsson J, Hvarfner C, Skarin A. Intravitreal triamcinolone in two patients with refractory macular oedema in sarcoid uveitis. Acta Ophthalmol Scand. 2005;83:618–619.
79. Lasave AF, Zeballos DG, El-Haig WM, Diaz-Llopis M, Salom D, Arevalo JF. Short-term results of a single intravitreal bevacizumab (avastin) injection versus a single intravitreal triamcinolone acetonide (kenacort) injection for the management of refractory noninfectious uveitic cystoid macular edema. Ocul Immunol Inflamm. 2009;17:423–430.
80. Weiss K, Steinbrugger I, Weger M, et al. Intravitreal VEGF levels in uveitis patients and treatment of uveitic macular oedema with intravitreal bevacizumab. Eye (Lond). 2009;23:1812–1818.
81. Mackensen F, Heinz C, Becker MD, Heiligenhaus A. Intravitreal bevacizumab (avastin) as a treatment for refractory macular edema in patients with uveitis: a pilot study. Retina. 2008;28:41–45.
82. Acharya NR, Hong KC, Lee SM. Ranibizumab for refractory uveitisrelated macular edema. Am J Ophthalmol. 2009;148:303–309. e2.
83. Ziemssen F, Deuter CM, Stuebiger N, Zierhut M. Weak transient response of chronic uveitic macular edema to intravitreal bevacizumab (Avastin). Graefes Arch Clin Exp Ophthalmol. 2007;245:917–918.
84. Cordero Coma M, Sobrin L, Onal S, Christen W, Foster CS. Intravitreal bevacizumab for treatment of uveitic macular edema. Ophthalmology. 2007;114:1574–1579. e1.
85. Mirshahi A, Namavari A, Djalilian A, Moharamzad Y, Chams H. Intravitreal bevacizumab (Avastin) for the treatment of cystoid macular edema in Behçet disease. Ocul Immunol Inflamm. 2009;17:59–64.
86. Fine HF, Baffi J, Reed GF, Csaky KG, Nussenblatt RB. Aqueous humor and plasma vascular endothelial growth factor in uveitis-associated cystoid macular edema. Am J Ophthalmol. 2001;132:794–796.
87. Cervantes-Castañeda RA, Giuliari GP, Gallagher MJ, et al. Intravitreal bevacizumab in refractory uveitic macular edema: one-year follow-up. Eur J Ophthalmol. 2009;19:622–629.
88. Lott MN, Schiffman JC, Davis JL. Bevacizumab in inflammatory eye disease. Am J Ophthalmol. 2009;148:711–717.
89. Al-Dhibi H, Khan AO. Bilateral response following unilateral intravitreal bevacizumab injection in a child with uveitic cystoid macular edema. J AAPOS. 2009;13:400–402.
90. Neri P, Mariotti C, Cimino L, Mercanti L, Giovannini A. Long-term control of cystoid macular oedema in noninfectious uveitis with mycophenolate mofetil. Int Ophthalmol. 2009;29:127–133.
91. Fukuda K, Kumagai N, Nakamura H, Kubo M, Matsuzaki M, Nishida T. [Successful treatment of cystoid macular edema with etanercept in a patient with rheumatoid arthritis associated panuveitis]. Nihon Ganka Gakkai Zasshi. 2008;112:51–57. Japanese.
92. Taylor SR, Habot-Wilner Z, Pacheco P, Lightman SL. Intraocular methotrexate in the treatment of uveitis and uveitic cystoid macular edema. Ophthalmology. 2009;116:797–801.
93. Sonoda KH, Enaida H, Ueno A, et al. Pars plana vitrectomy assisted by triamcinolone acetonide for refractory uveitis: a case series study. Br J Ophthalmol. 2003;87:1010–1014.
94. Wiechens B, Nölle B, Reichelt JA. Pars-plana vitrectomy in cystoid macular edema associated with intermediate uveitis. Graefes Arch Clin Exp Ophthalmol. 2001;239:474–481.
95. Kiryu J, Kita M, Tanabe T, Yamashiro K, Miyamoto N, Ieki Y. Pars plana vitrectomy for cystoid macular edema secondary to sarcoid uveitis. Ophthalmology. 2001;108:1140–1144.
96. Nussenblatt RB, Kim J, Thompson DJ, et al. Vitamin E in the treatment of uveitis-associated macular edema. Am J Ophthalmol. 2006;141:193–194.
97. Suttorp-Schulten MS, Feron E, Postema F, Kijlstra A, Rothova A. Macular grid laser photocoagulation in uveitis. Br J Ophthalmol. 1995;79:821–824.
98. Gulati N, Forooghian F, Lieberman R, Jabs D. Vascular endothelial growth factor inhibition in uveitis: a systematic review. Br J Ophthalmol. 2011;95:162–165.
99. Battaglia-Parodi M, Iaconob P, Verbraak FD, Bandelloa F. Antivascular endothelial growth factors for inflammatory chorioretinal disorders. Dev Ophthalmol. 2010;46:84–95.
100. Davis J. Current concepts in the management of uveitic macular edema. Adv Stud Ophthalmol. 2010;7:60–66.
101. Sallam A, Taylor SR, Lightman S. Review and update of intraocular therapy in noninfectious uveitis. Curr Opin Ophthalmol. 2011;22:517–522.
102. Cunningham M, Edelman J, Kaushal S. Intravitreal steroids for macular edema: the past, the present, and the future. Surv Ophthalmol. 2008;53:139–149.
103. Markomichelakis NN, Halkiadakis I, Pantelia E, et al. Patterns of macular edema in patients with uveitis: qualitative and quantitative assessment using optical coherence tomography. Ophthalmology. 2004;111(5):946–953.
104. Roesel M, Gutfleisch M, Heinz C,Heimes B,Zurek-Imhoff B, Heiligenhaus A. Intravitreal and Orbital Floor Triamcinolone Acetonide Injections in Noninfectious Uveitis: A Comparative Study. Ophthalmic Res. 2009;42:81–86.
105. Hogewind BF, Zijlstra C, Klevering BJ, Hoyng CB. Intravitreal triamcinolone for the treatment of refractory macular edema in idiopathic intermediate or posterior uveitis. Eur J Ophthalmol. 2008;18(3):429–434.
106. Smithen LM, Ober MD, Maranan L, Spaide RF. Intravitreal triamcinolone acetonide and intraocular pressure. Am J Ophthalmol. 2004;138(5):740–743.
107. Goldstein DA, Godfrey DG, Hall A, et al. Intraocular pressure in patients with uveitis treated with fluocinolone acetonide implants. Arch Ophthalmol. 2007;125(11):1478–1485.
108. Cox SN, Hay E, Bird AC. Treatment of chronic macular edema with acetazolamide. Arch Ophthalmol. 1988;106(9):1190–1195.
109. Neri P, Mariotti C, Cimino L, Mercanti L, Giovannini A. Long-term control of cystoid macular oedema in noninfectious uveitis with Mycophenolate Mofetil. Int Ophthalmol. 2009;29(3):127–133.
110. Papadaki T,Zacharopoulos I,Iaccheri B,Fiore T Foster CS. Somatostatin for uveitic cystoid macular edema (CME). Ocul Immunol Inflamm. 2005;13:469–470.
111. Schilling H, Heiligenhaus A, Laube T, Bornfeld N, Jurklies B. Long-term effect of acetazolamide treatment of patients with uveitic chronic cystoid macular edema is limited by persisting inflammation. Retina. 2005;2:182–188.
112. Paire V, Lebreton O, Weber M. [Effectiveness of interferon alpha in the treatment of uveitis macular edema refractory to corticosteroid and or immunosuppressive treatment]. J Fr Ophtalmol. 2010;33:152–162. French.
113. Jabs DA, Nussenblatt RB, Rosenbaum JT. Standardization of Uveitis Nomenclature (SUN) Working Group. Standardization of uveitis nomenclature for reporting clinical data. Results of the First International Workshop. Am J Ophthalmol. 2005;140:509–516.