Galenic medicine and social stability in early modern florence and the islamic empires

Journal of Early Modern History

Volumn 17, Issue 2, 2013, Pages 191-213

  Syros, Vasileios ^a  

^a Swedish Collegium for Advanced Study   (Sweden)

Author keywords

Aristotle; central and eastern Islamic lands; early modern Florence; European and Islamic political thought; Galen; Greek Medicine; Islamic empires; Islamic medicine; Plato

Indexed keywords

EID: 84878347563     PISSN: 13853783     EISSN: 15700658     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1163/15700658-12342361     Document Type: Article

References (405)

1. Peter Burke, "Translating the Turks," in Why Concepts Matter: Translating Social and Political Thought, ed. Martin J. Burke and Melvin Richter (Leiden, 2012), 141-152;
2. Margaret Meserve, Empires of Islam in Renaissance Historical Thought (Cambridge, MA, 2008);
3. Joan-Pau Rubi, "Oriental Despotism and European Orientalism: Botero to Montesquieu," Journal of Early Modern History 9 (2005): 109-180;
4. Nancy Bisaha, Creating East and West: Renaissance Humanists and the Ottoman Turks (Philadelphia, 2004);
5. Daniel Goffman, The Ottoman Empire and Early Modern Europe (Cambridge, 2002);
6. Almut Hert, Den Feind beschreiben: "Tkengefahr" und europsches Wissen er das Osmanische Reich 1450-1600 (Frankfurt a. M., 2003);
7. Mustafa Soykut, Image of the "Turk" in Italy: A History of the "Other" in Early Modern Europe, 1453-1683 (Berlin, 2001);
8. Robert Schwoebel, The Shadow of the Crescent: The Renaissance Image of the Turk, 1453-1517 (New York, 1967).
9. Michael Curtis, Orientalism and Islam: European Thinkers on Oriental Despotism in the Middle East and India (Cambridge, 2009);
10. Lucette Valensi, The Birth of the Despot: Venice and the Sublime Porte, transl. from the French by Arthur Denner (Ithaca, 1993);
11. Patricia Springborg, Western Republicanism and the Oriental Prince (Cambridge, 1992);
12. and Talal Asad, "Two European Images of Non-European Rule," in Anthropology and the Colonial Encounter, ed. Talal Asad (London, 1973), 103-118.
13. For further discussion, see Takashi Shogimen, "Head or Heart Revisited: Physiology and Political Thought in the Thirteenth and Fourteenth Centuries," History of Political Thought 28 (2007): 208-229;
14. and Jacques Le Goff, "Head or Heart The Political Use of Body Metaphors in the Middle Ages" (trans. from the French by Patricia Ranum) in Fragments for a History of the Human Body, ed. Michel Feher (New York, 1989), 3: 13-27.
15. Paul Rycaut, The Present State of the Ottoman Empire (London, 1668; repr. New York, 1971), 2-5, 69, 170.
16. Friedrich Solmsen, "Love and Strife in Empedocles' Cosmology," Phronesis 10 (1965): 109-48.
17. reprinted in Studies in Presocratic Philosophy vol. 2: The Eleatics and Pluralists, ed. Reginald E. Allen and David J. Furley (London, 1975), 221-64.
18. Hippocratic Writings, ed. Geoffrey E. R. Lloyd; trans. John Chadwick and William N. Mann (Harmondsworth, 1983), 262.
19. The links of Hippocratic medicine to ancient Greek political thought are explored in a number of essays in the collection Medizin der Antike vol. 1: Hippokratische Medizin und antike Philosophie, ed. Renate Wittern and Pierre Pellegrin (Hildesheim, 1996).
20. Hermann Diels, Die Fragmente der Vorsokratiker: Griechisch und deutsch (Berlin, 1903), 107;
21. Kathleen Freeman, Ancilla to the Pre-Socratic Philosophers: A Complete Translation of the Fragments in Diels, Fragmente der Vorsokratiker (Oxford, 1948; repr. Cambridge, MA, 1957), 40-41.
22. See also James Longrigg, Greek Rational Medicine: Philosophy and Medicine from Alcmaeon to the Alexandrians (London, 1993), 52-53;
23. and William A. Heidel, Hippocratic Medicine: Its Spirit and Method (New York, 1941), 46-47.
24. See in particular the following studies by Gregory Vlastos: "Equality and Justice in Early Greek Cosmologies," Classical Philology 42 (1947): 156-178.
25. and "Isonomia," American Journal of Philology 74 (1953): 337-366
26. both reprinted in idem, Studies in Greek Philosophy vol. 1: The Presocratics, ed. Daniel W. Graham (Princeton, 1995), 57-88 and 89-111, respectively;
27. "Justice and Equality," in Social Justice, ed. Richard B. Brandt (Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1962), 31-72.
28. reprinted in idem, Theories of Rights, ed. Jeremy Waldron (Oxford, 1984), 41-76.
29. Plato, Timaeus, Critias, Cleitophon, Menexenus, Epistles, trans. Robert G. Bury (Cambridge, MA, 1929), 218 (Greek text)/219 (Eng. trans.).
30. Aristotle, Politics, trans. Harris Rackham (London, 1932), 382 (Greek text)/383 (Eng. trans.). Consider also 1284b8-13 (244/245);
31. 1309b21-31 (428/429).
32. Mark Grant, Galen on Food and Diet (London, 2000), 14-15.
33. For the role of the theory of the four humors in Galenic medicine, see Rudolph E. Siegel, Galen's System of Physiology and Medicine: an Analysis of his Doctrines and Observations on Bloodflow, Respiration, Humors and Internal Diseases (Basel, 1968), 196-359.
34. Galen's medieval reception is explored in Owsei Temkin, Galenism: Rise and Decline of a Medical Philosophy (Ithaca, 1973);
35. and Per-Gunar Ottosson, Scholastic Medicine and Philosophy: A Study of Commentaries on Galen's Tegni (ca.1300-1450) (Naples, 1984).
36. Shigehisa Kuriyama, "The Forgotten Fear of Excrement," Journal of Medieval and Early Modern Studies 38 (2008): 413-442, esp. 419-28.
37. Although Kuriyama is right (and certainly not the first one) to stress that the modern understanding of humors tends to focus on humoral equipoise rather than the pathogenic character of the individual humors, and in particular of bile and phlegm, in this article I demonstrate that the use of the notion of humoral balance in early modern Florentine and Islamic accounts of social organization does not necessarily bespeak a "cultural amnesia" when it comes to the corrosive or poisonous effects of the bodily humors. Rather, it is the corollary of a vision of social organization that emphasizes the harmonious coexistence and interaction among the various sectors of society as a condition for domestic stability and peace.
38. The use of organic imagery in medieval political writing has received a great deal of scholarly attention. Major contributions include: Cary J. Nederman, "Body Politics: The Diversification of Organic Metaphors in the Later Middle Ages," Pensiero Politico Medievale (2004): 59-87;
39. Gianluca Briguglia, Il corpo vivente dello Stato: Una metafora politica (Milan, 2006);
40. Tilman Struve, Die Entwicklung der organologischen Staatsauffassung im Mittelalter (Stuttgart, 1978).
41. Ioannis Saresberiensis episcopi Carnotensis Policratici sive De nvgis cvrialivm et vestigiis philosophorvm libri VIII, ed. Clemens C. J. Webb (Oxford, 1909), 1: 282-83;
42. John of Salisbury, Policraticus: Of the Frivolities of Courtiers and the Footprints of Philosophers, ed. and trans. Cary J. Nederman (Cambridge, 1990), 66-67.
43. John of Salisbury's use of organic metaphors is discussed in Takashi Shogimen and Cary J. Nederman, "The Best Medicine Medical Education, Practice, and Metaphor in John of Salisbury's Policraticus and Metalogicon," Viator 42 (2011): 55-73;
44. Cary J. Nederman, "Social Bodies and the Non-Christian 'Other' in the Twelfth Century: John of Salisbury and Peter of Celle," in Meeting the Foreign in the Middle Ages, ed. Albrecht Classen (New York, 2002), 192-201, esp. 193-97;
45. idem, "The Physiological Significance of the Organic Metaphor in John of Salisbury's Policraticus," History of Political Thought 8 (1987): 211-223;
46. and Tilman Struve, "The Importance of the Organism in the Political Theory of John of Salisbury," in The World of John of Salisbury, ed. Michael Wilks (Oxford, 1984), 303-17.
47. For further discussion, see Giles Constable, Three Studies in Medieval Religious and Social Thought (Cambridge, 1995), 251-360;
48. Georges Duby, The Three Orders: Feudal Society Imagined, trans. Arthur Goldhammer (Chicago, 1980);
49. Otto Gerhard Oexle, "Die funktionale Dreiteilung als Deutungsschema der sozialen Wirklichkeit in der stdischen Gesellschaft des Mittelalters," in Stdische Gesellschaft und soziale Mobilit, ed. Winfried Schulze (Munich, 1988), 19-51.
50. Tilman Struve, "Pedes rei publicae: Die dienenden Stde im Verstdnis des Mittelalters," Historische Zeitschrift 236 (1983): 1-48.
51. Marsilius von Padua, Defensor pacis, ed. Richard Scholz (Hanover, 1932/33), I.ii.3 (11-12).
52. Vasileios Syros, Marsilius of Padua at the Intersection of Ancient and Medieval Traditions of Political Thought (Toronto, 2012);
53. idem, Die Rezeption der aristotelischen politischen Philosophie bei Marsilius von Padua: Eine Untersuchung zur ersten Diktion des Defensor pacis (Leiden, 2007), esp. 248-58, 287-91;
54. Takashi Shogimen, "Medicine and the Body Politic in Marsilius of Padua's Defensor pacis," in A Companion to Marsilius of Padua, ed. Gerson Moreno-Riano and Cary J. Nederman (Leiden, 2012), 71-115.
55. Defensor pacis, I.xv.4-9 (86-92).
56. Defensor pacis, I.xv.12-13 (93-94).
57. Defensor pacis, I.xv.13 (93-94).
58. Defensor pacis, I.xv.10 (92).
59. The Prince, ch. 15.
60. References to The Prince are to NiccolMachiavelli, Opere, ed. Corrado Vivanti (Turin, 1997), 1: 115-92.
61. I have also consulted the following English translations: NiccolMachiavelli, The Prince, trans. Harvey C. Mansfield, Jr. (Chicago, 2nd ed. 1998);
62. Parel, The Machiavellian Cosmos, 106-7.
63. For literature on Machiavelli's use of medical metaphors, consider e.g. Laurent Gerbier, "Constitution mixte et complexion civile chez Machiavel (Discorsi, I, 2-9)," in Le Gouvernement mixte: De l'idl politique au monstre constitutionnel en Europe (XIIIe-XVIIe sile), ed. Marie Gaille-Nikodimov (Saint-Etienne, 2005), 57-69;
64. Francesco Bruni, La cittdivisa: Le parti e il bene comune da Dante a Guicciardini (Bologna, 2003), 459-74;
65. Eyal Chowers, "The Physiology of the Citizen: The Present-Centered Body and Its Political Exile," Political Theory 30 (2002): 649-676, esp. 656-659;
66. Jean-Claude Zancarini, "Gli umori del corpo politico. 'Popolo' e 'plebe' nelle opere di Machiavelli," in La lingua e le lingue di Machiavelli, ed. Alessandro Pontremoli (Florence, 2001), 61-70;
67. Guidubaldi Guidi, "Dalla tesi delle tre ambizioni allo stato misto nel pensiero politico fiorentino 1525-1530," Il Pensiero politico (1984): 147-178;
68. idem, "La teoria delle 'tre ambizioni' nel pensiero politico fiorentino del primo Cinquecento," Il Pensiero Politico 5 (1972): 241-259.
69. Consider also Stefano Saracino, "Stdekampf, Parteienstreit, Pluralismus-Machiavellis agonales Politikverstdnis im Republikanismus und Liberalismus," in NiccolMachiaveli: Die Geburt des Staates, ed. Manuel Knoll and Stefano Saracino (Stuttgart, 2010), 163-89.
70. The status of medicine in early modern Florence is discussed in Katharine Park, Doctors and Medicine in Early Renaissance Florence (Princeton, 1985).
71. Finally, on the human body as a theme of early modern Italian art and literature, consult the essays assembled in the collection The Body in Early Modern Italy, ed. Julia L. Hairston and Walter Stephens (Baltimore, 2010).
72. The Prince, ch. 9.
73. Consider also Discourses on the First Ten [Books] of Titus Livius
74. and 9.
75. References to the Discourses on Livy are to Machiavelli, Opere, ed. Vivanti, 1: 193-525.
76. The Prince, ch. 19.
77. Florentine Histories, IV.1.
78. References to the Florentine Histories are to Machiavelli, Opere, ed. Corrado Vivanti (Turin, 2005), 3: 305-732.
79. Francesco Guicciardini, Dialogo e discorsi del reggimento di Firenze, ed. Roberto Palmarocchi (Bari, 1932), 99;
80. Dialogue on the Government of Florence, ed. and trans. Alison Brown (Cambridge, 1994), 96-97.
81. Hippocratic Writings, 86.
82. also Longrigg, Greek Rational Medicine, 53.
83. Donato Giannotti, "Discorso sopra il riordinare la Repubblica di Siena," in idem, Opere politiche, 1: 443-70, 443.
84. Giannotti, "Discorso sopra il riordinare la Repubblica di Siena," 1: 450.
85. Donato Giannotti, Republica fiorentina, ed. and trans. Giovanni Silvano (Geneva, 1990), 15354.
86. ibid., 71, 8182.
87. Giannotti, Republica fiorentina, 163-64, 212-13, 155-56.
88. also Donato Giannotti, Die Republik Florenz (1534), ed. Alois Riklin, trans. Daniel Hhli (Munich, 1997), 111-116.
89. also ibid., 165-66.
90. Ahmadibn Muhammad Ibn Hanbal, Musnad (Beirut, 1969), 4:280.
91. the discussion in Il trattato aureo sulla medicina attribuito all'Imm Al al-Rid, trans. Fabrizio Speziale and Giorgio Giurini (Palermo: Officina di Studi Medievali, 2009), 37.
92. Il trattato aureo sulla medicina attribuito all'Imm Al al-Rid, 146-47 (Arabic text); 68-69 (Italian trans.)
93. Fabrizio Speziale, "La Risla al-dahabiyya, traite mical attribul'imm Al al-Ri," Luqman 20 (2004): 7-34.
94. Hakm Maysar, Dnishnmah dar ilm-i pizishk: kuhantarn majmah-i tibb bih shir-i Frs, ed. Bart Zanjn (Tehran, 1987), 10.
95. Ab al-Faraj Al ibn al-Husayn ibn Hind, The Key to Medicine and a Guide for Students (Mifth al-tibb wa-minhj al-tullb), trans. Aida Tibi (Reading, 2010), 4.
96. Al-Farabi on the Perfect State: Ab Nasr al-Frb's Mabdi r ahl al-madna al-fdila, ed., trans., and comm. Richard Walzer (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1985), 230-53.
97. Franz Rosenthal, "Ab Zayd al-Balkh on Politics," in The Islamic World: From Classical to Modern Times, ed. Clifford E. Bosworth et al. (Princeton, 1991), 287-301, 290.
98. See also Hans Hinrich Biesterfeldt, "Notes on Ab Zayd al-Balhi's Medico-ethical Treatise Maslih al-abdn wa-l-anfus," in La signification du Bas Moyen Age dans l'histoire et la culture du monde musulman (Aix-en-Provence, 1978), 29-34.
99. The-Anne Druart, "Le Sommaire du Livre des Lois de Platon (awmi Kitb al-Nawms li-Afltn) par Ab Nasr al-Frb, ition critique et introduction," Bulletin d'tudes Orientales 50 (1998): 109-155, 145.
100. A. Nasral-Frb, Fusl Muntazaa, ed. Fauzi M. Najjar (Beirut, 1971), 32-33;
101. Alfarabi, The Political Writings: Selected Aphorisms and Other Texts, trans. Charles E. Butterworth (Ithaca, 2001), 12.
102. Compare the older edition of the text: Al-Frb, Fusl al-Madan: Aphorisms of the Statesman, ed. and trans. Douglas M. Dunlop (Cambridge, 1961), (Arabic text) 27-28;
103. (Eng. trans.) 50.
104. Averro, The Book of the Decisive Treatise Determining the Connection Between the Law and Wisdom and Epistle Dedicatory, trans. Charles E. Butterworth (Provo, 2001), 27-28.
105. Among the literature dealing with the impact of Sassanian ideas on Islamic political writing, see, e.g., Patricia Crone, God's Rule: Government and Islam (New York, 2004), 148-64;
106. Kevin Van Bladel "The Iranian Characteristics and Forged Greek Attributions in the Arabic Sirr al-asrr (Secret of Secrets)," Manges de l'UniversitSaint-Joseph 57
107. (The Greek Strand in Islamic Political Thought, ed. Emma Gannag et al.) (2004): 151-172;
108. Sa Amir Arjomand, "Perso-Indian Statecraft, Greek Political Science and the Muslim Idea of Government," International Sociology 16 (2001): 461-80.
109. reprinted in Rethinking Civilizational Analysis, ed. Sa Amir Arjomand and Edward A. Tiryakian (London, 2004), 163-179;
110. idem, "Medieval Persianate Political Ethic," Studies on Persianate Societies 1 (2003): 3-28;
111. Shaul Shaked, "From Iran to Islam: Notes on Some Themes in Transmission: 1. 'Religion and Sovereignty are Twins' in Ibn al-Muqaffa's Theory of Government. 2.
112. The Four Sages," Jerusalem Studies in Arabic and Islam 4 (1984): 31-67.
113. reprinted in idem, From Zoroastrian Iran to Islam: Studies in Religious History and Intercultural Contacts (Aldershot, 1995), no. VI;
114. Charles-Henri de Fouchour, Moralia: Les notions morales dans la littature persane du 3e/9e au 7e/13e sile (Paris, 1986);
115. and Mario Grignaschi, "La Siyatul-miyya et l'influence iranienne sur la pens politique islamique," Acta Iranica 6 (1975): 33-286.
116. Plato, Politeia 434B-C; 551E-552A; 561C-D.
117. The Greek Strand in Islamic Political Thought, 2004.
118. as well as Massimo Campanini, "La tradizione della Repubblica nei falifah musulmani," in I Decembrio e la tradizione della Repubblica di Platone tra Medioevo e Umanesimo, ed. Mario Vegetti and Paolo Pissavino (Naples, 2005), 31-81;
119. Gotthard Strohmaier, "Platon in der arabischen Tradition," Wzburger Jahrbher f die Altertumswissenschaft N.F. 26 (2002): 83-99;
120. David C. Reisman, "Plato's Republic in Arabic: a Newly Discovered Passage," Arabic Sciences and Philosophy 14 (2004): 263-300.
121. the following studies by Linda T. Darling: A History of Social Justice and Political Power in the Middle East: The Circle of Justice From Mesopotamia to Globalization (London and New York, 2012);
122. "Islamic Empires, the Ottoman Empire and the Circle of Justice," in Constitutional Politics in the Middle East: With Special Reference to Turkey, Iraq, Iran and Afghanistan, ed. Sa Amir Arjomand (Oxford, 2008), 11-32;
123. "Political Change and Political Discourse in the Early Modern Mediterranean World," Journal of Interdisciplinary History 38 (2008): 505-531;
124. "Medieval Egyptian Society and the Concept of the Circle of Justice," Mamlk Studies Review 10 (2006): 1-17;
125. " 'Do Justice, Do Justice, For That is Paradise': Middle Eastern Advice for Indian Muslim Rulers," Comparative Studies of South Asia, Africa and the Middle East 22 (2002): 3-19.
126. Consider also Jennifer A. London, "The 'Circle of Justice,' " History of Political Thought 32 (2011): 425-447;
127. Maria E. Subtelny, Le monde est un jardin: Aspects de l'histoire culturelle de l'Iran mial (Paris, 2002), 53-76;
128. Joseph Sadan, "A 'Closed-Circuit' Saying on Practical Justice," Jerusalem Studies in Arabic and Islam 10 (1987): 325-341;
129. Ann K. S. Lambton, "Justice in the Medieval Persian Theory of Kingship," Studia Islamica 17 (1962): 91-119.
130. reprinted in eadem, Theory and Practice in Medieval Persian Government (London, 1980), no. IV;
131. Antony Black, The West and Islam: Religion and Political Thought in World History (Oxford, 2008), 58, 104-5;
132. and idem, The History of Islamic Political Thought: From the Prophet to the Present (New York, 2001), 53-54, 111.
133. Ahd Ardashr, ed. Ihsan Abbas (Beirut, 1967), 98;
134. Grignaschi, "Quelques spimens de la littature sassanide," 72.
135. Touraj Daryaee, Sasanian Persia: The Rise and Fall of an Empire (London, 2009), 42-50;
136. Mario Grignaschi, "Les Rles d'Arda b. Bak pour le gouvernement du Royame," Tetkikleri EnstitDergisi 5 (1973): 95-112;
137. Shaul Shaked, Esoteric Trends in Zoroastrianism (Jerusalem, 1969), 40-45;
138. mile Benveniste, "Traditions indo-iraniennes sur les classes sociales," Journal Asiatique 230 (1938): 542-549;
139. and, in general, Louise Marlow, "Some Notes on Premodern Islamic Social Description," in Persian and Islamic Studies (= Pembroke Papers; 1), ed. Charles Melville (Cambridge, MA, 1990), 123-130.
140. Il principe musulmano, trans. Ersilia Francesca (Genoa, 1996), (Arabic text) 28-29; (Italian trans.) 81;
141. Le livre de la couronne; kitb at-t ( f ahla al-mulk) ouvrage attribua hiz, trans. Charles Pellat (Paris, 1954), 53.
142. Louise Marlow, Hierarchy and Egalitarianism in Islamic Thought (Cambridge, 1997), 66-67;
143. 73-74, 87-88.
144. Abu Muhammad, Abd Allahibn, Muslimibn Qutaybah, Kitb Uyn al-akhbr (Cairo, 1925), 1: 7;
145. Josef Horovitz, "Ibn Quteiba's Uyun al-Akhbar," Islamic Culture 4 (1930): 171-198, 190-91.
146. The Shna of Firdaus , trans. Arthur G. Warner and Edmond Warner (London, 1905; repr. London, 2000), 1: 132-33.
147. The Letter of Tansar, trans. Mary Boyce (Rome, 1968), 1-25.
148. Siamak Adhami, "A Question of Legitimacy: The Case of Ardasir I (Dkard IV)," Indo-Iranian Journal 46 (2003): 223-30;
149. Marlow, Hierarchy and Egalitarianism in Islamic Thought, 74-76;
150. Wilhelm Geiger, Zarathushtra in the Gathas and in Greek and Roman Classics, trans. Darab D. P. Sanjana (Leipzig, 2nd ed. 1899; repr. New York, 1977), 143-58;
151. and James Darmesteter, "Lettre de Tansar au roi de Tabaristan," Journal Asiatique 9th series 3 (1894): 185-250, 502-55.
152. The Letter of Tansar, 37-39.
153. Der Oikonomikoc des Neupythagoreers 'Bryson' und sein Einflu auf die islamische Wissenschaft, ed. Martin Plessner (Heidelberg, 1928) (Arabic text) 154/(German trans.) 221;
154. Italian trans. Mauro Zonta in Aristotele, L'amministrazione della casa, ed. Carlo Natali (Bari, 1995), 140-171, 145;
155. Bryson-Ibn Sin Penser l'onomique, trans. Youssef Seddik (Tunis, 1995) 17-34, 20-21.
156. The afterlife of Galenic medicine in the Syriac and Arabic traditions is surveyed in the following studies by Gotthard Strohmaier, "Der syrische und der arabische Galen," in Aufstieg und Niedergang der Rischen Welt: Geschichte und Kultur Roms im Spiegel der neueren Forschung, Part II: Principat, vol. 37.2: Wissenschaften (Medizin und Biologie [Forts.], ed. Wolfgang Haase (Berlin, 1994), 1987-2017.
157. reprinted in idem, Hellas im Islam: Interdisziplinare Studien zur Ikonographie, Wissenschaft und Religionsgeschichte (Wiesbaden, 2003), 85-106;
158. "Reception and Tradition: Medicine in the Byzantine and Arab World," in Western Medical Thought from Antiquity to the Middle Ages, ed. Mirko D. Grmek, trans. from the Italian Antony Shugaar (Cambridge, MA, 1998), 139-69, 145-47 and 157-65;
159. "Galen in Arabic: Prospects and Projects," in Galen: Problems and Prospects, ed. Vivian Nutton (London, 1981), 187-96.
160. Note also Felix Klein-Franke, Vorlesungen er die Medizin im Islam (Wiesbaden, 1982), 62, 66, 72-84, 99-107;
161. Rainer Degen, "Galen im Syrischen: Eine bersicht er die syrische berlieferung der Werke Galens,"
162. and Elinor Lieber, "Galen in Hebrew: The Transmission of Galen's Works in the Mediaeval Islamic World," both in Galen: Problems and Prospects, 131-66 and 167-86.
163. respectively; Michael W. Dols, Majnn: The Madman in Medieval Islamic Society, ed. Diana E. Immisch (Oxford, 1992), 38-47;
164. Gotthelf Bergstrser, Hunain ibn Ishq er die syrischen und arabischen Galen-bersetzungen (Leipzig, 1925; repr. Nendeln, Liechtenstein, 1966);
165. idem, Neue materialien zu Hunain ibn Ishq's Galen-Bibliographie (Leipzig, 1932)
166. repr. Nendeln, Liechtenstein, 1966).
167. Hunain Ibn Ishaq, Questions on Medicine for Students: Transcription and Translation of the Oldest Extant Syriac Version (Vat. Syr. 192), by E. Jan Wilson and Samuel Dinkha (Cittdel Vaticano, 2010).
168. The reception of Greek humoral theories in medieval Islam is explored by Gotthard Strohmaier, "Die Rezeption und die Vermittlung: Die Medizin in der byzantinischen und in der arabischen Welt," in Die Geschichte des medizinischen Denkens: Antike und Mittelalter, ed. Mirko D. Grmek and Bernardino Fantini, trans. from the Italian Corinna Fiedler et al. (Munich, 1996), 151-181, 169-73;
169. Michael W. Dols, Medieval Islamic Medicine: Ibn Ridwn's Treatise 'On the Prevention of Bodily Ills in Egypt' (Berkeley, 1984), 3-24;
170. and Manfred Ullmann, Islamic Medicine, trans. Jean Watt (Edinburgh, 1978), 55-69.
171. Constantine the African and Al ibn al-Abbs al-Mags: The Pantegni and Related Texts, ed. Charles Burnett and Danielle Jacquart (Leiden, 1994).
172. For further discussion, see Istv Ormos, "The Theory of Humours in Islam (Avicenna)," Quaderni di Studi Arabi 5-6 (1987-88): 601-607.
173. For Empedocles' reception in the Arab world.
174. Daniel De Smet, Empedocles Arabus: Une lecture nplatonicienne tardive (Brussels, 1998);
175. Peter Kingsley, Ancient Philosophy, Mystery, and Magic: Empedocles and Pythagorean Tradition (Oxford, 1995), 371-91.
176. Miri Shefer-Mossensohn, Ottoman Medicine: Healing and Medical Institutions, 1500, (Albany, 2009), 27-29.
177. Andrew J. Newman, "Tasrh-i Mansr: Human Anatomy between the Galenic and Prophetic Medical Traditions," in La science dans le monde iranien l'oque islamique, ed. Ziva Vesel et al. (Tehran, 1998), 253-71;
178. Irmeli Perho, The Prophet's Medicine: A Creation of the Muslim Traditionalist Scholars (Helsinki, 1995);
179. Dols, Majnn, 211-60;
180. Fazlur Rahman, Health and Medicine in the Islamic Tradition: Change and Identity (New York, 1987), 41-58;
181. Cyril Elgood, "Tibb ul-Nabi or Medicine of the Prophet: Being a Translation of Two Works of the Same Name," Osiris 14 (1962): 33-192;
182. and idem, "The Medicine of the Prophet," Medical History 6 (1962): 146-153.
183. Majid Fakhry, Ethical Theories in Islam (Leiden, 1991), 107-147;
184. Dimitri Gutas, "Ethische Schriften im Islam," in Neues Handbuch der Literaturwissenschaft, vol. 5: Orientalisches Mittelalter, ed. Wolfhart Heinrichs (Wiesbaden, 1990), 346-65;
185. Richard Walzer and Hamilton A. R. Gibb, "Akhlak," Encyclopaedia of Islam, New Edition, vol. 1 (1986), 325-29;
186. George F. Hourani, "Ethics in Medieval Islam: A Conspectus," in Essays on Islamic Philosophy and Science, ed. George F. Hourani (Albany, 1975), 128-35.
187. Felix Klein-Franke, "The Arabic Version of Galen's Periethn," Jerusalem Studies in Arabic and Islam 1 (1979): 125-50;
188. John N. Mattock, "A Translation of the Arabic Epitome of Galen's Book Peri thn," in Islamic Philosophy and the Classical Tradition, ed. Samuel M. Stern et al. (Columbia, SC, 1972), 235-60;
189. and Peter Kraus, "Kitb al-Akhlq li-Jalns," Bulletin of the Faculty of Arts of the University of Egypt 5 (1939): 1-52.
190. Galen's moral philosophy and its reception in medieval Islam merit further study.
191. An Unpublished Treatise of Miskawaih on Justice: Or, Risla f mhiyat al-adl li Miskawaih, ed. and trans. Muhammad Sabir S. Khan (Leiden, 1964), 16 (Arabic text);
192. 26 (Eng. trans.).
193. The Refinement of Character: A Translation from the Arabic of Ahmad ibn-Muhammad Miskawayh's Tahdhb al-Akhlq, by Constantine K. Zurayk (Beirut, 1968), 102-3.
194. ibid., 25-26.
195. Yassine Essid, A Critique of the Origins of Islamic Economic Thought (Leiden, 1995), esp. 17-44, 115-150, 185-228;
196. Medieval Political Philosophy: A Sourcebook, ed. Ralph Lerner and Muhsin Mahdi (Ithaca, 1963), 96-97.
197. Consider also J. Shephenson, "The Classification of the Sciences according to Nasiruddin Tusi," Isis 5 (1923): 329-338.
198. The bibliographical details given here are based on Nas r al-Dn Ts, Contemplation and Action: The Spiritual Autobiography of a Muslim Scholar; a new edition and English translation of Sayr wa Sulk by S. J. Badakhchani (London, 1998), 1-19;
199. Hamid Dabashi, "Khwjah Nas r al-Dn al-Ts: The Philosopher/Vizier and the Intellectual Climate of his Times," in History of Islamic Philosophy Part I, ed. Seyyed Hossein Nasr and Oliver Leaman (London, 1996) 527-84;
200. idem, "The Philosopher/Vizier: Khwaja Nasir al-Din al-Tsi and the Ismailis," in Medieval Ismaili History and Thought, ed. Farhad Daftary (Cambridge, 1996), 231-46.
201. Consider also Nasr al-Dn Ts: Philosophe et savant du XIIIe sile, ed. Nasrollah Pourjavady and Ziva Vesel (Tehran, 2000).
202. Nasral-Ts, Akhlq-insir (Lahore, 1952), 303;
203. Nasrad-Dn Ts, The Nasirean Ethics, trans. from the Persian George M. Wickens (London, 1964; repr. 2011), 230.
204. Vasileios Syros, "Shadows in Heaven and Clouds on Earth: The Emergence of Social Life and Political Authority in the Early Modern Islamic Empires," Viator 43 (2012): 377-406, 392-393;
205. Guang-Zhen Sun, "Nasir ad-Din Tus on Social Cooperation and the Division of Labor: Fragment from The Nasirean Ethics," Journal of Institutional Economics 5 (2008): 403-13;
206. Black, The History of Islamic Political Thought, 146-52;
207. Christian Jambet, "Idl du politique et politique idle selon Nasr al-Dn Ts," in Nasr al-Dn Ts: Philosophe et savant du XIIIe sile, 31-57;
208. Bertrand Badie, "La philosophie politique de l'hellisme musulman: l'oeuvre de Nasered-Din Tus," Revue franise de science politique 27 (1977): 290-304.
209. Mahmood A. Ghazi, "Political Thought of Jalal al-Din Dawwani," in Encyclopaedic Survey of Islamic Culture, ed. Mohamed Taher (New Delhi, 1998), 13: 69-78;
210. Erwin I.J. Rosenthal, Political Thought in Medieval Islam: An Introductory Outline (Cambridge, 1958), 210-23.
211. John E. Woods, The Aqquyunlu: Clan, Confederation, Empire (Salt Lake City, 1999);
212. and Hans R. Roemer, Persien auf dem Weg in die Neuzeit: Iranische Geschichte von 1350-1750 (Stuttgart, 1989), 173-218.
213. Jall al-Dn Dawwn, Practical Philosophy of the Muhammadan People, trans. W. F. Thompson (London, 1839; repr. Karachi, 1977), 388-90.
214. A number of articles on Kshif's life and works are collected in Iranian Studies 36:4 (2003). Other useful studies include: Abbas Amanat, "Meadow of the Martyrs: Kshif's Persianization of the Shii Martyrdom Narrative in the Late Tmrid Heart," in Culture and Memory in Medieval Islam, ed. Farhad Daftary and Josef W. Meri (London, 2003), 250-275.
215. On the Akhlq-i Muhsin, see Maria E. Subtelny, "A Late Medieval Persian Summa on Ethics: Kashifi's Akhlq-i Muhsin," Iranian Studies 36, no. 4 (2003): 601-14;
216. Lambton, "Justice in the Medieval Persian Theory of Kingship," 117-18.
217. The relationship of Kshif's political theory to the Timurid political tradition is discussed in Maria E. Subtelny, Timurids in Transition: Turko-Persian Politics and Acculturation in Medieval Iran (Leiden, 2007), 102-14;
218. Subtelny, "A Late Medieval Persian Summa on Ethics," 602-4.
219. Subtelny, Timurids in Transition, 110.
220. Husain Viz Kshif, Akhlk-i Muhsin, or, the Morals of the Beneficent, trans. Henry G. Keene (Hertford, 1850).
221. also Avril A. Powell, "Old Books in New Bindings: Ethics and Education in Colonial India," in Knowledge Production, Pedagogy, and Institutions in Colonial India, ed. Indra Sengupta and Daud Ali (New York, 2011), 199-225;
222. and eadem, Scottish Orientalists and India: The Muir Brothers, Religion, Education and Empire (Woodbridge, 2010), 68-69.
223. Kshif, Akhlk-i Muhsin, or, the Morals of the Beneficent, 47-48.
224. Medieval Islamic Medicine, 17;
225. Asian Medical Systems: A Comparative Study, ed. Charles Leslie (Berkeley, 1976; repr. Delhi, 1998), esp. the essays by Arthur L.
226. Basham, "The Practice of Medicine in Ancient and Medieval India," (18-43)
227. and Johann Christoph Bgel, "Secular and Religious Features of Medieval Arabic Medicine," (44-62);
228. Sami K. Hamarneh, "India's Contribution to Medieval Arabic Medical Education and Practice," Studies in History of Medicine 1 (1977): 5-35;
229. Charles Leslie, "The Professionalization of Ayuverdic and Unani Medicine," Transactions of the New York Academy of Science 30 (1968): 559-572;
230. and Albrecht Gze, "Persische Weisheit in griechischem Gewande: Ein Beitrag zur Geschichte der Mikrokosmos-Idee," Zeitschrift f Indologie und Iranistik 2 (1923): 60-98 and 167-177, 85-86.
231. Nayyar Wasti, "Iranian Physicians in the Indian Subcontinent," Studies in History of Medicine 2 (1978): 264-283;
232. Physician-Authors of Greco-Arab Medicine in India (New Delhi, [1969]);
233. and, in general, Abdul Hameed, Exchanges between India and Central Asia in the Field of Medicine (New Delhi, 1986).
234. Cyril Elgood, Safavid Medical Practice or The Practice of Medicine, Surgery and Gynaecology in Persia between 1500 A.D. and 1750 A.D. (London, 1970).
235. The reception of Greek medicine in medieval and early modern India has been studied by Seema Alavi, Islam and Healing: Loss and Recovery of an Indo-Muslim Medical Tradition, 1600-1900 (New York, 2008), esp. 18-53;
236. Claudia Liebeskind, "Unani Medicine of the Subcontinent," in Oriental Medicine: An Illustrated Guide to the Asian Arts of Healing, ed. Jan Van Alphen and Anthony Aris (Boston, 1996), 39-65, esp. 50-65;
237. Mansura Haidar, "Les ouvrages micaux l'oque miale en Inde et en Asie Centrale," Dioge 218 (2007): 28-51;
238. Altaf A. Azami, History of Unani Medicine in India (Delhi, 2004);
239. Fabrizio Speziale, "The Relation between Galenic Medicine and Sufism during the Delhi and Deccan Sultanates," East and West 53 (2003): 149-178;
240. and Dietrich Brandenburg, "Die Unan-Medizin, traditionelle Heilkunde in Indien," Medizinische Montsschrift 31 (1977): 29-32;
241. Muzaffar Alam, The Languages of Political Islam: India 1200-1800 (Chicago, 2004), 50;
242. idem, "State Building under the Mughals: Religion, Culture and Politics," in L'Hitage timouride: Iran-Asie centrale-Inde XV e-XVIIIe siles (= Cahiers d'Asie centrale 3-4), ed. Maria Szuppe (Tashkent/Aix-en-Provence, 1997) 105-28, 111-17;
243. Saiyid A. A. Rizvi, Religious and Intellectual History of the Muslims in Akbar's Reign (1556-1605) with Special Reference to Abul Fazl (New Delhi, 1975), 355-56, 366-69.
244. "Akhlq Norms and Mughal Governance," in The Making of Indo-Persian Culture: Indian and French Stud ies, ed. Muzaffar Alam et al. (New Delhi, 2000) 67-95;
245. "Sharia and Governance in the Indo-Islamic Context," in Beyond Turk and Hindu: Rethinking Religious Identities in Islamicate South Asia, ed. David Gilmartin and Bruce B. Lawrence (Gainesville, 2000), 216-45;
246. as well as Lisa Balabanlilar, Imperial Identity in the Mughal Empire: Memory and Dynastic Politics in Early Modern South and Central Asia (London, 2012), 149-51.
247. Khwndamr, Qnn-i-Humyn (also known as Humyn Nma).
248. trans. Baini Prashad (Calcutta, 1940; repr. 1996), 25.
249. There is a wealth of monographs and articles on Abl-Fazl's political ideas. Among the most useful are: Hassan Bashir, "Intellect and the Limits of Reason: Native and European Responses to Early-Modern Indian Political Thought," in Muslim Cultures in the Indo-Iranian World during the Early-Modern and Modern Periods, ed. Denis Hermann and Fabrizio Speziale (Berlin, 2010), 57-81, esp. 61-67;
250. Douglas E. Streusand, The Formation of the Mughal Empire (Delhi, 1989), 129-36;
251. Peter Hardy, "Abul Fazl's Portrait of the Perfect Padshah: A Political Philosophy for Mughal India-Or a Personal Puff for a Pal," in Islam in India: Studies and Commentaries vol. 2: Religion and Religious Education, ed. Christian W. Troll (New Delhi, 1982), 114-37;
252. Rizvi, Religious and Intellectual History of the Muslims in Akbar's Reign, 352-73.
253. Abl-Fazl's reception of Ts's political ideas and Greek learning is discussed in Vasileios Syros, "A Note on the Transmission of Aristotle's Political Ideas in Medieval Persia and Early-Modern India: Was There Any Arabic or Persian Translation of the Politics" Bulletin de philosophie miale 50 (2008): 303-310.
254. Muktabti-Allm (Inshi Abul Fazl) Daftar I: Letters of the Emperor Akbar in English Translation, ed. Mansura Haidar (New Delhi, 1998), 79;
255. Alam, "Akhlq Norms and Mughal Governance," 84-85.
256. For the library of the Mughal rulers, see Abdul Aziz, The Imperial Library of the Mughuls (Lahore, 1967; repr. Delhi, 1974);
257. and Kalpana Dasgupta, "How Learned were the Mughals: Reflections on Muslim Libraries in India," The Journal of Library History 10 (1975): 241-54.
258. I have not undertaken an extended treatment of Mughal-Florentine
259. the collection of articles in A Mirror of Princes: The Mughals and the Medici, ed. Dalu Jones (Bombay, 1987).
260. Abl-Fazl Allm, The An-i Akbar, trans. Henry Blochmann (Calcutta, 2nd ed. 1927), 1: 2 (henceforth cited as An-i Akbar).
261. An-i Akbar, 1: 45-46.
262. An-i Akbar, 1: 11-12.
263. An-i-Akbar, 1: 4.
264. An-i Akbar, 1: 4.
265. An-i Akbar, 1: 4.
266. See also Rosalind O'Hanlon, "Kingdom, Household, and Body History, Gender and Imperial Service under Akbar," Modern Asian Studies 41 (2007): 889-923, 891.
267. Abu-l-Fazl, The Akbarnma, Eng. trans. Henry Beveridge (Calcutta, 1907), 1: 646-47.
268. An-i Akbar, 1: 4-7. 196
269. The various aspects of Mughal decline are discussed in: Vasileios Syros, "An Early Modern South Asian Thinker on the Rise and Decline of Empires: Shh Wal Allh of Delhi, the Mughals, and the Byzantines," Journal of World History 23: 4 (2012): 793-840;
270. Douglas E. Streusand, Islamic Gunpowder Empires: Ottomans, Safavids, and Mughals (Boulder, 2011), 283-287;
271. Muzaffar Alam, The Crisis of Empire in Mughal North India: Awadh and the Punjab, 1707-48 (Delhi, 1986; repr. 1997);
272. Andrea Hintze, The Mughal Empire and its Decline: An Interpretation of the Sources of Social Power (Aldershot, 1997);
273. Karen Leonard, "The 'Great Firm' Theory of the Decline of the Mughal Empire," Comparative Studies in Society and History 21 (1979): 151-167;
274. John F. Richards, "The Imperial Crisis in the Deccan," Journal of Asian Studies 35 (1976): 236-256.
275. reprinted in idem, Power, Administration and Finance in Mughal India (Aldershot, 1993), no XII;
276. M. Athar Ali, "The Passing of Empire: The Mughal Case," Modern Asian Studies 9 (1975): 385-396.
277. reprinted in idem, Mughal India: Studies in Polity, Ideas, Society, and Culture (New Delhi, 2006), 337-49;
278. Saiyid A. A. Rizvi "The Breakdown of Traditional Society," in The Cambridge History of Islam, vol. 2A: The Indian Sub-continent, South-East Asia, Africa and the Muslim West, ed. Peter M. Holt et al. (Cambridge, 1970; repr. 1980), 67-96.
279. In what follows, I rely on the presentation of the text in Sajida S. Alvi, "Mazhar-i Shhjahni and the Mughal Province of Sind: A Discourse on Political Ethics," in Islam and Indian Regions, ed. Anna Libera Dallapiccola and Stephanie Zingel-AvLallemant, vol. 1: Texts (Stuttgart, 1993), 239-58.
280. Ysuf Mrak's life and works are discussed in M. Saleem Akhtar, Sind Under the Mughuls: An Introduction to, Translation of and Commentary on the Mazhar-i Shjahof Yuf Mak (1044/1634) (Islamabad, 1990), 89-135.
281. Alvi, "Mazhar-i Shhjahni and the Mughal Province of Sind," 241.
282. and, in general, Ann K. S. Lambton, "Reflections on the Role of Agriculture in Medieval Persia," in The Islamic Middle East, 700-1900: Studies in Economic and Social History, ed. Abraham L. Udovitch (Princeton, 1981), 283-312.
283. Compare the praise of Cyrus II the Great's (ca. 590 b.c.-ca. 529) commitment to promoting agriculture in Xenophon's (ca. 430-ca. 350) Oikonomikos (IV.4-25)-Sarah B. Pomeroy, Xenophon, Oeconomicus: A Social and Historical Commentary (Oxford, 1984), 122 (Greek text)/123 (Eng. trans.);
284. and for further discussion, ibid., 238-42, 257, 251.
285. Shefer-Mossensohn, Ottoman Medicine, 12, 15, 63-100.
286. further Arslan Terziolu, "Galen and his Influence on Turkish-Islamic Medicine," in Acta Turcica Historiae Medicinae, ed. Arslan Terziolu (Istanbul, 1994), 1: 151-55.
287. reprinted in idem, Beitre zur Geschichte der tkisch-islamiscehen Medizin, Wissenschaft und Technik (Istanbul, 1996), 1: 11-16;
288. Rhoads Murphey, "Ottoman Medicine and Transculturalism from the Sixteenth through the Eighteenth Century," Bulletin of the History of Medicine 66 (1992): 376-403.
289. reprinted in idem, Studies on Ottoman Society and Culture, 16th-18th Centuries (Aldershot, 2007), no. I;
290. and, in general, Science of Medicine in the Ottoman Empire, ed. Esin Kahya and Ayseg D. Erdemir (Karachi, 2003).
291. The role of court physicians in Ottoman political and social life, especially during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, is examined in G. A. Russell, "Physicians at the Ottoman Court," Medical History 34 (1990): 243-267.
292. Ysuf Khss H jib, Wisdom of Royal Glory (Kutadgu Bilig): A Turko-Islamic Mirror for Princes, trans. Robert Dankoff (Chicago, 1983), 107 (v. 2056-2061).
293. Consider also the comments by Albert H. Lybyer, The Government of the Ottoman Empire in the Time of Suleiman the Magnificent (Cambridge, MA, 1913; repr. New York, 1978), 20.
294. Wisdom of Royal Glory, 217 (v. 5459-5460).
295. Douglas A. Howard, "Genre and Myth in the Ottoman Advice for Kings Literature," in The Early Modern Ottomans: Remapping the Empire, ed. Virginia H. Aksan and Daniel Goffman (Cambridge, 2007), 137-166, 138-139.
296. Kay Kvs, the Ziyarid ruler of Gurgan and Tabaristan, expresses the conviction that the durability of a kingdom is contingent on strong military forces, and the prosperity of the countryside on the peasantry. He advocates righteous government and underscores the importance for the ruler to improve cultivation, since efficient government depends on armed troops, armed troops are maintained with gold, gold is procured through cultivation, and cultivation is sustained through the remuneration and just treatment of the peasantry; see A Mirror for Princes: The Qbs Nma by Kai Ks ibn Iskandar, Prince of Gurgn, trans. Reuben Levy (London, 1951), 213.
297. The Book of Advice by King Kay Kus ibn Iskander: The Earliest Old Ottoman Turkish Version, ed. Eleazar Birnbaum (Cambridge, MA, 1981);
298. idem, "A Lifemanship Manual, The Earliest Turkish Version of the Kbsnme" Journal of Turkish Studies 1 (1977): 3-64.
299. On the impact of Ts's scientific ideas on the evolution of Ottoman science, see Salim Ayd, "Nas r al-Dn al-Ts's Influence on Ottoman Scientific Literature (Mathematics, Astronomy and Natural Sciences)," International Journal of Turkish Studies 17 (2011): 21-38.
300. Dawwn's Ottoman reception is documented in Cornel H. Fleischer, Bureaucrat and Intellectual in the Ottoman Empire: The Historian Mustafa li (1541-1600) (Princeton, 1986), 100, 262, 280-81;
301. and Rosenthal, Political Thought in Medieval Islam, 211-215, 220.
302. Rudolf Tschudi, Das Asafne des LutfPascha nach den Handschriften zu Wien, Dresden und Konstantinopel zum ersten Male herausgegeben und ins Deutsche ertragen (Leipzig, 1910), 10.
303. On Lfi Paa's political ideas, see Hamilton A. R. Gibb, "Lutf Pasa on the Ottoman Caliphate," Oriens 15 (1962): 287-295.
304. On this and for further references to Ottoman political figures and men of letters who employed the "circle of justice" see Darling, "Islamic Empires, the Ottoman Empire and the Circle of Justice;"
305. Maurus Reinkowski, "The State's Security and the Subjects' Prosperity: Notions of Order in Ottoman Bureaucratic Correspondence (19th Century)," in Legitimizing the Order: The Ottoman Rhetoric of State Power, ed. Hakan T. Karateke and Maurus Reinkowski (Leiden, 2005), 195-212, 203-5;
306. erif Mardin, The Genesis of Young Ottoman Thought: A Study in the Modernization of Turkish Political Ideas (Princeton, 1962; repr. Syracuse, 2000), 99-100, 180, 368;
307. as well as Virginia H. Aksan, "Ottoman Political Writing, 1768-1808," International Journal of Middle East Studies 25 (1993): 53-69, 53-54.
308. Ottoman ideas on social organization are surveyed in erif Mardin, "Historical Determinants of Stratification: Social Class and Class Consciousness in Turkey," Ankara niversitesi Siyasal Bilgiler Faktesi Dergisi 22 (1967): 111-42.
309. Howard, "Genre and Myth in the Ottoman Advice for Kings Literature";
310. Boa A. Ergene, "On Ottoman Justice: Interpretations in Conflict (1600-1800)," Islamic Law and Society 8 (2001): 52-87;
311. Rifaat Ali Abou-El-Haj, "The Expression of Ottoman Political Culture in the Literature of Advice to Princes (Nasihatnameler) Sixteenth to Twentieth Centuries," in Sociology in the Rubric Social Science, ed. Ranjit K. Bhattacharya and Asok K. Ghosh (Calcutta, 1995), 282-92;
312. idem, "The Ottoman Nasihatname as a Discourse over 'Morality'," Revue d'histoire maghrebine 47/48 (1987): 17-28;
313. idem, "Fitnah, huruc ala al-Sultan and nasihat: Political Struggle and Conflict in Ottoman Society 1560's-1700's," in Comitinternational d'udes prottomanes et ottomans, ed. Jean-Louis BacquGrammont and Emeri van Donzel (Istanbul, 1987), 185-91;
314. Cornell H. Fleischer, "From eyhzade Korkud to Mustafa li: Cultural Origins of the Ottoman Nasihatname," in IIIrd Congress on the Social and Economic History of Turkey, ed. Heath W. Lowry and Ralph S. Hattox (Istanbul, 1990), 67-77;
315. P Fodor, "State and Society, Crisis and Reform, in 15th-17th Century Ottoman Mirror for Princes," Acta Orientalia Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricae (1986): 217-240;
316. Hans G. Majer, "Die Kritik an den Ulema in den osmanischen politischen Traktaten des 16.-18. Jahrhunderts," in Social and Economic History of Turkey (1071-1920), ed. Osman Okyar and Halil nalck (Ankara, 1980), 147-55;
317. Anna S. Tveritinova, Social Ideas in Turkish Didactic Politico-Economic Treatises of the XVI-XVII Centuries (Moscow, 1960).
318. The impact of Aristotelian philosophy on Ottoman political writing is examined in Mehmet Bayrakdar, "L'Aristotisme dans la pens ottomane," in Individu et soci L'influence d'Aristote dans le monde miterrann, ed. Thierry Zarcone (Istanbul, 1988), 191-211.
319. Gottfried Hagen, "Legitimacy and World Order," in Legitimizing the Order, 55-83, 65;
320. Norman Itzkowitz, "Men and Ideas in the Eighteenth Century Ottoman Empire," in Studies in Eighteenth Century Islamic History, ed. Thomas Naff and Roger Owen (Carbondale, IL, 1977), 15-26, 23-24.
321. Baki Tezcan, "Ethics as a Domain to Discuss the Political: Knalze Ali Efendi's Ahl-i Al," in International Congress on Learning and Education in the Ottoman World, ed. Ali aksu (Istanbul, 2001), 109-20;
322. and idem, "The Definition of Sultanic Legitimacy in the Sixteenth Century Ottoman Empire: The Ahl-Al of Knalze Alelebi (1510-1572)" (M.A. Thesis, Princeton University, 1996).
323. On the ordering of Ottoman society into four main occupational groups: "men of sword" (the Sultan, provincial rulers, imperial administration, military);
324. "men of the pen" (religious scholars, philosophers, poets, historians);
325. traders and craftsmen; and peasants, see Kemal H. Karpat, "Some Historical and Methodological Considerations Concerning Social Stratification in the Middle East," in Commoners, Climbers and Notables: A Sampler of Studies on Social Ranking in the Middle East, ed. Christoffel A. O. van Nieuwenhuijze (Leiden, 1977), 83-101.
326. reprinted in idem, Studies on Ottoman Social and Political History: Selected Articles and Essays (Leiden, 2002), 291-310.
327. Hagen, "Legitimacy and World Order," 60-71, 77-79;
328. Linda T. Darling, Revenue-Raising and Legitimacy: Tax Collection and Finance Administration in the Ottoman Empire, 1560-1660 (Leiden, 1996), 283-99, 305-6.
329. in general, also Linda T. Darling, "Islamic Empires, the Ottoman Empire and the Circle of Justice";
330. and Halilnalck, "Comments on 'Sultanism': Max Weber's Typification of the Ottoman Polity," Princeton Papers in Near Eastern Studies 1 (1992): 49-72, 54-55.
331. Ottoman ideas on decline are discussed in: Manfred Pittioni, "Economic Decline of the Ottoman Empire," in The Decline of Empires, ed. Emil Brix et al. (Vienna, 2001), 21-44;
332. Cemal Kafadar, "The Myth of the Golden Age: Ottoman Historical Consciousness in the Post-Seymanic Era," in Seym the Second and His Time, ed. Halil Inalck and Cemal Kafadar (Istanbul, 1993): 37-48;
333. Cemal Kafadar, "The Question of Ottoman Decline," Harvard Middle Eastern and Islamic Review 4 (1997/98): 30-75;
334. Douglas A. Howard, "Ottoman Historiography and the Literature of 'Decline' of the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries," Journal of Asian History 22 (1988): 52-77, 57;
335. idem, "With Gibbon in the Garden: Decline, Death, and the Sick Man of Europe," Fides et Historia 26 (1994): 22-37;
336. as well as Suraiya Faroqhi, "Crisis and Change, 1590-1699," in An Economic and Social History of the Ottoman Empire, 1300-1914, ed. Halil nalck and Donald Quataert (Cambridge, 1994), 413-636;
337. Mehmet imek, "Influence de la dadence de l'Empire Ottoman sur les controverses concernant les innovations," Ankara niversitesi lahiyat Faktesi Dergisi 26 (1983): 471-490;
338. Halilnalck, "The Heyday and Decline of the Ottoman Empire," in The Cambridge History of Islam, vol. 1: The Central Islamic Lands, ed. Peter M. Holt et al. (Cambridge, 1970), 324-53;
339. Bernard Lewis, "Ottoman Observers of Ottoman Decline," Islamic Studies 1 (1962): 71-87.
340. reprinted in idem, Islam in History: Ideas, People, and Events in the Middle East (Chicago, new ed., rev. and expanded 1993), 209-22;
341. idem, "Some Reflections on the Decline of the Ottoman Empire," Studia Islamica 9 (1958): 111-127.
342. reprinted with amendments in idem, The Emergence of Modern Turkey (London, 1961), 21-39.
343. Cemal Kafadar, "Les troubles monaires de la fin du XVIe sile et la prise de conscience ottomane du dlin," Annales 46 (1991): 381-400;
344. idem, "When Coins turned into Drops of Dew and Bankers Became Robbers of Shadows: The Boundaries of Ottoman Economic Imagination at the End of the Sixteenth Century" (Ph.D. Diss., McGill University, 1986).
345. also, in general, Anton C. Schaendlinger, "Reformtraktate und-vorschle im Osmanischen Reich im 17 und 18
346. Jahrhundert," in Festgabe an Josef Matuz: Osmanistik-Turkologie- Diplomatik, ed. Christa Fragner and Klaus Schwarz (Berlin, 1992), 239-53;
347. Rhoads Murphey, "Solakzade's Treatise of 1652: A Glimpse at Operational Principles Guiding the Ottoman State during Times of Crisis," in V. Milletleraras Tkiye Sosyal ve Iktisat Tarihi Kongresi, Tebliler (Ankara, 1990), 27-32.
348. reprinted in idem, Essays on Ottoman Historians and Historiography (Istanbul, 2009), 43-48;
349. and idem, "The Veliyyuddin Telhis: Notes on the Sources and Interrelations between Ko Bey and Contemporary Writers of Advice to Kings," Belleten 43 (1979): 547-571.
350. Mustaf Ali's Counsel for Sultans of 1581, 2 vols. ed., trans., notes Andreas Tietze (Vienna, 1979/1982).
351. Mehmed Pirli, "Hasan Kel-Akhisarve Devlet Denine ait Eseri Us-hikem fNizil lem," Tarih EnstitDergisi 10-11 (1981): 239-278;
352. German trans. Emmerich von Karson and Ludwig von Thallzy, "Eine Staatsschrift des bosnischen Mohammedaners Molla Hassan Elkji er die Art und Weise des Regierens," Archiv f slavische Philologie 32 (1911): 139-158.
353. reprinted in Ludwig von Thallzy, Illyrisch-albanische Forschungen (Munich, 1916), 1: 537-63;
354. French trans. Garin de Tassy, "Principes de Sagesse, touchant l'art de gouverner, par Rizwan-ben-abd'oul-mannan-Ac-hissari," Journal Asiatique 4 (1824): 213-226, 283-90.
355. Florian Zemmin, Islamische Verantwortungsethik im 17.
356. Jahrhundert: Ein weberianisches Verstdnis der Handlungsvorstellungen Ktib elebis (1609-1657) (Berlin, 2011);
357. Gottfried Hagen, Ein osmanischer Geograph bei der Arbeit: Entstehung und Gedankenwelt von Ktb elebis Gi ihnnn (Berlin, 2003);
358. Eleazar Birnbaum, "The Questing Mind: Ktib Chelebi, 1609-1657. A Chapter in Ottoman Intellectual History," in Corolla Torontonensis, ed. Emmet Robbins and Stella Sandahl (Toronto, 1994), 133-58;
359. Babinger, Die Geschichtsschreiber der Osmanen und ihre Werke (Leipzig, 1927), 195-203.
360. elebi's ideas on history are discussed also in Gottfried Hagen, "Berzeitlichkeit und Geschichte in Ktib elebis ihnn," Archivum Ottomanicum (1995/96): 133-159.
361. Rifaat Ali Abou-El-Haj, "Theorizing in Historical Writing Beyond the Nation-State: Ottoman Society in the Middle Period," in Armaan: Festschrift f Andreas Tietze, ed. Ingeborg Baldauf and Suraiya Faroqhi (Prague, 1994), 1-18, 7.
362. Lewis V. Thomas, A Study of Naima, ed. Norman Itzkowitz (New York, 1972), 73-78;
363. Itzkowitz, "Men and Ideas in the Eighteenth Century Ottoman Empire," 24-25.
364. Kipelebi, Sullam al-wusl iltabaqt al-fuhl = Slem'-vus il tabakilfuh, vols. ed. Ekmeleddin hsanolu (Istanbul, 2010);
365. Ktib Chelebi, The Balance of Truth, trans. Geoffrey L. Lewis (London, 1957), 135-52.
366. Chelebi, The Balance of Truth, 141.
367. The circumstances surrounding the composition of elebi's treatise are elucidated in Hagen, Ein osmanischer Geograph bei der Arbeit, 62-64;
368. Bernard Lewis, The Political Language of Islam (Chicago, 1988), 24-25;
369. and Howard, "Ottoman Historiography and the Literature of 'Decline'," 72-73.
370. Petra Kappert, "Zur Charakteristik osmanischer historisch-narrativer Quellen des 16.
371. Jahrhunderts," in XIX Deutscher Orientalistentag, ed. Wolfgang Voigt (Wiesbaden, 1977), 1204-9, 1205.
372. On the Ottoman fate of Ibn Khaldn's political ideas, see Syed Farid Alatas, "The Historical Sociology of Muslim Societies: Khaldunian Applications," International Sociology 22 (2007): 267-88, 273-6;
373. Rert Simon, Ibn Khaldn: History as Science and the Patrimonial Empire, trans. Kla Pogsa (Budapest, 2002), 21-23;
374. Faroqhi, "Crisis and Change, 1590-1699," 548-49;
375. Cornell Fleischer, "Royal Authority, Dynastic Cyclism and 'Ibn Khaldunism' in Sixteenth Century Ottoman Letters," in Ibn Khaldun and Islamic Ideology, ed. Bruce B. Lawrence (Leiden, 1984), 46-68
376. [originally published in Journal of Asian and African Studies (1983): 198-220]
377. Bernard Lewis, "Ibn Khaldn in Turkey," in Studies in Islamic History and Civilization, ed. Moshe Sharon (Jerusalem, 1986), 527-30.
378. reprinted in idem, Islam in History, 233-36
379. and, more recently, in Ibn Khaldun, The Mediterranean in the 14th Century: Rise and Fall of Empires (Seville, 2006), 1: 376-380;
380. Z. Fahri Findikolu, "L'cole Ibn Khaldounienne en Turquie," in Proceedings of the Twenty-Second Congress of Orientalists vol. 2: Communications, ed. Zeki Velidi Togan (Leiden, 1957), 2: 269-73;
381. Scholarly treatments of Ibn Khaldn's theory about the emergence and evolution of civilization include: Abdesselam Cheddadi, Ibn Khald: L'homme et le thricien de la civilisation (Paris, 2006);
382. Hinrich Biesterfeldt, "Ibn Haldn: Erinnerung, historische Reflexion und die Idee der Solidarit," in Mnemosyne: Formen und Funktionen der kulturellen Erinnerung, ed. Aleida Assmann and Dietrich Harth (Frankfurt a. M., 1991), 277-88;
383. Majid Fakhry, "The Devolution of the Perfect State: Plato, Ibn Rushd, and Ibn Khaldun," in Arab Civilization: Challenge and Response, ed. George N. Atiyeh and Ibrahim M. Oweiss (Albany, 1988), 88-97.
384. reprinted in idem, Philosophy, Dogma and the Impact of Greek Thought in Islam (Aldershot, 1994), no. X;
385. Muhsin Mahdi, Ibn Khaldn's Philosophy of History: A Study in the Philosophic Foundation of the Science of Culture (London, 1957; repr. Chicago, 1964).
386. Ibn Khald, The Muqaddimah: An Introduction to History, trans. Franz Rosenthal (New York: Pantheon Books, 1958), 1: 343-46.
387. Ibn Khald, The Muqaddimah, 1: 353-55.
388. Ibn Khald, The Muqaddimah, I.82.
389. Lewis, Islam in History, 217.
390. The text is appended to Ayn-i Al, Qav-i l-i Osmn der Ha-i Mezin-i Defter-i Dv (Istanbul, 1280 [1863]; repr. 1979), 119-40, 122-123 (hereafter cited as Dturu'l-amel );
391. German trans. in Walther F. A. Behrnauer, "H́Chalfa's Dustu'l amel: Ein Beitrag zur osmanischen Finanzgeschichte," Zeitschrift der Deutschen Morgenldischen Gesellschaft 11 (1857): 111-132, 118-19.
392. also Zemmin, Islamische Verantwortungsethik im 17. Jahrhundert, 102-15;
393. Dturu'l-amel, 124;
394. Behrnauer, "H́Chalfa's Dustu'l-amel," 119.
395. Dturu'l-amel, 126;
396. Galen, Selected Works, trans. Peter N. Singer (Oxford, 1997), 246.
397. Dturu'l-amel, 124-25;
398. Dturu'l-amel, 126-27;
399. Dturu'l-amel, 127-28;
400. Dturu'l-amel, 128-29;
401. Dturu'l-amel, 129-30;
402. Dturu'l-amel, 133-34;
403. Dturu'l-amel, 135;
404. Dturu'l-amel, 136-37;
405. Dturu'l-amel, 137-38;