Twenty-first-century tort theories: The internalist/externalist debate

Indiana Law Journal

Volumn 88, Issue 2, 2013, Pages 419-447

  Rustad, Michael L ^a,b  

^a Department of Law ^*  (United States)

^b SUFFOLK UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

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EID: 84878248242     PISSN: 00196665     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Review

References (156)

1. See Robert L. Rabin, Law for Law's Sake, 105 YALE L. J. 2261, 2261 (1996) (book review).
2. Stephen D. Sugarman, The Transformation of Tort Reform, in ANDREW F. POPPER, MATERIALS ON TORT REFORM 40, 40 (2010).
3. See LAWRENCE M. FRIEDMAN, A HISTORY OF AMERICAN LAW 546 (3d ed. 2005) ("The realists... doubted that judges could or should decide cases according to the dictates of legal logic. They had little or no tolerance of artifice, fictions, real and apparent irrationalities. Law was a working tool, an instrument of social policy; and it had to be seen in that light.");
4. JOHN HENRY SCHLEGEL, AMERICAN LEGAL REALISM AND EMPIRICAL SOCIAL SCIENCE (1995);
5. see, e.g., MacPherson v. Buick Motor Co., 111 N. E. 1050 (N. Y. 1916) (holding that Buick owed a duty of reasonable care to all foreseeable users irrespective of any privity of contract);
6. see also Karl N. Llewellyn, Some Realism About Realism-Responding to Dean Pound, 44 HARV. L. REV. 1222, 1234 (1931) (presenting legal realism as a "movement in thought and work about law" within which certain points of departure are common);
7. Roscoe Pound, The Call for a Realist Jurisprudence, 44 HARV. L. REV. 697, 697 (1931) (discussing approach of legal realists as requiring "faithful adherence to the actualities of the legal order as the basis of a science of law").
8. See generally WILLIAM TWINING, KARL LLEWELLYN AND THE REALIST MOVEMENT (1973) (describing the legal realism movement and the intellectual contributions of Karl Llewellyn to rules, skepticism, and other realist methods);
9. Morton J. Horwitz, Mark Tushnet, Legal Historian, 90 GEO. L. J. 131, 131 (2001) (describing Yale Law School as a center of legal realism in the 1920s and 1930s).
10. BENJAMIN N. CARDOZO, THE GROWTH OF THE LAW 5 (1924) (emphasis added).
11. Marshall S. Shapo, Changing Frontiers in Torts: Vistas for the 70's, 22 STAN. L. REV. 330, 333-35 (1970).
12. John Fabian Witt, Contingency, Immanence, and Inevitability in the Law of Accidents, 1 J. TORT L., no. 1, 2007 at 1, 1.
13. John C. P. Goldberg, Twentieth-Century Tort Theory, 91 GEO. L. J. 513, 514 (2003) (describing torts as a multi-paradigmatic field with five competing theories: compensationdeterrence, enterprise liability, economic deterrence, social justice, and individual justice, of which there are three subtypes, libertarian theory, reciprocity theory and corrective justice).
14. See, e.g., John C. P. Goldberg & Benjamin C. Zipursky, Seeing Tort Law from the Internal Point of View: Holmes and Hart on Legal Duties, 75 FORDHAM L. REV. 1563, 1580 (2006) (contending tort law is "about arming victims with a legal power to pursue those who have wronged them").
15. Jason M. Solomon, Civil Recourse as Social Equality, 39 FLA. ST. U. L. REV. 243, 243 (2011) ("In the past decade, civil recourse theory has emerged as an important new way of thinking about tort law as individual justice. Like corrective justice, civil recourse sees tort law as about deontological concepts such as right and wrong, in contrast to utilitarian accounts that focus on maximizing social welfare.");
16. see also Larry Reibstein, Rethinking Tort Law: Professor Benjamin Zipursky's Civil Recourse Theory Moves to a Leading Position in American Tort Theory, FORDHAM LAW., Spring 2012, at 12, 15 ("Yale law professor Jules Coleman describes civil recourse theory as 'the most important intervention in contemporary theory of tort law' since corrective justice theory-").
17. John C. P. Goldberg, Tort Law for Federalists (and the Rest of Us): Private Law in Disguise, 28 HARV. J. L. & PUB. POL'Y 3, 10 (2004) [hereinafter Goldberg, Tort Law] ("To note but one such aspect, [the wrongs-based view's] roots can be traced back to the likes of William Blackstone and Adam Smith. If modem Federalists are seeking a conception of tort law consonant with some of the basic tenets of classical liberalism, then a wrongs-based view is for them." (footnote omitted));
18. Michael L. Rustad & Thomas H. Koenig, Taming the Tort Monster: The American Civil Justice System as a Battleground of Social Theory, 68 BROOK. L. REV. 1, 12 (2002) ("During the eighteenth century, a major ideological conflict between forward-looking Jeremy Bentham and backward-looking Blackstone foreshadowed the coming struggle between legal formalism and realism that took shape in the early decades of the twentieth century. Bentham's utilitarian philosophy maintained that the law must be refashioned to 'maximize the greatest happiness of the greatest number.' Bentham targeted Blackstone's 'incrementalism, traditionalism and transcendentalism' as a 'barnacled, superstitious, reactionary [defense of the] status quo.' Richard Posner's The Problems of Jurisprudence supports the utilitarian philosophy of Jeremy Bentham against Blackstone's formulation. Judge Posner views Blackstone's jurisprudence as hampering wealth maximization by imbuing the common law with a 'transcendental aura' that was 'rooted in Saxon customary law.' Under Blackstone's formulation, judges did not create a legal regime that would best benefit society, but instead discovered divinely inspired '"oracles" of the law.'" (footnotes omitted))
19. (quoting RICHARD A. POSNER, THE PROBLEMS OF JURISPRUDENCE 12-13 (1990)).
20. Benjamin C. Zipursky, Civil Recourse, Not Corrective Justice, 91 GEO. L. J. 695, 735 (2003) (footnote omitted).
21. See Ernest J. Weinrib, Corrective Justice in a Nutshell, 52 U. TORONTO L. J. 349, 349, 352 (2002) ("For the defendant to be held liable, it is not enough that the defendant's negligent act resulted in harm to the plaintiff. The harm has to be to an interest that has the status of a right, and the defendant's action has to be wrongful with respect to that right.").
22. Michael L. Rustad, Torts as Public Wrongs, 38 PEPP. L. REV. 433, 500 (2011) (discussing appeal of civil recourse theory to younger tort scholars).
23. (quoting R. Blake Brown, Cecil A. Wright and the Foundations of Canadian Tort Law Scholarship, 64 SASK. L. REV. 169, 174 (2001)).
24. Cf. M. Neil Browne, Terri J. Keeley & Wesley J. Hiers, The Epistemological Role of Expert Witnesses and Toxic Torts, 36 AM. BUS. L. J. 1, 49-50 (1998) ("This social dimension is important in at least two senses. First, with respect to the differing externalist and internalist perspectives on science, we accept the superiority of the former: science, whether natural or social and including both its practioners [sic] and theorists, does not operate in a vacuum with its own internal logic but rather comes under the influence of social forces. Second, not only is 'the social' an external influence on scientific inquiry, it is immanent in the process itself, by which we mean that scientists are not disinterested agents but rather are immersed in a web of relations that play an important role in determining the character of truths that emerge from their interactions." (footnotes omitted)).
25. Judge Guido Calabresi is the 2011 Prosser Award recipient and Judge Richard Posner is the recipient for 2012. The Prosser Award "honors those who have made an outstanding contribution to the world of tort law scholarship. " Professor Jane Stapleton to Be Awarded William L. Prosser Award in Recognition of Her Scholarship on Torts and Products Liability, UTLAW, THE MAGAZINE OF THE UNIV. OF TEX. SCH. OF LAW, http://www.utexas.edu/law/magazine/ 2012/10/29/professor-jane-stapleton-to-be-awardedwilliam-1-prosser-award-in- recognition-of-her-scholarship-on-torts-and-product-liability/. Stephen Sugarman described Judges Calabresi and Posner as "the most important tort scholars of the last third of the 20th century" because of their scholarship "about the safetypromoting potential of tort law, and economic models of tort law.
26. WILLIAM M. LANDES & RICHARD A. POSNER, THE ECONOMIC STRUCTURE OF TORT LAW 1 (1987).
27. Symposium on Civil Recourse Theory, 39 FLA. ST. U. L. REV. 1(2011), available at http://www.law.fsu.edu/journals/lawreview/backissues/vol39/issuel. html.
28. The FSU Symposium speakers, Jules Coleman, Arthur Ripstein, Ernie Weinrib, Stephen and Julian Darwall, and Stephen Perry, are all inclined to approach tort law from a microperspective. See, e.g., Stephen Darwall & Julian Darwall, Civil Recourse as Mutual Accountability, 39 FLA. ST. U. L. REV. 17 (2011);
29. John Gardner, Torts and Other Wrongs, 39 FLA. ST. U. L. REV. 43 (2011);
30. Scott Hershovitz, Corrective Justice for Civil Recourse Theorists, 39 FLA. ST. U. L. REV. 107 (2011).
31. See generally Jules L. Coleman, Tort Liability and the Limits of Corrective Justice, in IN HARM'S WAY: ESSAYS IN HONOR OF JOEL FEINBERG 139 (Jules L. Coleman & Allen Buchanan eds., 1994);
32. Christopher H. Schroeder, Corrective Justice, Liability for Risks, and Tort Law, 38 UCLA L. REV. 143 (1990).
33. See generally H. L. A. HART, THE CONCEPT OF LAW (1961) on the distinction between external and internal perspectives on a legal system.
34. See Jane Stapleton, Evaluating Goldberg and Zipursky's Civil Recourse Theory, 75 FORDHAM L. REV. 1529, 1556 (2006).
35. Arthur Ripstein, Civil Recourse and Separation of Wrongs and Remedies, 39 FLA. ST. U. L. REV. 163, 164 (2011).
36. John C. P. Goldberg, Address at the Association of American Law Schools Annual Meeting, Twenty-First Century Tort Theories: A New Audit of Civil Recourse Theory (Jan. 5, 2012) [hereinafter Goldberg Podcast], available at http://lawprofessors.typepad.com/tortsprof/2012/07/podcast-of-2012-aals-panel- on-civil-recourse-theory.html.
37. John C. P. Goldberg, Unloved: Tort in the Modem Legal Academy, 55 VAND. L. REV. 1501, 1519 (2002).
38. BUTCH CASSIDY AND THE SUNDANCE KID (Twentieth Century Fox, Newman-Foreman Company & Campanile Productions 1969).
39. I adapt this from the final scene when a relentless posse in Bolivia is pursuing Butch and the Sundance Kid. Butch Cassidy and the Sundance Kid (1969)-Memorable Quotes, IMDB, http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0064115/quotes.
40. The issue of whether courts or the legislature should make tort law or reform it is an old question. See, e.g., Leon Green, The Thrust of Tort Law Part II: Judicial Law Making, 64 W. VA. L. REV. 115, 125 (1962) ("[T]he surest means of rendering law unstable and unjust is the adherence to precedents which have died on the vine and it is as much the function of courts to remove them from the law as it is to make new precedents.");
41. Robert E. Keeton, Creative Continuity in the Law of Torts, 75 HARV. L. REV. 463 (1962) (calling for a creative role of the judiciary in reforming tort law);
42. Cornelius J. Peck, The Role of the Courts and Legislatures in the Reform of Tort Law, 48 MINN. L. REV. 265 (1963) (arguing that courts should reform torts in the face of legislative indifference).
43. I draw this question from Thomas F. Lambert, Jr., Editorial, Reflections of an Optimist, 21 NAACA L. J. 25, 27 (1958) (describing the "Rip van Winkle philosophy of judicial stagnation").
44. John C. P. Goldberg, Lecture, Ten Half-Truths About Tort Law, 42 VAL. U. L. REV. 1221, 1252 (2008).
45. John C. P. Goldberg & Benjamin C. Zipursky, Tort Law and Moral Luck, 92 CORNELL L. REV. 1123, 1150 (2007).
46. see also Goldberg, Tort Law, supra note 12, at 10 (emphasizing torts' private as opposed to public law purposes).
47. JOHN C. P. GOLDBERG & BENJAMIN C. ZIPURSKY, THE OXFORD INTRODUCTIONS TO U. S. LAW: TORTS 65 (2010).
48. John C. P. Goldberg & Benjamin C. Zipursky, Civil Recourse Revisited, 39 FLA. ST. U. L. REV. 341, 342 (2011).
49. (quoting Roscoe Pound, Law in Books and Law in Action, 44 AM. L. REV. 12, 20 (1910)).
50. BENJAMIN N. CARDOZO, Law and Literature, in SELECTED WRITINGS OF BENJAMIN NATHAN CARDOZO: THE CHOICE OF TYCHO BRAHE 339, 348 (Margaret E. Hall ed., 1947).
51. (quoting Roscoe Pound, The Need of a Sociological Jurisprudence, 31 ANN. REP. A. B. A. 911, 919 (1907));
52. see also Felix S. Cohen, Transcendental Nonsense and the Functional Approach, 35 COLUM. L. REV. 809, 809 (1935) (comparing legal formalism to a "heaven of legal concepts" where concepts descend from heavens rather than from society).
53. ARTHUR C. CLARKE, The Pacifist, in TALES FROM THE WHITE HART 64, 74 (1970).
54. See Goldberg, Tort Law, supra note 12, at 10 ("The wrongs-based view of tort law that I have sketched and invoked as a basis for bolstering the U. S. Supreme Court's decision to intervene in Campbell contains various aspects that should appeal to members of the Federalist Society even apart from this view's ability to explain why certain perceived excesses in the tort system ought to be reined in. To note but one such aspect, its roots can be traced back to the likes of William Blackstone and Adam Smith. If modern Federalists are seeking a conception of tort law consonant with some of the basic tenets of classical liberalism, then a wrongs-based view is for them." (footnotes omitted)).
55. See, e.g., Hargrove v. Town of Cocoa Beach, 96 So. 2d 130 (Fla. 1957) (stripping the municipality of governmental immunity for neglect of prisoner who suffocated when his cell filled with smoke);
56. Brown v. City of Omaha, 160 N. W.2d 805 (Neb. 1968) (holding governmental entities liable for negligence in case involving publicly owned vehicle).
57. See generally Fleming James, Jr., Inroads on Old Tort Concepts, 14 NACCA L. J. 226 (1954).
58. MARSHALL S. SHAPO, AN INJURY LAW CONSTITUTION 22 (2012).
59. Thomas Goetz, Life Hacker, WIRED, June 2012, at 108, 112.
60. Professor Anita Bernstein has noted that torts on social network sites are particularly insidious because they "leverage trust and vouching", lending credibility to anything posted in cyberspace. Anita Bernstein, Real Remedies for Virtual Injuries, 90 N. C L. REV. 1457, 1460 (2012).
61. December 2012 Web Server Survey, NETCRAFT (Dec. 4, 2012), http://news. netcraft.com/archives/2012/12/04/december-2012-web-server-survey.html.
62. World Internet Usage and Population Statistics, INTERNET WORLD STATS (July 29, 2012), http://www.internetworldstats.com/stats.htm.
63. See Anita Bernstein, How to Make a New Tort: Three Paradoxes, 75 TEX. L. REV. 1539, 1541 (1997) (explaining how new causes of action evolved).
64. See generally Michael L. Rustad & Thomas H. Koenig, Cybertorts and Legal Lag: An Empirical Analysis, 13 S. CAL. INTERDISC. L. J. 77 (2003).
65. What Cardozo wrote about defamation is especially true about the Internet: "Reputation... is a plant offender growth, and its bloom, once lost, is not easily restored." People ex rel. Karlin v. Culkin, 162 N. E. 487, 492 (1928) (Cardozo, J.).
66. Wayback Machine, INTERNET ARCHIVE, http://archive.org/web/web.php.
67. See Michael L. Rustad & Thomas H. Koenig, Rebooting Cybertort Law, 80 WASH. L. REV. 335, 351 (2005) ("Repeat players such as ISPs have no qualms about protecting their rights through Internet lawsuits over intellectual property, tort, and contract rights, all of which are primarily resolved in federal courts.").
68. For a legislative history of the CDA, see generally Robert Cannon, The Legislative History of Senator Exon's Communications Decency Act: Regulating Barbarians on the Information Superhighway, 49 FED. COMM. L. J. 51 (1996).
69. 47 U. S. C. §230 (b) (2), (c) (1) (2006).
70. Delfino v. Agilent Techs., Inc., 52 Cal. Rptr. 3d 376, 388 (Cal. Ct. App. 2006).
71. Larry E. Ribstein, Practicing Theory: Legal Education for the Twenty-First Century, 96 IOWA L. REV. 1649, 1655 (2011).
72. THE CAMBRIDGE DICTIONARY OF SOCIOLOGY 499 (Bryan S. Turner ed., 2006).
73. ("Realism became influential in the social sciences following Thomas Kuhn's Structure of Scientific Revolutions (1962). Kuhn challenged the view that science proceeded in a linear and accumulative manner, arguing that there are fundamental changes in world-views and that different scientific paradigms are incommensurable.") (emphasis omitted).
74. John C. P. Goldberg & Benjamin C. Zipursky, Torts as Wrongs, 88 TEX. L. REV. 917, 978 (2010).
75. SCOTT J. SHAPIRO, LEGALITY 80 (2011).
76. The earliest torts treatises described torts as private wrongs as well. E.g., C. G. ADDISON, A TREATISE ON THE LAW OF TORTS OR WRONGS AND THEIR REMEDIES (William E. Gordon & Walter Hussey Griffith eds., 8th ed. 1906);
77. FRANCIS HILLIARD, THE LAW OF REMEDIES FOR TORTS, OR PRIVATE WRONGS (1867).
78. Wesley Hohfeld, like civil recourse theory, focuses on two-person rights and duties. See, e.g., Wesley Newcomb Hohfeld, Some Fundamental Legal Conceptions as Applied in Judicial Reasoning, 23 YALE L. J. 16 (1913).
79. By way of example, Goldberg notes that some relational wrongs are no longer classified as tort, such as cheating on one's spouse. John C. P. Goldberg, The Constitutional Status of Tort Law: Due Process and the Right to a Law for the Redress of Wrongs, 115 YALE L. J. 524, 619 (2005).
80. 733 N. E.2d 184 (N. Y. 2000).
81. 585 F.3d 855 (5th Cir. 2009)
82. panel opinion vacated en banc, 607 F.3d 1049 (5th Cir. 2010).
83. 467 F.3d 85 (2d Cir. 2006)
84. aff'dper curiam by an equally divided court sub nom. Warner-Lambert Co. v. Kent, 552 U. S. 440 (2008).
85. Lauer, 733 N. E.2d at 186.
86. Benjamin C. Zipursky, Substantive Standing, Civil Recourse, and Corrective Justice, 39 FLA. ST. U. L. REV. 299, 304 (2011).
87. 585 F.3d 855 (5th Cir. 2009)
88. panel opinion vacated en banc, 607 F.3d 1049 (5th Cir. 2010).
89. 467 F.3d 85 (2d Cir. 2006)
90. qff'd per curiam by an equally divided court sub nom. Warner-Lambert Co. v. Kent, 552 U. S. 440 (2008).
91. The circuitous history of Comer began with a dismissal of the plaintiffs' class action by the U. S. district court on political standing and justiciability grounds. Comer v. Murphy Oil USA, Inc., 839 F. Supp. 2d 849, 853 (S. D. Miss. 2012).
92. Next, a panel of three Fifth Circuit judges reversed the district court in Comer v. Murphy Oil USA, Inc., 585 F.3d 855, 879 (5th Cir. 2009), ruling that the plaintiffs could go forward under a public nuisance cause of action. The Fifth Circuit vacated the decision of the three-judge panel and granted a rehearing en banc.
93. Comer v. Murphy Oil USA, Inc., 598 F.3d 208, 210 (5th Cir. 2010)
94. appeal dismissed, 607 F.3d 1049, 1053-54 (5th Cir. 2010)
95. mandamus denied sub nom. In re Comer, 131 S. Ct. 902 (2011).
96. Fourth Amended Class Action Complaint at 31-35, Comer v. Murphy Oil USA, Inc., 839 F. Supp. 2d 849 (S. D. Miss. 2012) (No. 1:05-cv-00436-LTS-RHW).
97. Comer, 839 F. Supp. 2d at 853.
98. See, e.g., Native Vill. of Kivalina v. ExxonMobil Corp., 663 F. Supp. 2d 863 (N. D. Cal. 2009) (dismissing case filed by an Alaskan village against energy companies for coast erosion due to global warming);
99. California v. Gen. Motors Corp., No. C06-05755 MJJ, 2007 WL 2726871 (N. D. Cal. Sept. 17, 2007) (dismissing public nuisance action on the grounds that it is a political question).
100. Benjamin C. Zipursky, Address at the Association of American Law Schools Annual Meeting, Twenty-First Century Tort Theories: A New Audit of Civil Recourse Theory (Jan. 5, 2012) [hereinafter Zipursky Podcast], available at http://lawprofessors. typepad.com/tortsprof/2012/07/podcast-of-2012-aals-panel- on-civil-recourse-theory.html.
101. 467 F.3d 85 (2d Cir. 2006)
102. aff'd per curiam by an equally divided Court sub nom. Warner-Lambert Co. v. Kent, 552 U. S. 440 (2008).
103. Warner-Lambert Co., 522 U. S. at 88.
104. Buckman Co. v. Plaintiffs' Legal Comm., 531 U. S. 341, 341 (2001) (holding that state law claims that authorized recovery against medical device and drug manufacturers, where regulatory approval was allegedly procured through "fraud on the FDA", were preempted).
105. Garcia v. Wyeth-Ayerst Labs., 385 F.3d 961, 965-66 (6th Cir. 2004).
106. Desiano, 467 F.3d at 98 (reasoning that Michigan's statutory exceptions were not preempted because, unlike in a stand-alone fraud-on-the-FDA claim, plaintiffs' claims were traditional tort claims not predicated upon fraud).
107. See Warner-Lambert Co., 522 U. S. at 440-41.
108. See, e.g., GUIDO CALABRESI, THE COST OF ACCIDENTS: A LEGAL AND ECONOMIC ANALYSIS 24-26 (1970) (acknowledging that justice is an important goal, but doubting whether one can say much about it independent of the other goals, except to acknowledge that it exists as an ultimate goal);
109. Guido Calabresi, Some Thoughts on Risk Distribution and the Law of Torts, 70 YALE L. J. 499 (1961).
110. 733 N. E.2d 184 (N. Y. 2000).
111. See also Guido Calabresi, The Complexity of Torts-The Case of Punitative Damages, in EXPLORING TORT LAW 333, 333 (M. Stuart Madden ed., 2005) (arguing that reductionism is common in tort theory as well as the U. S. Supreme Court's punitive damages jurisprudence that reduces this complex remedy to one thing: retributory justice).
112. Fleming James, Jr., Tort Law in Midstream: Its Challenge to the Judicial Process, 8 BUFF. L. REV. 315, 315-16, 320 (1959) (footnotes omitted).
113. Paul H. Rubin, The Concise Encyclopedia of Economics: Law & Economics, LIBRARY OF ECON. & LIBERTY, http://www.econlib.org/library/Enc/ LawandEconomics.html ("The positive theory of legal efficiency states that the common law (judge-made law, the main body of law in England and its former colonies, including the United States) is efficient, while the normative theory is that the law should be efficient. It is important that the two theories remain separate. Most economists accept both." (emphasis in original)).
114. Richard A Posner, Instrumental and Noninstrumental Theories of Tort Law, 88 IND. LJ. 469, 487-519 (2013).
115. Richard A. Posner, A Theory of Negligence, 1 J. LEGAL STUD. 29, 33 (1972) ("If... the benefits in accident avoidance exceed the costs of prevention, society is better off if those costs are incurred and the accident averted, and so in this case the [injurer] is made liable, in the expectation that self-interest will lead it to adopt the precautions in order to avoid a greater cost in tort judgments.");
116. RICHARD A. POSNER & KATHARINE B. SILBAUGH, A GUIDE TO AMERICA'S SEX LAWS (1996);
117. RICHARD A. POSNER, THE PROBLEMATICS OF MORAL AND LEGAL THEORY (1999);
118. RICHARD A. POSNER, THE PROBLEMS OF JURISPRUDENCE (1990);
119. William M. Landes & Richard A. Posner, Trademark Law: An Economic Perspective, 30 J. L. & ECON. 265 (1987);
120. Richard A. Posner, The Next Step in the Antitrust Treatment of Restricted Distribution: Per Se Legality, 48 U. CHI. L. REV. 6 (1981);
121. see also RICHARD A. POSNER, TORT LAW: CASES AND ECONOMIC ANALYSIS (1982);
122. Richard A. Posner, Wealth Maximization and Tort Law: A Philosophical Inquiry, in PHILOSOPHICAL FOUNDATIONS OF TORT LAW 99 (David G. Owen ed., 1995).
123. See generally RICHARD A. POSNER, ECONOMIC ANALYSIS OF LAW (7th ed. 2007).
124. William M. Landes & Richard A. Posner, The Positive Economic Theory of Tort Law, 15 GA. L. REV. 851, 871-77 (1981).
125. See generally GUIDO CALABRESI, THE COSTS OF ACCIDENTS: A LEGAL AND ECONOMIC ANALYSIS (1970).
126. Benjamin C. Zipursky, Richard Epstein and the Cold War in Torts, 3 J. TORT L. 1, 1 (2010) (footnote omitted).
127. (citing Christopher J. Robinette, Why Civil Recourse Theory Is Incomplete, 78 TENN. L. REV. 431 (2011);
128. 347 F.3d 672 (7th Cir. 2003) (upholding a jury award of $186, 000 in punitive damages to motel guests bitten by bedbugs).
129. see also Campbell v. State Farm, 538 U. S. 408 (2003) (striking down punitive damages award that was 145 times the compensatory damages in an insurance bad faith case).
130. MARSHALL S. SHAPO, TORT LAW AND CULTURE (2003);
131. see also THOMAS H. KOENIG & MICHAEL L. RUSTAD, IN DEFENSE OF TORT LAW 12 (2001) (describing how tort law reflects social conditions);
132. Marshall S. Shapo, In the Looking Glass: What Torts Scholarship Can Teach Us About the American Experience, 89 NW. U. L. REV. 1567 (1995).
133. Martha Chamallas, Address at the Association of American Law Schools Annual Meeting, Twenty-First Century Tort Theories: A New Audit of Civil Recourse Theory (Jan. 5, 2012) [hereinafter Chamallas Podcast], available at http://lawprofessors.typepad.com/tortsprof/2012/07/podcast-of-2012-aals-panel- on-civil-recourse-theory.html.
134. For an excellent introduction to critical feminist legal theory, see MARTHA CHAMALLAS, AN INTRODUCTION TO FEMINIST LEGAL THEORY (3rd ed. 2012)
135. and MARTHA CHAMALLAS & JENNIFER B. WRIGGINS, THE MEASURE OF INJURY: RACE, GENDER, AND TORT LAW (2010).
136. Garrison Keillor Quotes, THINKEXIST. COM, http://thinkexist.com/quotes/ garrison-keillor/3.html.
137. See, e.g., Martha Chamallas, Civil Rights in Ordinary Tort Cases: Race, Gender, and the Calculation of Economic Loss, 38 LOY. L. A. L. REV. 1435 (2005);
138. Lucinda M. Finley, Female Trouble: The Implications of Tort Reform for Women, 64 TENN. L. REV. 847 (1997);
139. Thomas Koenig & Michael Rustad, His and Her Tort Reform: Gender Injustice in Disguise, 70 WASH. L. REV. 1 (1995).
140. Sheldon Hackney, A Conversation with Stephen Toulmin, HUMANITIES, Apr./Mar. 1997, at 4.
141. Oliver Wendell Holmes, Jr., The Path of the Law, 10 HARV. L. REV. 457, 466 (1897).
142. Martha Chamallas, Beneath the Surface of Civil Recourse Theory, 88 IND. L. J. 527, 527 (2013).
143. See, e.g., Lucinda M. Finley, A Break in the Silence: Including Women's Issues in a Torts Course, 1 YALE J. L. & FEMINISM 41, 52 (1989).
144. Traditional tort law has been openly patriarchal. See Ronald K. L. Collins, Language, History and The Legal Process: A Profile of the "Reasonable Man", 8 RUTGERS CAMDEN L. J. 311, 312 (1977).
145. BAILEY KUKLIN & JEFFREY W. STEMPEL, FOUNDATIONS OF THE LAW: AN INTERDISCIPLINARY AND JURISPRUDENTIAL PRIMER 159 (1994) ("Hart and Sacks contend that such rationality, restraint, and fairness could be achieved through the appropriate 'black letter' distribution of institutional power and the adherence to evenhanded procedure coupled with the inculcation of jurists into a proper culture.... By seeking systematic constraint and procedural fairness, the Process School seeks to depoliticize law as much as feasible while permitting law to reflect organic changes in social policy.").
146. He is the co-author (with Jeffrey O'Connell) of the book A RECIPE FOR BALANCED TORT REFORM (2008)
147. and is the editor of 6 APPLEMAN ON INSURANCE: AUTOMOBILE INSURANCE (2011).
148. Christopher J. Robinette, Two Roads Diverge for Civil Recourse Theory, 88 IND. L. J. 543, 543 (2013).
149. Christopher J. Robinette, Why Civil Recourse Theory Is Incomplete, 78 TENN. L. REV. 431, 433 (2011).
150. PEGGY LEE, Is That All There Is?, on IS THAT ALL THERE IS? (Capitol Records 1969).
151. Christopher J. Robinette, Can There Be a Unified Theory of Torts? A Pluralist Suggestion from History and Doctrine, 43 BRANDEIS L. J. 369, 369-70 (2005);
152. Christopher J. Robinette, Torts Rationales, Pluralism, and Isaiah Berlin, 14 GEO. MASON L. REV. 329, 347 (2007);
153. "This triadic movement is based on the thought of nineteenth-century philosopher G. W. F. Hegel (1770-1831). Hegel's dialectic includes thesis, antithesis, and synthesis...." JAMES H. HARRIS, PREACHING LIBERATION 99 (emphasis added)
154. (discussing G. W. F. HEGEL, PHENOMENOLOGY OF SPIRIT (1807));
155. see also HOWARD P. KAINZ, HEGEL'S PHILOSOPHY OF RIGHT, WITH MARX'S COMMENTARY: A HANDBOOK FOR STUDENTS 7 (1974).
156. HOWARD P. KAINZ, HEGEL'S PHENOMENOLOGY OF SPIRIT: NOT MISSING THE TREES FOR THE FOREST 79 (2008).