Automatic grain type classification of snow micro penetrometer signals with random forests

IEEE Transactions on Geoscience and Remote Sensing

Volumn 51, Issue 6, 2013, Pages 3328-3335

  Havens, Scott ^a   Marshall, Hans Peter ^a   Pielmeier, Christine ^b   Elder, Kelly ^c  

^a BOISE STATE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^b WSL INSTITUTE FOR SNOW AND AVALANCHE RESEARCH SLF   (Switzerland)

^c ROCKY MOUNTAIN RESEARCH STATION   (United States)

Author keywords

Classification algorithms; hydrology; remote sensing; snow

Indexed keywords

CLASSIFICATION ACCURACY; CLASSIFICATION ALGORITHM; COEFFICIENT OF VARIATION; MICRO-STRUCTURAL PROPERTIES; MISCLASSIFICATION ERROR; REMOTE SENSING OF SNOW; RETRIEVAL ALGORITHMS; SNOWPACK STRATIGRAPHY;

ALGORITHMS; DECISION TREES; HYDROLOGY; INVERSION LAYERS; MICROSTRUCTURE; REMOTE SENSING;

SNOW;

ACCURACY ASSESSMENT; ALGORITHM; CLASSIFICATION; ERROR ANALYSIS; GRAIN SIZE; MICROSTRUCTURE; PENETROMETER; RADAR; RANDOM WALK METHOD; REMOTE SENSING; SIGNAL; SNOW WATER EQUIVALENT; SNOWPACK;

COLORADO; GRAND MESA; SWITZERLAND; UNITED STATES;

EID: 84878129639     PISSN: 01962892     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1109/TGRS.2012.2220549     Document Type: Article

References (31)

1. W. Rees, Remote Sensing of Snow and Ice. New York: Taylor & Francis, 2006, 285pp.
2. D. Baenninger, C. S. Bourgeois, M. Matzl, and M. Schneebeli, "Reflectance modeling for real snow structures using a beam tracing model," Sensors, vol. 8, no. 5, pp. 3482-3496, May 2008.
3. R. Wojcik, K. Andreadis, M. Tedesco, E. Wood, T. Troy, and D. Lettenmeier, "Multimodel estimation of snow microwave emission during CLPX 2003 using operational parameterization of microphysical snow characteristics," J. Hydrometeorol., vol. 9, no. 6, pp. 1491-1505, Dec. 2008.
4. C. Pielmeier and M. Schneebeli, "Stratigraphy and changes in hardness of snow measured by hand, ramsonde and snow micro penetrometer: A comparison with planar sections," Cold Regions Sci. Technol., vol. 37, no. 3, pp. 393-405, Nov. 2003. (Pubitemid 37312645)
5. L. H. Shapiro, J. B. Johnson, M. Sturm, and G. L. Blaisdell, "Snow Mechanics: Review of the state of knowledge and applications," Hanover, NH, CRREL Tech. Rep. 97-3, 1997, 36 pp.
6. M. Durand, E. J. Kim, and S. A. Margulis, "Quantifying uncertainty in modeling snow microwave radiance for a mountain snowpack at the pointscale, including stratigraphic effects," IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens., vol. 46, no. 6, pp. 1753-1767, Jun. 2008. (Pubitemid 351711213)
7. S. H. Yueh, S. J. Dinardo, A. Akgiray, R.West, D.W. Cline, and K. Elder, "Airborne Ku-band polarimetric radar remote sensing of terrestrial snow cover," IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens., vol. 47, no. 10, pp. 3347-3364, Oct. 2009.
8. H. Rott, S. H. Yueh, D. W. Cline, C. Duguay, R. Essery, C. Haas, F. Heliere, M. Kern, G. Macelloni, E. Malnes, T. Nagler, J. Pulliainen, H. Rebhan, and A. Thompson, "Cold regions hydrology high-resolution observatory for snow and cold land processes," Proc. IEEE, vol. 98, no. 5, pp. 752-765, May 2010.
9. A. E. Azar, H. Ghedira, P. Romanov, S. Mahani, M. Tedesco, and R. Khanbilvardi, "Application of satellite microwave images in estimating snow water equivalent," J. Amer. Water Resources Assoc., vol. 44, no. 6, pp. 1347-1362, Dec. 2008.
10. M. Sturm, J. Johnson, and J. Holmgren, "Variations in the mechanical properties of arctic and subarctic snow at local (1-m) to regional (100-km) scales," in Proc. ISSMA, Manali, India, 2004, pp. 1-20.
11. P. K. Satyawali, M. Schneebeli, C. Pielmeier, T. Stucki, and A. K. Singh, "Preliminary characterization of Alpine snow using SnowMicroPen," Cold Regions Sci. Technol., vol. 55, no. 3, pp. 311-320, Mar. 2009.
12. S. Havens, H.-P. Marshall, N. Steiner, and M. Tedesco, "Snow micro penetrometer and near infrared photography for grain type classification," in Proc. Int. Snow Sci. Workshop, Squaw Valley, CA, Oct. 2010, pp 466-469.
13. L. Breiman, "Random forests," Mach. Learn., vol. 45, no. 1, pp. 5-32, Oct. 2001. (Pubitemid 32933532)
14. L. Breiman, "Bagging predictors," Mach. Learn., vol. 24, no. 2, pp. 123-140, Aug. 1996. (Pubitemid 126724382)
15. A. Brenning, "Benchmarking classifiers to optimally integrate terrain analysis and multispectral remote sensing in automatic rock glacier detection," Remote Sens. Environ., vol. 113, no. 1, pp. 239-247, Jan. 15, 2009.
16. P. Gislason, J. Benediktsson, and J. Sveinsson, "Random forests for land cover classification," Pattern Recognit. Lett., vol. 27, no. 4, pp. 294-300, Mar. 2006. (Pubitemid 43063112)
17. P. Gislason, J. Benediktsson, and J. Sveinsson, "Random forests for land cover classification," in Proc. 3rd Pattern Recog. Remote Sens. Workshop, Kingston Upon Thames, U.K., Aug. 27, 2004.
18. P. Jain and J. D. Hirst, "Automatic structure classification of small proteins using random forest," BMC Bioinformat., vol. 11, no. 364, pp. 1-14, Jul. 1, 2010.
19. J. Peters, B. De Baets, N. E. C. Verhoest, R. Samson, S. Degroeve, P. De Becker, andW. Huybrechts, "Random forests as a tool for ecohydrological distribution modelling," Ecol. Model., vol. 207, no. 2-4, pp. 304-318, Oct. 10, 2007. (Pubitemid 47362492)
20. C. Fierz, R. Armstrong, Y. Durand, P. Etchevers, E. Greene, and D. McClung, "The International Classification for Seasonal Snow on the Ground," IHP-VII Technical Documents in Hydrology No 83, IACS Contribution No 1, UNESCO-IHP, 2009.
21. M. Schneebeli and J. B. Johnson, "A constant-speed penetrometer for high-resolution snow stratigraphy," Ann. Glaciol., vol. 26, pp. 107-111, 1998. (Pubitemid 28486235)
22. J. B. Johnson and M. Schneebeli, "Characterizing the microstructural and micromechanical properties of snow," Cold Regions Sci. Technol., vol. 30, no. 1-3, pp. 91-100, Dec. 1999. (Pubitemid 30115597)
23. H.-P. Marshall and J. B. Johnson, "Accurate inversion of high-resolution snow penetrometer signals for microstructural and micromechanical properties," J. Geophys. Res., vol. 114, no. F4, pp. F04 016-1-F04 016-18, Nov. 20, 2009.
24. H.-P. Marshall, Inversion Source Code for Snow Micro Penetrometer, 2009. [Online]. Available: http://cgiss.boisestate.edu/hpm/Software
25. H.-P. Marshall, C. Pielmeier, and F. Techel, "Predicting rutschblock and extended column test stability of primary and secondary failures using multiple snowmicropen measurements and robust classification trees," Cold Regions Sci. Technol., in review.
26. E. Lutz, "Spatial and temporal analysis of snowpack strength and stability and environmental determinants of an inclined, forest opening," Ph.D. dissertation, Montana State Univ., Bozeman, MT, Apr., 2009.
27. C. Pielmeier and H.-P. Marshall, "Rutschblock-scale snowpack stability derived from multiple quality-controlled SnowMicroPen measurements," Cold Regions Science and Technology, vol. 59, no. 2-3, pp. 178-184, Nov. 2009.
28. C. Pielmeier and H.-P. Marshall, "Rutschblock-scale snowpack stability derived from multiple quality-controlled SnowMicroPen measurements," in Proc. Int. Snow Sci. Workshop, Whistler, BC, Canada, Sep. 21-27, 2008.
29. S. Bellaire, C. Pielmeier, M. Schneebeli, and J. Schweizer, "Stability algorithm for snow micro-penetrometer measurements," J. Glaciol., vol. 55, no. 193, pp. 805-813, Dec. 2009.
30. H. P. Marshall, M. Schneebeli, and G. Koh, "Snow stratigraphy measurements with high-frequency FMCW radar: Comparison with snow micropenetrometer," Cold Regions Sci. Technol., vol. 47, no. 1, pp. 108-117, Jan. 2007, Special issue: Papers from the International Snow Science Workshop 2004. (Pubitemid 44890885)
31. S. Bellaire and J. Schweizer, "Measuring spatial variations of weak layer and slab properties with regard to snow slope stability," Cold Regions Sci. Technol., vol. 65, no. 2, pp. 234-241, Feb. 2011.