The case of drug causation of childhood asthma: Antibiotics and paracetamol

European Journal of Clinical Pharmacology

Volumn 69, Issue 6, 2013, Pages 1197-1209

  Heintze, Konrad ^a   Petersen, Karl Uwe ^a  

^a RWTH AACHEN UNIVERSITY   (Germany)

Author keywords

Acetaminophen; Antibiotics; Childhood asthma; Epidemiologic studies; Paracetamol; Wheeze

Indexed keywords

ANTIBIOTIC AGENT; IBUPROFEN; PARACETAMOL;

ASTHMA; BRONCHIOLITIS; COHORT ANALYSIS; CROSS-SECTIONAL STUDY; DISEASE ASSOCIATION; DRUG HYPERSENSITIVITY; DRUG PREFERENCE; FEVER; GROUPS BY AGE; HUMAN; LONGITUDINAL STUDY; LOWER RESPIRATORY TRACT INFECTION; PAIN; PRIORITY JOURNAL; RANDOMIZED CONTROLLED TRIAL (TOPIC); REVIEW; TREATMENT INDICATION; UPPER RESPIRATORY TRACT INFECTION; WHEEZING;

ACETAMINOPHEN; AGE OF ONSET; ANALGESICS, NON-NARCOTIC; ANTI-BACTERIAL AGENTS; ASTHMA; CHILD; CHILD, PRESCHOOL; HUMANS; ODDS RATIO; RISK ASSESSMENT; RISK FACTORS;

EID: 84878012247     PISSN: 00316970     EISSN: 14321041     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1007/s00228-012-1463-7     Document Type: Review

References (102)

1. Martinez FD, Wright AL, Taussig LM, Holberg CJ, Halonen M, et al. (1995) Asthma and wheezing in the first six years of life. The Group Health Medical Associates. N Engl J Med 332(3):133-138. doi: 10.1056/NEJM199501193320301
2. Bacharier LB, Boner A, Carlsen KH, Eigenmann PA, Frischer T, et al. (2008) Diagnosis and treatment of asthma in childhood: a PRACTALL consensus report. Allergy 63(1):5-34. doi: 10.1111/j.1398-9995.2007.01586.x
3. Brand P (2008) New guidelines on recurrent wheeze in preschool children: implications for primary care. Prim Care Respir J 17(4):243-245. doi: 10.3132/pcrj.2008.00069
4. Brand PL, Baraldi E, Bisgaard H, Boner AL, Castro-Rodriguez JA, et al. (2008) Definition, assessment and treatment of wheezing disorders in preschool children: an evidence-based approach. Eur Respir J 32(4):1096-1110. doi: 10.1183/09031936.00002108
5. Asher MI, Keil U, Anderson HR, Beasley R, Crane J, et al. (1995) International Study of Asthma and Allergies in Childhood (ISAAC): rationale and methods. Eur Respir J 8(3):483-491
6. Algert CS, Bowen JR, Lain SL, Allen HD, Vivian-Taylor JM, et al. (2011) Pregnancy exposures and risk of childhood asthma admission in a population birth cohort. Pediatr Allergy Immunol 22(8):836-842. doi: 10.1111/j.1399-3038.2011. 01206.x
7. Arshad SH, Kurukulaaratchy RJ, Fenn M, Matthews S (2005) Early life risk factors for current wheeze, asthma, and bronchial hyperresponsiveness at 10 years of age. Chest 127(2):502-508. doi: 10.1378/chest.127.2.502
8. Duijts L (2012) Fetal and infant origins of asthma. Eur J Epidemiol 27(1):5-14. doi: 10.1007/s10654-012-9657-y
9. Bisgaard H, Loland L, Holst KK, Pipper CB (2009) Prenatal determinants of neonatal lung function in high-risk newborns. J Allergy Clin Immunol 123(3):651-657. doi: 10.1016/j.jaci.2008.11.036, 657 e651-654
10. Getahun D, Strickland D, Zeiger RS, Fassett MJ, Chen W, et al. (2010) Effect of chorioamnionitis on early childhood asthma. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med 164(2):187-192. doi: 10.1001/archpediatrics.2009.238
11. Kumar R, Yu Y, Story RE, Pongracic JA, Gupta R, et al. (2008) Prematurity, chorioamnionitis, and the development of recurrent wheezing: a prospective birth cohort study. J Allergy Clin Immunol 121(4):878 e876-884 e876. doi: 10.1016/j.jaci.2008.01.030
12. McKeever TM, Lewis SA, Smith C, Hubbard R (2002) The importance of prenatal exposures on the development of allergic disease: a birth cohort study using the West Midlands General Practice Database. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 166(6):827-832
13. Reyes M, Perzanowski MS, Whyatt RM, Kelvin EA, Rundle AG, et al. (2011) Relationship between maternal demoralization, wheeze, and immunoglobulin E among inner-city children. Ann Allergy Asthma Immunol 107(1):42 e41-49 e41. doi: 10.1016/j.anai.2011.03.004
14. Sevelsted A, Bisgaard H (2012) Neonatal size in term children is associated with asthma at age 7, but not with atopic dermatitis or allergic sensitization. Allergy 67(5):670-675. doi: 10.1111/j.1398-9995.2012.02805.x
15. Tedner SG, Örtqvist AK, Almqvist C (2012) Fetal growth and risk of childhood asthma and allergic disease. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2222.2012.03997.x
16. Martino D, Prescott S (2011) Epigenetics and prenatal influences on asthma and allergic airways disease. Chest 139(3):640-647. doi: 10.1378/chest.10-1800
17. Asher MI (2010) Recent perspectives on global epidemiology of asthma in childhood. Allergol Immunopathol (Madr) 38(2):83-87. doi: 10.1016/j.aller.2009. 11.002
18. Visser CA, Garcia-Marcos L, Eggink J, Brand PL (2010) Prevalence and risk factors of wheeze in Dutch infants in their first year of life. Pediatr Pulmonol 45(2):149-156. doi: 10.1002/ppul.21161
19. Busse WW, Lemanske RF Jr, Gern JE (2010) Role of viral respiratory infections in asthma and asthma exacerbations. Lancet 376(9743):826-834. doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(10)61380-3
20. Tregoning JS, Schwarze J (2010) Respiratory viral infections in infants: causes, clinical symptoms, virology, and immunology. Clin Microbiol Rev 23(1):74-98. doi: 10.1128/CMR.00032-09
21. Holt PG, Strickland DH, Sly PD (2012) Virus infection and allergy in the development of asthma: what is the connection? Curr Opin Allergy Clin Immunol 12(2):151-157. doi: 10.1097/ACI.0b013e3283520166
22. Johnston SL, Pattemore PK, Sanderson G, Smith S, Lampe F, et al. (1995) Community study of role of viral infections in exacerbations of asthma in 9-11 year old children. Br Med J 310(6989):1225-1229
23. Fewell Z, Davey Smith G, Sterne JA (2007) The impact of residual and unmeasured confounding in epidemiologic studies: a simulation study. Am J Epidemiol 166(6):646-655. doi: 10.1093/aje/kwm165
24. Wong GW, von Mutius E, Douwes J, Pearce N (2006) Environmental determinants associated with the development of asthma in childhood. Int J Tuberc Lung Dis 10(3):242-251
25. Sobko T, Schiött J, Ehlin A, Lundberg J, Montgomery S, et al. (2010) Neonatal sepsis, antibiotic therapy and later risk of asthma and allergy. Paediatr Perinat Epidemiol 24(1):88-92
26. von Mutius E, Illi S, Hirsch T, Leupold W, Keil U, et al. (1999) Frequency of infections and risk of asthma, atopy and airway hyperresponsiveness in children. Eur Respir J 14(1):4-11
27. Droste JH, Wieringa MH, Weyler JJ, Nelen VJ, Vermeire PA, et al. (2000) Does the use of antibiotics in early childhood increase the risk of asthma and allergic disease? Clin Exp Allergy 30(11):1547-1553
28. Sharma SK, Banga A (2007) Prevalence and risk factors for wheezing in children from rural areas of north India. Allergy Asthma Proc 28(6):647-653. doi: 10.2500/aap.2007.28.3059
29. Del-Rio-Navarro BE, Ito-Tsuchiya FM, Berber A, Zepeda-Ortega B, Sienra-Monge JJ, et al. (2008) Study of the relationship between acetaminophen and asthma in Mexican children aged 6 to 7 years in 3 Mexican cities using ISAAC methodology. J Investig Allergol Clin Immunol 18(3):194-201
30. Barragan-Meijueiro MM, Morfin-Maciel B, Nava-Ocampo AA (2006) A Mexican population-based study on exposure to paracetamol and the risk of wheezing, rhinitis, and eeczema in childhood. J Investig Allergol Clin Immunol 16(4):247-252
31. Garcia E, Aristizabal G, Vasquez C, Rodriguez-Martinez CE, Sarmiento OL, et al. (2008) Prevalence of and factors associated with current asthma symptoms in school children aged 6-7 and 13-14 yr old in Bogota, Colombia. Pediatr Allergy Immunol 19(4):307-314. doi: 10.1111/j.1399-3038.2007.00650.x
32. Rusconi F, Gagliardi L, Galassi C, Forastiere F, Brunetti L, et al. (2011) Paracetamol and antibiotics in childhood and subsequent development of wheezing/asthma: association or causation? Int J Epidemiol 40(3):662-667. doi: 10.1093/ije/dyq263
33. Castro-Rodriguez JA, Garcia-Marcos L, Alfonseda Rojas JD, Valverde-Molina J, Sanchez-Solis M (2008) Mediterranean diet as a protective factor for wheezing in preschool children. J Pediatr 152(6):823-828. doi: 10.1016/j.jpeds.2008.01.003
34. Wjst M, Hoelscher B, Frye C, Wichmann HE, Dold S, et al. (2001) Early antibiotic treatment and later asthma. Eur J Med Res 6(6):263-271
35. Martel MJ, Rey E, Malo JL, Perreault S, Beauchesne MF, et al. (2009) Determinants of the incidence of childhood asthma: a two-stage case-control study. Am J Epidemiol 169(2):195-205. doi: 10.1093/aje/kwn309
36. Thomas M, Custovic A, Woodcock A, Morris J, Simpson A, et al. (2006) Atopic wheezing and early life antibiotic exposure: a nested case-control study. Pediatr Allergy Immunol 17(3):184-188. doi: 10.1111/j.1399-3038.2006.00389.x
37. Kozyrskyj AL, Ernst P, Becker AB (2007) Increased risk of childhood asthma from antibiotic use in early life. Chest 131(6):1753-1759. doi: 10.1378/chest.06-3008
38. McKeever TM, Lewis SA, Smith C, Collins J, Heatlie H, et al. (2002) Early exposure to infections and antibiotics and the incidence of allergic disease: a birth cohort study with the West Midlands General Practice Research Database. J Allergy Clin Immunol 109(1):43-50
39. Cullinan P, Harris J, Mills P, Moffat S, White C, et al. (2004) Early prescriptions of antibiotics and the risk of allergic disease in adults: a cohort study. Thorax 59(1):11-15
40. Almqvist C, Wettermark B, Hedlin G, Ye W, Lundholm C (2012) Antibiotics and asthma medication in a large register-based cohort study - confounding, cause and effect. Clin Exp Allergy 42(1):104-111. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2222.2011. 03850.x
41. Alm B, Erdes L, Mollborg P, Pettersson R, Norvenius SG, et al. (2008) Neonatal antibiotic treatment is a risk factor for early wheezing. Pediatrics 121(4):697-702. doi: 10.1542/peds.2007-1232
42. Risnes KR, Belanger K, Murk W, Bracken MB (2011) Antibiotic exposure by 6 months and asthma and allergy at 6 years: findings in a cohort of 1,401 US children. Am J Epidemiol 173(3):310-318. doi: 10.1093/aje/kwq400
43. Goksor E, Alm B, Thengilsdottir H, Pettersson R, Aberg N, et al. (2011) Preschool wheeze - impact of early fish introduction and neonatal antibiotics. Acta Paediatr 100(12):1561-1566. doi: 10.1111/j.1651-2227.2011.02411.x
44. Jedrychowski W, Perera F, Maugeri U, Mroz E, Flak E, et al. (2011) Wheezing and asthma may be enhanced by broad spectrum antibiotics used in early childhood. Concept and results of a pharmacoepidemiology study. J Physiol Pharmacol 62(2):189-195
45. Marra F, Marra CA, Richardson K, Lynd LD, Kozyrskyj A, et al. (2009) Antibiotic use in children is associated with increased risk of asthma. Pediatrics 123(3):1003-1010. doi: 10.1542/peds.2008-1146
46. Marra F, Marra CA, Richardson K, Lynd LD, Fitzgerald MJ (2011) Antibiotic consumption in children prior to diagnosis of asthma. BMC Pulm Med 11:32. doi: 10.1186/1471-2466-11-32
47. Mitchell EA, Robinson E, Black PN, Becroft DM, Clark PM, et al. (2007) Risk factors for asthma at 3.5 and 7 years of age. Clin Exp Allergy 37(12):1747-1755. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2222.2007.02847.x
48. Kummeling I, Stelma FF, Dagnelie PC, Snijders BE, Penders J, et al. (2007) Early life exposure to antibiotics and the subsequent development of eczema, wheeze, and allergic sensitization in the first 2 years of life: the KOALA Birth Cohort Study. Pediatrics 119(1):e225-e231. doi: 10.1542/peds.2006- 0896
49. Kusel MM, de Klerk N, Holt PG, Sly PD (2008) Antibiotic use in the first year of life and risk of atopic disease in early childhood. Clin Exp Allergy 38(12):1921-1928. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2222.2008.03138.x
50. Celedon JC, Fuhlbrigge A, Rifas-Shiman S, Weiss ST, Finkelstein JA (2004) Antibiotic use in the first year of life and asthma in early childhood. Clin Exp Allergy 34(7):1011-1016. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2222.2004.01994.x
51. Mai XM, Kull I, Wickman M, Bergstrom A (2010) Antibiotic use in early life and development of allergic diseases: respiratory infection as the explanation. Clin Exp Allergy 40(8):1230-1237. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2222.2010. 03532.x
52. Harris JM, Mills P, White C, Moffat S, Newman Taylor AJ, et al. (2007) Recorded infections and antibiotics in early life: associations with allergy in UK children and their parents. Thorax 62(7):631-637. doi: 10.1136/thx.2006. 072124
53. Koniman R, Chan YH, Tan TN, Van Bever HP (2007) A matched patient-sibling study on the usage of paracetamol and the subsequent development of allergy and asthma. Pediatr Allergy Immunol 18(2):128-134. doi: 10.1111/j.1399-3038.2006. 00484.x
54. Rodriguez Martinez C, Sossa M, Goss CH (2008) Factors associated with severe disease in a population of asthmatic children of Bogota, Colombia. J Asthma 45(2):141-147. doi: 10.1080/02770900701840253
55. Lowe AJ, Carlin JB, Bennett CM, Hosking CS, Allen KJ, et al. (2010) Paracetamol use in early life and asthma: prospective birth cohort study. Br Med J 341:c4616. doi: 10.1136/bmj.c4616
56. Schnabel E, Heinrich J, Group LS (2010) Respiratory tract infections and not paracetamol medication during infancy are associated with asthma development in childhood. J Allergy Clin Immunol 126(5):1071-1073. doi: 10.1016/j.jaci.2010.08.023
57. Tapiainen T, Dunder T, Mottonen M, Pokka T, Uhari M (2010) Adolescents with asthma or atopic eczema have more febrile days in early childhood: a possible explanation for the connection between paracetamol and asthma? J Allergy Clin Immunol 125(3):751-752. doi: 10.1016/j.jaci.2009.11.039
58. Shaheen SO, Newson RB, Ring SM, Rose-Zerilli MJ, Holloway JW, et al. (2010) Prenatal and infant acetaminophen exposure, antioxidant gene polymorphisms, and childhood asthma. J Allergy Clin Immunol 126(6):1141 e1147-1148 e1147. doi: 10.1016/j.jaci.2010.08.047
59. Bakkeheim E, Mowinckel P, Carlsen KH, Haland G, Carlsen KC (2011) Paracetamol in early infancy: the risk of childhood allergy and asthma. Acta Paediatr 100(1):90-96. doi: 10.1111/j.1651-2227.2010.01942.x
60. Amberbir A, Medhin G, Alem A, Britton J, Davey G, et al. (2011) The role of acetaminophen and geohelminth infection on the incidence of wheeze and eczema: a longitudinal birth-cohort study. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 183(2):165-170. doi: 10.1164/rccm.201006-0989OC
61. Wickens K, Beasley R, Town I, Epton M, Pattemore P, et al. (2011) The effects of early and late paracetamol exposure on asthma and atopy: a birth cohort. Clin Exp Allergy 41(3):399-406. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2222.2010.03610.x
62. Strippoli MPF, Spycher BD, Beardsmore CS, Silverman M, Kuehni CE (2009) Paracetamol use and the risk of wheeze: causation or bias? Eur Respir J 34:230s
63. Lesko SM, Mitchell AA (1999) The safety of acetaminophen and ibuprofen among children younger than two years old. Pediatrics 104(4):e39
64. Lesko SM, Louik C, Vezina RM, Mitchell AA (2002) Asthma morbidity after the short-term use of ibuprofen in children. Pediatrics 109(2):E20
65. Penders J, Kummeling I, Thijs C (2011) Infant antibiotic use and wheeze and asthma risk: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Eur Respir J 38(2):295-302. doi: 10.1183/09031936.00105010
66. Kummeling I, Thijs C (2008) Reverse causation and confounding-by- indication: do they or do they not explain the association between childhood antibiotic treatment and subsequent development of respiratory illness? Clin Exp Allergy 38(8):1249-1251. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2222.2008.03047.x
67. Murk W, Risnes KR, Bracken MB (2011) Prenatal or early-life exposure to antibiotics and risk of childhood asthma: a systematic review. Pediatrics 127(6):1125-1138. doi: 10.1542/peds.2010-2092
68. Marra F, Lynd L, Coombes M, Richardson K, Legal M, et al. (2006) Does antibiotic exposure during infancy lead to development of asthma?: a systematic review and metaanalysis. Chest 129(3):610-618. doi: 10.1378/chest.129.3.610
69. McBride JT (2011) The association of acetaminophen and asthma prevalence and severity. Pediatrics 128(6):1181-1185. doi: 10.1542/peds.2011-1106
70. Subbarao P, Becker A, Brook JR, Daley D, Mandhane PJ, et al. (2009) Epidemiology of asthma: risk factors for development. Expert Rev Clin Immunol 5(1):77-95. doi: 10.1586/1744666X.5.1.77
71. Newson RB, Shaheen SO, Chinn S, Burney PG (2000) Paracetamol sales and atopic disease in children and adults: an ecological analysis. Eur Respir J 16(5):817-823
72. Dimova S, Hoet PH, Dinsdale D, Nemery B (2005) Acetaminophen decreases intracellular glutathione levels and modulates cytokine production in human alveolar macrophages and type II pneumocytes in vitro. Int J Biochem Cell Biol 37(8):1727-1737. doi: 10.1016/j.biocel.2005.03.005
73. Scialli AR, Ang R, Breitmeyer J, Royal MA (2010) Childhood asthma and use during pregnancy of acetaminophen. A critical review. Reprod Toxicol 30(4):508-519. doi: 10.1016/j.reprotox.2010.09.005
74. Blanco RA, Ziegler TR, Carlson BA, Cheng PY, Park Y, et al. (2007) Diurnal variation in glutathione and cysteine redox states in human plasma. Am J Clin Nutr 86(4):1016-1023
75. Shaheen SO (2011) Commentary: Paracetamol and asthma - lessons from the antibiotic hypothesis? Int J Epidemiol 40(3):667-669
76. Pharmacovigilance Working Party (2011) Monthly report 2011 no. 1102. Available at: http://www.ema.europa.eu/docs/en-GB/document-library/Report/2011/ 02/WC500102322.pdf Accessed 4 June 2012
77. Beasley R, Clayton T, Crane J, von Mutius E, Lai CK, et al. (2008) Association between paracetamol use in infancy and childhood, and risk of asthma, rhinoconjunctivitis, and eczema in children aged 6-7 years: analysis from Phase Three of the ISAAC programme. Lancet 372(9643):1039-1048. doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(08)61445-2
78. Kwon SJ, Lee CW (1998) Figurate purpuric eruptions on the trunk: acetaminophen-induced rashes. J Dermatol 25(11):756-758
79. Wickens K, Pearce N, Crane J, Beasley R (1999) Antibiotic use in early childhood and the development of asthma. Clin Exp Allergy 29(6):766-771
80. Awasthi S, Kalra E, Roy S (2004) Prevalence and risk factors of asthma and wheeze in school-going children in Lucknow, North India. Indian Pediatr 41(12):1205-1210
81. Cohet C, Cheng S, MacDonald C, Baker M, Foliaki S, et al. (2004) Infections, medication use, and the prevalence of symptoms of asthma, rhinitis, and eczema in childhood. J Epidemiol Commun Health 58(10):852-857. doi: 10.1136/jech.2003.019182
82. Ahn KM, Lee MS, Hong SJ, Lim DH, Ahn YM, et al. (2005) Fever, use of antibiotics, and acute gastroenteritis during infancy as risk factors for the development of asthma in Korean school-age children. J Asthma 42(9):745-750. doi: 10.1080/02770900500308023
83. Floistrup H, Swartz J, Bergstrom A, Alm JS, Scheynius A, et al. (2006) Allergic disease and sensitization in Steiner school children. J Allergy Clin Immunol 117(1):59-66. doi: 10.1016/j.jaci.2005.09.039
84. Foliaki S, Pearce N, Bjorksten B, Mallol J, Montefort S, et al. (2009) Antibiotic use in infancy and symptoms of asthma, rhinoconjunctivitis, and eczema in children 6 and 7 years old: International Study of Asthma and Allergies in Childhood Phase III. J Allergy Clin Immunol 124(5):982-989. doi: 10.1016/j.jaci.2009.08.017
85. Karimi M, Mirzaei M (2009) Antibiotic use and symptoms of asthma, allergic rhinitis, and eczema in children. Iran J Pediatr 19(2):141-146
86. Mitchell EA, Stewart AW, Clayton T, Asher MI, Ellwood P, et al. (2009) Cross-sectional survey of risk factors for asthma in 6-7-year-old children in New Zealand: International Study of Asthma and Allergy in Childhood Phase Three. J Paediatr Child Health 45(6):375-383. doi: 10.1111/j.1440-1754.2009.01504.x
87. Yeh KW, Ou LS, Yao TC, Chen LC, Lee WI, et al. (2011) Prevalence and risk factors for early presentation of asthma among preschool children in Taiwan. Asian Pac J Allergy Immunol 29(2):120-126
88. Ponsonby AL, Couper D, Dwyer T, Carmichael A, Kemp A (1999) Relationship between early life respiratory illness, family size over time, and the development of asthma and hay fever: a seven year follow up study. Thorax 54(8):664-669
89. Illi S, von Mutius E, Lau S, Bergmann R, Niggemann B, et al. (2001) Early childhood infectious diseases and the development of asthma up to school age: a birth cohort study. Br Med J 322(7283):390-395
90. Celedon JC, Litonjua AA, Ryan L, Weiss ST, Gold DR (2002) Lack of association between antibiotic use in the first year of life and asthma, allergic rhinitis, or eczema at age 5 years. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 166(1):72-75
91. Verhulst SL, Vael C, Beunckens C, Nelen V, Goossens H, et al. (2008) A longitudinal analysis on the association between antibiotic use, intestinal microflora, and wheezing during the first year of life. J Asthma 45(9):828-832. doi: 10.1080/02770900802339734
92. Wickens K, Ingham T, Epton M, Pattemore P, Town I, et al. (2008) The association of early life exposure to antibiotics and the development of asthma, eczema and atopy in a birth cohort: confounding or causality? Clin Exp Allergy 38(8):1318-1324. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2222.2008.03024.x
93. Dom S, Droste JH, Sariachvili MA, Hagendorens MM, Oostveen E, et al. (2010) Pre- and post-natal exposure to antibiotics and the development of eczema, recurrent wheezing and atopic sensitization in children up to the age of 4 years. Clin Exp Allergy 40(9):1378-1387. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2222.2010.03538. x
94. Su Y, Rothers J, Stern DA, Halonen M, Wright AL (2010) Relation of early antibiotic use to childhood asthma: confounding by indication? Clin Exp Allergy 40(8):1222-1229. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2222.2010.03539.x
95. Karimi M, Mirzaei M, Ahmadieh MH (2006) Acetaminophen use and the symptoms of asthma, allergic rhinitis and eczema in children. Iran J Allergy Asthma Immunol 5(2):63-67
96. Kuschnir FC, Alves da Cunha AJ (2007) Environmental and socio-demographic factors associated to asthma in adolescents in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. Pediatr Allergy Immunol 18(2):142-148. doi: 10.1111/j.1399-3038.2006.00477.x
97. Vlaski E, Stavric K, Isjanovska R, Seckova L, Kimovska M (2007) Acetaminophen intake and risk of asthma, hay fever and eczema in early adolescence. Iran J Allergy Asthma Immunol 6(3):143-149
98. Wong GW, Leung TF, Ma Y, Liu EK, Yung E, et al. (2007) Symptoms of asthma and atopic disorders in preschool children: prevalence and risk factors. Clin Exp Allergy 37(2):174-179. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2222.2007.02649.x
99. Foliaki S, Annesi-Maesano I, Tuuau-Potoi N, Waqatakirewa L, Cheng S, et al. (2008) Risk factors for symptoms of childhood asthma, allergic rhinoconjunctivitis and eczema in the Pacific: an ISAAC Phase III study. Int J Tuberc Lung Dis 12(7):799-806
100. Wang HY, Pizzichini MM, Becker AB, Duncan JM, Ferguson AC, et al. (2010) Disparate geographic prevalences of asthma, allergic rhinoconjunctivitis and atopic eczema among adolescents in five Canadian cities. Pediatr Allergy Immunol 21(5):867-877. doi: 10.1111/j.1399-3038.2010.01064.x
101. Beasley RW, Clayton TO, Crane J, Lai CK, Montefort SR, et al. (2011) Acetaminophen use and risk of asthma, rhinoconjunctivitis, and eczema in adolescents: International Study of Asthma and Allergies in Childhood Phase Three. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 183(2):171-178. doi: 10.1164/rccm.201005-0757OC
102. Gonzalez-Barcala FJ, Pertega S, Castro TP, Sampedro M, Lastres JS, et al. (2012) Exposure to paracetamol and asthma symptoms. Eur J Public Health. doi: 10.1093/eurpub/cks061