App law within: Rights and regulation in the smartphone age

International Journal of Law and Information Technology

Volumn 21, Issue 2, 2013, Pages 154-186

  Síthigh, Daithí Mac ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF EDINBURGH   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

Apps; Ecommerce; Generativity; Internet regulation; Smartphones

Indexed keywords

EID: 84877341647     PISSN: 09670769     EISSN: 14643693     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1093/ijlit/eat002     Document Type: Article

References (207)

1. Apple, 'iOS App Store Review Guidelines' (12 September 2012) accessed 1 December 2012. This statement has been widely reproduced online, eg D Caolo
2. 'Apple's App Store ReviewGuidelines: Some Juicy Bits' (The Unofficial Apple Weblog 9 September 2010) accessed 1 December 2012.
3. Mark de Reuver, 'Governance of Mobile Service Innovation After the Walled Gardens' (2011) 13 info 43, 44.
4. Tarleton Gillespie, Wired Shut (MIT Press 2007) 169.
5. Jack Goldsmith and Tim Wu, Who Controls the Internet? Illusions of a Borderless World (OUP 2006).
6. Eli Pariser, The Filter Bubble: What the Internet is Hiding from You (Viking 2011).
7. Douglas MacMillan, 'Inside the App Economy' (Business Week 22 October 2009)
8. James Grimmelmann, 'Owning the Stack: The Legal War to Control the Smartphone Platform' (Ars Technica September 2011) accessed 1 December 2012
9. Chuck Martin, The Third Screen: Marketing to Your Customers in a World Gone Mobile (Nicholas Brealey 2011).
10. Menno Cox, 'Apple's Exclusive Distribution Agreements: A Refusal to Supply?' (2012) 33 ECLR 11
11. Fabien Fontaine, 'French Antitrust Law and Strategic Analysis: Apples and Oranges?' (2009) 30 ECLR 286.
12. Jonathan Zittrain, The Future of the Internet: And How to Stop It (paperback edn Penguin 2009) 1-2; 101.
13. James Grimmelmann and Paul Ohm, 'Dr. Generative or: How I Learned to Stop Worrying and Love the iPhone' (2010) 69 Md L Rev 910, 917-21.
14. John Naughton, From Gutenberg to Zuckerberg: What You Really Need to Know About the Internet (Quercus 2012) 285.
15. Tim Wu, The Master Switch: The Rise and Fall of Information Empires (Atlantic 2010) 6-7.
16. ibid 284-85.
17. Brian Chen, Always On:How the iPhone Unlocked the Anything-Anytime-Anywhere Future - and Locked us in (Da Capo 2011).
18. 51.3 per cent:Comscore, 'Mobile Future in Focus' (23 February 2012) 16, accessed 1 December 2012.
19. Ofcom(the regulatory agency for broadcasting and telecommunications in the UK) reports that a quarter of phones in use in the UK are smartphones, but that proportion rises to half in the case of users aged 16-24
20. Ofcom, 'CommunicationsMarket Review 2011' 47-8, accessed 1 December 2012.
21. ibid 194.
22. Charles Arthur, 'PC Sales Dip Year-on-year as Ultrabooks Fail to Stave Off Economic Woes' (Guardian 12 July 2012) accessed 1 December 2012.
23. ITU, 'Global ICT Developments' (last updated December 2011) accessed 1 December 2012; the current estimate is 8.5 fixed wired broadband subscriptions per 100 inhabitants and 15.7 active mobile broadband subscriptions per 100.
24. HMRC, 'Revenue & Customs Brief 02/12' (20 February 2012) accessed 1December 2012
25. It previously treated smartphones as PDAs rather thanmobile phones, which meant that they could not benefit froman exemption from benefit-in-kind provisions, because they were not 'devices that are designed or adapted for the primary purpose of transmitting and receiving spoken messages and used in connection with a public electronic communications service': Income Tax (Earnings & Pensions) Act 2003, s 319(4). It now states that that approach is incorrect, and accepts that because 'many modern consumer PDAs are now also likely to be smartphones', smartphones (with both telephony and Internet functions) meet the criteria to be considered as mobile phones, although pure PDAs will not.
26. NTT DoCoMo, 'i-mode History' accessed 1 December 2012.
27. Shelly Freierman, 'One Million Mobile Apps, and Counting at a Fast Pace' (New York Times 11 December 2011) accessed 1 December 2012.
28. 'App Store Metrics' accessed 1 December 2012.
29. Andy Rubin, 'Android@Mobile World Congress: It's All About the Ecosystem' (Google Mobile Blog 27February 2012) accessed 1 December 2012.
30. '25 Billion App Countdown' accessed 1 March 2012 (no longer online).
31. ABI Research, 'Android Overtakes Apple with 44% Worldwide Share of Mobile App Downloads' (24 October 2011) accessed 1 December 2012.
32. Martin (n 6) 34.
33. Quentin Hardy, 'Why iPhone Shoppers Buy More Apps (New York Times: Bits Blog 16 January 2012) accessed 1 December 2012.
34. Chen (n 13) 96.
35. Kevin O'Brien, 'Apple's Lead in Smartphones Is Not Guaranteed' (New York Times 26 February 2012) accessed 1 December 2012.
36. Charles Arthur, 'Developers Express Concern Over Pirated Games on Android Market' (Guardian 17 March 2011) accessed 1 December 2012.
37. Laíse da Correggio Luciano and Ian Walden, 'Ensuring Competition in the Clouds: The Role of Competition Law?' (QMUL Cloud Legal Project Research Paper, April 2011) 3-4, accessed 1 December 2012.
38. Eg the earlier Pelikan/Kyocera and Info-Lab/Ricoh decisions, where the conclusion was that consumers could consider the aftermarket when choosing between products on the (competitive) upstream market, and the more recent EFIM decision, in which the complaints of third party manufacturers were rejected by the Commission and a subsequent appeal dismissed by the General Court in November 2011
39. Decision C(2009) 4125, affirmed by Case T-296/09, EFIM v Commission. See further discussion in Cleary Gottlieb Steen and Hamilton, 'EC Competition Report October-December 2009' accessed 1 December 2012
40. Cox (n 7) 18, discussing unreported decisions (Apple Sales International v Bouygues Télécom, Cour d'appelde Paris, 4 February 2009; France Télécom&Orange France v Bouygues Télécom, Cour deCassation, 16February2010).
41. See discussion of the case of the WikiLeaks app, distinguishing between termination of an existing relationship and not entering into a new one (assuming dominance in an appropriate sub-market): Angela Daly, 'Private Power andNew Media: The Case of the Corporate Suppression ofWikiLeaks and Its Implications for the Exercise of Fundamental Rights on the Internet' in Christina Akrivopoulou and Nicolaos Garipidis (eds), Human Rights and Risks in the Digital Era: Globalization and the Effects of Information Technologies (IGI Global 2012) 83, 87.
42. da Correggio Luciano andWalden (n 31) 10: 'In the cloud computing sector, where, in the same way as in the ICT sector as a whole, network effects are likely to be strong, the non-applicability of competition law until dominance is attained could prejudice the goals of competition law'
43. Cox (n 7) 12: 'Any (inmy view erroneous) delineation of the relevantmarket which renders the upstream supplier a non-dominant undertaking might in the future lead to anti-competitive behaviour remaining outside the scope of EU competition law.'
44. Jason Croft, 'There's an App for Just About Anything, Except Google Voice' (2010) 14 SMU Science &Technology L Rev 1; Jason Croft, 'Mobile Computing: Why You May Never See Some Great Apps' (2010) AIPLA Antitrust News accessed 1 December 2012 (both arguing that the FCCwouldhave goodreason to findagainstApple);
45. David Waterman and Sujin Choi, 'Non-discrimination Rules for ISPs and Vertical Integration: Lessons from Cable Television' (2011) 35 Telecommunications Policy 970, 977 (drawing a parallel between this investigation and the wider consideration of net neutrality, in the context of the degree to which regulatory intervention is necessary to support innovation);Grimmelmann and Ohm (n 9) 949 (as an example of where there is 'plenty still wrong with the iPhone' despite moves towards generativity).
46. Wu (n 11) 303-4.
47. Nicola Green and Leslie Haddon, Mobile Communications: An Introduction to New Media (Berg 2009) 146.
48. de Reuver (n 2) 44; internal citations omitted.
49. The significance for regulation of different billing models is considered in the section 'Citizen- and consumer-focused issues'.
50. 'Mobile Industry Focuses on Apps' (Screen Digest March 2010) 77.
51. It has been argued that contrary to criticism of the power of carriers (by those who eg favour wireless net neutrality), the success of Apple in negotiations demonstrates that this power is limited: Robert Hahn and others, 'The Economics of "Wireless Net Neutrality"' (2007) 3 JCL&E 399, 430.
52. Peter Cohen, 'Angry Birds CEO:We Really HaveApple to Thank' (LoopInsight 28 February 2011) accessed 1 December 2012.
53. Martin (n 6) 3.
54. Russ Shaw, speaking atWestminster eForum, 'Smartphones, Tablets and Apps' (London, 1 March 2011), transcript on file with author. Declaration of interest: this comment wasmade in response to a question put by the author.
55. 'SocialMessaging Apps 'LostNetworks $13.9bn in 2011'' (BBC News 21 February 2012) accessed 1 December 2012
56. Georgina Prodhan, 'Facebook Offers Olive Branch to Mobile Carriers' (Reuters 28 February 2012) accessed 1 December 2012.
57. Prodhan ibid.
58. Gary Becker and others, 'Net Neutrality and Consumer Welfare' (2010) 6 JCL&E 497, 518.
59. Apple, 'Statement on App Store Review Guidelines' (press release, 9 September 2010) accessed 1 December 2012.
60. Jillian York, 'Policing Content in the Quasi-public Sphere' (OpenNet Initiative, September 2010) accessed 1 December 2012
61. Jillian York, 'Online Free Speech vs Private Ownership' (Al Jazeera English 1 June 2011) accessed 1 December 2012
62. Emily Laidlaw, 'A Framework for Identifying Internet Information Gatekeepers' (2010) 24 IRLCT 263, 270; Daithí Mac Síthigh, 'The Mass Age of Internet Law' (2008) 17 Information &Communications L 79, 81-83
63. Daithí Mac Síthigh, 'The Mass Age of Internet Law' (2008) 17 Information &Communications L 79, 81-83
64. Laura Stein, Speech Rights in America: The First Amendment, democracy, and the media (University of Chicago Press 2006) 83.
65. Bobbie Johnson, 'Apple Bans iPhone Program Over Sex Claims' (Guardian Technology Blog 21 May 2009) accessed 1 December 2012.
66. Charles Arthur, ' "Baby Shaker" Game Pulled from Apple's iPhone App Store' (Guardian 23 April 2009) accessed 1 December 2012.
67. Jenna Wortham, 'Apple Bans Some Apps for Sex-tinged Content' (New York Times 22 February 2010) accessed 1 December 2012.
68. Laura McGann, 'Mark Fiore Can Win a Pulitzer Prize, but he Can't Get His iPhone Cartoon App Past Apple's Satire Police' (Nieman Journalism Lab Blog 15 April 2010) accessed 1 December 2012.
69. Ryan Singel, 'Apple App Store Bans Pulitzer-winning Satirist for Satire' (Wired 15 April 2010) accessed 1 December 2012.
70. Rebecca MacKinnon, Consent of the Networked: The Worldwide Struggle for Internet Freedom (Basic Books 2011) 126
71. Ted Striphas, The Late Age of Print: Everyday Book Culture from Consumerism to Control (Columbia University Press 2009)
72. David Gauntlett, Making is Connecting: The Social Meaning of Creativity, from DIY and Knitting to YouTube and Web 2.0 (Polity 2011) 180
73. Sue Haplern, 'The iPad Revolution' (New York Review of Books 10 June 2010) accessed 1 December 2012.
74. John Naughton, 'Buck Naked on Your iPad? No Way ...' (Observer 20 June 2010) accessed 1 December 2012.
75. 'Phone Story: Banned' accessed 1 December 2012.
76. Stuart Dredge, 'Apple Bans Satirical iPhone Game Phone Story from Its App Store' (Guardian Apps Blog 14 September 2011) accessed 1 December 2012.
77. Jeff Bertolucci, 'Avoid DUI Checkpoints? No App for That, Senators Say' (PC World 22 March 2011) accessed 1 December 2012
78. Chloe Albanesius, 'Apple Bans DUI Checkpoint Apps in App Store' (PC Magazine 9 June 2011) accessed 1 December 2012.
79. Jenna Wortham, 'Apple Places New Limits on App Developers' (New York Times 12 April 2010) accessed 1 December 2012.
80. Chen (n 13) 98.
81. 'In particular, we are relaxing all restrictions on the development tools used to create iOS apps, as long as the resulting apps do not download any code. This should give developers the flexibility they want, while preserving the security we need.' Apple (n 50).
82. 'Antitrust: Statement on Apple's iPhone Policy Changes' (press release, 25 September 2010) accessed 1 December 2012.
83. Chen (n 13) 102-3.
84. The current provision ('an Application may not download or install executable code. Interpreted code mayonly be used in anApplication if all scripts, code and interpreters are packaged in the Application and not downloaded') still presents an obstacle, and the development of an alternative app for Android is making use of Flash, so would also not be suitable for the iPhone.
85. Claire Miller and Miguel Helft, 'Apple Moves to Tighten Control of App Store' (New York Times 1 February 2011) accessed 1 December 2012.
86. Rik Myslewski, 'Apple Tightens Rules for iPad News Delivery' (The Register 15 January 2011) accessed 1 December 2012 [the spelling error is in the original URL].
87. James Brightman, 'Why Apple's Tight App Store Management is a Good Thing' (GamesIndustry International 9 October 2012) accessed 1 December 2012.
88. Chen (n 13) 104.
89. Charlie Sorrel, 'iPhone Software Update Breaks 3G Unlock' (Wired: Gadget Lab 28 January 2009) accessed 1 December 2012.
90. 17 USC 1201.
91. 37 CFR 201: 'Computer programs that enable wireless telephone handsets to execute lawfully obtained software applications, where circumvention is accomplished for the sole purpose of enabling interoperability of such applications with computer programs on the telephone handset.'
92. accessed 1 December 2012.
93. Software Freedom Law Center accessed 1 December 2012.
94. (2012) 77 Federal Register 65260 accessed 1 December 2012.
95. Vasiliki Samartzi, 'Optimal vs Sub-optimal Use of DRM-protected Works' (2011) 33 EIPR 517, 527.
96. David Booton and Angus MacCulloch, 'Liability for the Circumvention of Technological Protection Measures Applied to Videogames: Lessons from the UK's Experience' [2012] JBL 165.
97. R v Gilham [2009] EWCA Crim 229 [24], [28].
98. Melchor Raval, 'Game Over for Mod Chips? The Aftermath of Sony v Stevens and the Australian-US Free Trade Agreement' (2012) 34 EIPR 95.
99. Andrew Egecliffe-Johnson, 'FT's New Web App Bypasses Need for iTunes' (Financial Times 7 June 2011)
100. John Abell, 'Cause and Effect? FT Ditches the App Store, Digital Subs Increase' (Wired: Epicenter 3 November 2011) accessed 1December 2012
101. Stuart Dredge, 'Financial Times Passes 2m Users for Its HTML5 Web App' (Guardian: Apps Blog 24 April 2012) accessed 1 December 2012.
102. Ryan Singel, 'Apple Accused of Slowing Web Apps to Benefit App Store' (Wired: Epicenter 15March 2011) accessed 1 December 2012.
103. Martin (n 6) 10 (discussing cars.com).
104. Croft (n 37) 27.
105. Prodhan (n 47).
106. Charles Arthur, 'Facebook Doubles iPhone App Speed by Dumping HTML5 for Native Code' (Guardian: Apps Blog 24 August 2012) accessed 1 December 2012.
107. Steve Jobs, 'Thoughts on Flash' accessed 1 December 2012.
108. Olswang, 'Convergence Survey 2011' 116, accessed 1 December 2012.
109. -but Adobe has ended development of Flash for smartphone browsers: Danny Winokur, 'Flash to Focus on PC Browsing and Mobile Apps; Adobe to More Aggressively Contribute to HTML5' (Adobe Featured Blogs 9 November 2011) accessed 1 December 2012.
110. accessed 1 December 2012.
111. Damien Tambini and others, Codifying Cyberspace: Communications Self-regulation in the Age of Internet Convergence (Routledge 2007) 190-98.
112. ; (accessed 1 March 2011; no longer available).
113. Apple (n 1); Erick Schonfeld, 'The New App Store Guidelines: What You Need to Know' (TechCrunch 9 September 2010) accessed 1 December 2012.
114. Ian Walden, 'Who Owns the Media? Plurality, Ownership, Competition and Access' in David Goldberg and others (eds), Media Law and Practice (OUP 2009) 42-6
115. Daithí Mac Síthigh, 'Convergence: The Impact of Broadcast Regulation on Telecommunications' in Ian Walden (ed), Telecommunications Law and Practice (5th edn OUP 2012) 671-74.
116. Michael Starks, Switching to Digital Television: UK Public Policy and the Market (Intellect 2007) 10.
117. Directive 2002/19 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 7 March 2002 on access to, and interconnection of, electronic communications networks and associated facilities, [2002] OJ L108/7.
118. Ofcom, 'Code of Practice on Electronic Programme Guides' accessed 1 December 2012.
119. accessed 1 December 2012 (DTT Multiplex Operators, for the 'Freeview' digital terrestrial television platform)
120. accessed 1 December 2012 (Sky, satellite platform)
121. accessed 1 December 2012 (Virgin Media, cable platform).
122. JML Direct v Freesat UK [2009] EWHC 616 (Ch); affirmed in [2010] EWCA Civ 34.
123. Francesco Liberatore, 'Perspectives on Mobile Regulatory Issues in the United States and European Union' (2011) 32 ECLR 303, 307 (as part of a trend towards open access)
124. Steven Levy, In the Plex: How Google Thinks, Works, and Shapes Our Lives (Simon &Schuster 2011) 222-24 (explaining how Google's policy goals of neutrality were achieved although it did not-and perhaps did not want to-win the auction)
125. Gerald Faulhaber and David Farber, 'The Open Internet: A Customer-centric Framework' (2010) 4 Int'l J Communication 302, 331 (arguing that because the 'open' block reached a lower price than other blocks, the value of the spectrum was depressed by the commitment).
126. An advocacy group has filed a challenge with the FCC, arguing that the unavailability (without complex modification) of a 'tethering' app violates the spectrum conditions. 'Complaint of Free Press against Verizon Wireless for Violating Conditions Imposed on C Block of Upper 700 Mhz Spectrum' (6 June 2011) accessed 1 December 2012
127. Ryan Singel, 'Verizon Ban on 4G Tethering Apps Violates Openness Rule, Complaint Alleges' (Wired: Epicenter Blog 6 June 2011) accessed 1 December 2012.
128. Tim Carmody, 'The Smartphone in Your Pocket Is a Multifunction Buying Machine' (Wired: Epicenter 22 February 2012) accessed 1 December 2012.
129. Caleb Cox, 'Pizza Express Preps App for iPhone Payment' (The Register 18 June 2011) accessed 1 December 2012.
130. Nicholas Lovell, 'Flash with Money: Social Games are Winning Playfish Millions of Facebook Friends - and a Solid Business' (Wired (UK) December 2009) 72
131. Claudio Feijoo and others, 'Mobile Gaming: Industry Challenges and Policy Implications' (2012) 36 Telecomm Pol'y 212, 216.
132. 'Content consumption will increase on mobile devices because they're naturally geared towards consumption rather than creation': Yaron Galai, founder of Outbrain, quoted in Martin (n 6) 91.
133. The Association for InteractiveMobile Entertainment (AIME),MEF (formerly theMobile Entertainment Forum) and the UK Competitive Telecommunications Association (UKCTA).
134. Letter from Alastair Graham (chair, PhonepayPlus) to Jeremy Hunt MP (30 June 2011) accessed 1 December 2012.
135. Analysys Mason, 'The Marketplace for and Regulation of Micropayment Services in the UK' (December 2010) accessed 1 December 2012.
136. ibid 31.
137. ibid 76.
138. PhonepayPlus, 'General Guidance Note: Application-based Payments' (February 2012) accessed 1 December 2012.
139. Ofcom, 'Review of Premium Rate Services: An Application of the Analytical Framework' (29 July 2011) accessed 1 December 2012
140. confirmed and implemented in Ofcom, 'Review of Premium Rate Services: An Application of the Analytical Framework' (2 July 2012) accessed 1 December 2012.
141. Broadcast Bulletin 169 (8 November 2010) 5-6
142. Broadcast Bulletin 186 (18 July 2011)
143. Broadcast Bulletin 188 (22 August 2011).
144. Richard Ayre, 'Report of an Inquiry into Television Broadcasters' Use of Premium Rate Telephone Services in Programmes' (18 July 2007) accessed 1 December 2012.
145. All decisions are published (and can be located through case names and numbers) at . The database is a dynamic one so definitive URLs are not available.
146. Case 852607 mBlox (9 June 2011).
147. Case 01921 Echovox (1 September 2011).
148. Written evidence to the House of Lords Science &Technology Committee on malware and cybercrime, accessed 1 December 2012; see also section 7.2 of the PhonepayPlus app guidance (n 111).
149. Case 06161 Connect Ltd t/a SMSBill (16 August 2012).
150. Case 06655 Sight Mobile (2 August 2012).
151. Case 02896 txtNation (19 January 2012).
152. Case 06717 Mobegen (2 August 2012); Case 08458 txtNation (16 August 2012).
153. Sara Yin, 'Smurfs iOS Game Shocks Parents With In-App Fees' (PC Magazine December 2010) accessed 1 December 2012
154. Cecilia Kang, 'In-app Purchases in iPad, iPhone, iPod kids' Games Touch Off Parental Firestorm' (Washington Post 8 February 2011) accessed 1 December 2012.
155. Mark Langshaw, ' "Tap Zoo" Named as Highest-grossing iOS App of 2011' (Digital Spy 10 December 2011) accessed 1 December 2012 (Smurfs' Village was the fourth highest grossing app in 2011).
156. Tariq Tahir, 'Boy, 4, Runs Up £100 Bill Playing 'Free' Smurfs App on Mum's iPad' (Metro 20 November 2011) accessed 1 December 2012
157. Arvid Berentsen, 'Mobiltjenester gir klagerush' (Aftonbladet 23 November 2011) accessed 1 December 2012.
158. eg Analysys Mason (n 108) 95.
159. 'Mobile Apps for Kids: Current Privacy Disclosures are Disappointing' (FTC Staff Report, February 2012).
160. Business and Professions Code, s 22575.
161. 'Attorney General Kamala D. Harris Secures Global Agreement to Strengthen Privacy Protections for Users of Mobile Applications' (press release, 22 February 2012) accessed 1 December 2012.
162. See eg Ann Cavoukian, 'Privacy by Design and the Emerging Personal Data Ecosystem' (October 2012) accessed 1 December 2012.
163. Lawrence Lessig, Code version 2.0 (Basic 2006).
164. FTC Staff Report (n 127) 3.
165. Robin Henry and Cal Flyn, 'Smartphone Apps that Cash in on Your Privacy' (Sunday Times 26 February 2012) 10.
166. Iain MacKenzie, 'Today's Bad Journalism - the Sunday Times' (26 February 2012) accessed 1 December 2012.
167. Jon Brodkin, 'Facebook Testing Android SMS Integration, Denies 'Spying' Allegations' (Ars Technica 27 February 2012) accessed 1 December 2012.
168. Chris Foresman, 'Developers Say Apple Needs to Overhaul iOS User Information Security' (Ars Technica 15 February 2012) accessed 1 December 2012.
169. 'Apps that collect or transmit a user's contact data without their prior permission are in violation of our guidelines. We're working to make this even better for our customers, and as we have done with location services, any app wishing to access contact data will require explicit user approval in a future software release.' (TomNeumayr, spokesperson forApple, quoted in John Paczkowski, 'AppAccess toContactDataWill Require Explicit User Permission' (AllThingsD 15 February 2012) accessed 1 December 2012.
170. Stuart Dredge, 'Path's Privacy Problem Poses Questions for all Social Apps' (Guardian Apps Blog 9 February 2012) accessed 1 December 2012
171. see Path's response: 'We are sorry' (Path Blog 8 February 2012) accessed 1 December 2012.
172. Dieter Bohn, 'iOS Apps and the Address Book: Who Has Your Data, and How They're Getting It' (The Verge 14 February 2012) accessed 1 December 2012.
173. 'Marketing YourMobile App:Get It Right fromthe Start' (FTC, 5 September 2012) accessed 1 December 2012.
174. Jan Boyles and others, 'Privacy and Data Management on Mobile Devices' (Pew Internet Project, 5 September 2012) accessed 1 December 2012.
175. MacKinnon (n 57) 130: 'In governing our access to and use of applications, Apple provides a valuable service by shielding us from malicious criminals. But it also shows troubling disregard for our political rights as citizens.'
176. Matt Rudd, 'There's No Escape' (Sunday Times - Magazine 12 February 2012) 20-25.
177. Jesper Juul, A Casual Revolution: Reinventing Video Games and Their Players (MIT Press 2010).
178. Tom Chatfield, Fun, Inc.: Why Games Are the 21st Century's Most Serious Business (Virgin 2010) 213.
179. 'Strong Growth for Gameloft in 2009' (Screen Digest March 2010) 55.
180. accessed 1 December 2012. See discussion in Christopher Marsden, Internet Co-regulation: European Law, Regulatory Governance and Legitimacy (Cambridge UP 2011) 143-45.
181. Dominic Arsenault, 'TheNintendo Entertainment System' inMarkWolf (ed), The Video Game Explosion: A History from Pong to Playstation and Beyond (Greenwood 2008) 109-12, 111.
182. Daithí Mac Síthigh, 'Legal Games: The Regulation of Content and the Challenge of Casual Gaming' (2011) 3 J Gaming &Virtual Worlds 1, 11.
183. Daithí Mac Síthigh, 'The Regulation of Video Games: Past, Present and Future' (2010) 21 Ent LR 298, 299.
184. Digital Economy Act 2010, ss 40-41.
185. The new system was implemented and came into force on 30 July 2012, through commencing the relevant amendments to the Video Recordings Act (SI 1164/2012 and SI 1766/2012), adopting new provisions on labelling (SI 1767/2012) and transitional provisions (SI 1764/2012) and the formal designation of theGRA by the Secretary of State.
186. See further accessed 1 December 2012.
187. Marsden (n 147) 157-61.
188. Daniel Terdiman, 'Will AppleOffer Ratings for iPhoneGames?' (CNet 10 June 2009) accessed 1 December 2012.
189. 'CTIA and ESRB Announce Mobile Application Rating System' (press release, 29 November 2011) accessed 1 December 2012
190. Eric Engleman, 'Apple Joins Google in Skipping New Mobile-App Ratings for Sex, Violence' (Bloomberg 29 November 2011) accessed 1 December 2012
191. 'Verizon App Store for Android adds ESRB ratings' (GamePolitics 14 August 2012) accessed 1 December 2012.
192. FTC Staff Report (n 127) 6.
193. Standing Committee of Attorneys-General, 'Communique, 4/5 March 2011' accessed 1 December 2012.
194. Classification (Publications, Films, and Computer Games) Amendment (Mobile and Online Computer Games) Bill 2011.
195. Australian Law Reform Commission, 'Classification: Content Regulation and ConvergentMedia' (ALRC Report 118, 29 February 2012) accessed 1 December 2012 (recommending a platform-neutral approach, a focus on commercial media and games with a significant Australian audience, the use of the Classification Board for the most controversial (15+) material); Department of Broadband, Communications &the Digital Economy, 'Convergence Review Interim Report' (15 December 2011).
196. Directive 2007/65/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 11 December 2007 [2007] OJ L332/27. Now consolidated as directive 2010/13/EU.
197. On on-demand AV media services and the role of co-regulation, see Rachael Craufurd Smith, 'Media convergence and the regulation of audiovisual content' (2007) 60 CLP 238, 250-53; Mac Síthigh (n 94) s 4.3; Marsden (n 147) 147-48.
198. Mac Síthigh (n 94) s 4.3; Marsden (n 147) 147-48.
199. Directive 2010/13, recital 22. See discussion in Christopher Marsden and others, 'Assessing Indirect Impacts of the EC Proposals for Video Regulation' (31 August 2006) 118-123, accessed 1 December 2012.
200. Authority for Television on Demand, ; designated by Ofcom under part 4A Communications Act 2003 (as inserted by SI 2979/2009).
201. Directive 2010/13/EU, article 12; Communications Act 2003, s 368E(2) (inserted by the Audiovisual Media Services Regulations, SI 2009/2979); ATVOD Rules and Guidance, version 2.0, rule 11: accessed 1 December 2012.
202. Ofcom, 'Sexually Explicit Material and Video on Demand Services' (4 August 2011). See further the Ofcom sanction (financial penalty of £60,000) against the service provider Strictly Broadband for providing such a service without access control: accessed 1 December 2012
203. During 2012, ATVOD has found breaches of rule 11 on the part of various other service providers, with most services either making changes or closing: ATVOD, 'Complaint Determinations' accessed 1 December 2012.
204. ATVOD (n 164) 12.
205. ibid 13; the details of payment and verification systems are considered in detail in the Bootybox.tv determination accessed 1 December 2012.
206. Adam Satariano and Douglas MacMillan, 'Anarchy in the App Store' (Bloomberg BusinessWeek 15 March 2012) accessed 1 December 2012.
207. Nick Bilton, 'Apple Loophole Gives Developers Access to Photos' (New York Times: Bits Blog 28 February 2012) accessed 1 December 2012.