The Council of Europe Convention on Cybercrime: Defining 'Crime' in a Digital World

Criminal Law Forum

Volumn 23, Issue 4, 2012, Pages 363-391

  Clough, Jonathan ^a  

^a MONASH UNIVERSITY   (Australia)

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EID: 84876675786     PISSN: 10468374     EISSN: 15729850     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1007/s10609-012-9183-3     Document Type: Article

References (165)

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8. A number of terms are used synonymously and often interchangeably including 'computer crime', 'high-tech crime', 'digital crime', 'electronic crime' and 'technologyenabled' crime.
9. European Commission, 'Legal Aspects of Computer-Related Crime in the Information Society: COMCRIME Study' (1 January 1998), by U. Sieber, 19.
10. S. Schjolberg, 'The History of Global Harmonization on Cybercrime Legislation-The Road to Geneva' (Cybercrime Law, December 2008), www.cybercrimelaw.net/documents/cybercrime'history.pdf accessed 14 May 2012.
11. UN Doc. A/RES/55/63 (22 January 2001) and UN Doc. A/RES/56/121 (22 January 2002).
12. Schjolberg (n. 10 above) 9. For an overview of international and regional approaches to cybercrime see ITU-D ICT Applications and Cybersecurity Division, 'Understanding Cybercrime: A Guide for Developing Countries' (International Telecommunication Union Cybercrime Legislation Resources, April 2009) http:// Footnote 12 continued www.itu.int/ITU-D/cyb/cybersecurity/docs/itu-understanding-cybercrime-guide.pdf, accessed 14 May 2012, 89-108.
13. Convention on Cybercrime, ETS No 185 (23 November 2001), Art 9 [hereinafter 'Convention']. Also referred to as the 'Budapest' Convention; Council of Europe, 'Contribution of the Secretary General of the Council of Europe to the Twelfth United Nations Congress on Crime Prevention and Criminal Justice' (16 February 2010) 19.
14. 'The Alternative: A UN Convention on Cybercrime' section.
15. S. W. Brenner, 'The Council of Europe's Convention on Cybercrime' in J.M. Balkin et al. (eds), Cybercrime: Digital Cops in a Networked Environment (New York: New York University Press, 2007) 215.
16. L. Huey and R. S. Rosenberg, 'Watching the Web: Thoughts on Expanding Police Surveillance Opportunities Under the Cyber-Crime Convention' (2004) 46:5 Canadian Journal of Criminology and Criminal Justice, 597.
17. Brenner (n. 15 above) 210.
18. Although all 27 members of the European Union are members, the Council of Europe should not be confused with the European Council which is an institution of the European Union; Treaty of Lisbon amending the Treaty on European Union and the Treaty Establishing the European Community (2007).
19. Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms (1950), ETS No. 005 and the European Social Charter (1961), ETS No. 035.
20. Complete List of the Council of Europe's Treaties' (Council of Europe) http://conventions.coe.int/Treaty/Commun/ListeTraites.asp?CM=8&CL=ENG, accessed 14 May 2012.
21. The Council of Europe's Relations with Non-Member States' (Council of Europe External Relations) http://www.coe.int/t/der/NonMemberStates'en.asp, accessed 14 May 2012.
22. Council of Europe Recommendation No. R (89) 9 of the Committee of Ministers to Member States on Computer-related Crime (13 September 1989) and Council of Europe Recommendation No. R (95) 13 of the Committee of Ministers to Member States Concerning Problems of Criminal Procedural Law Connected with Information Technology (1 September 1995). The Council's initiatives in the area of computer crime go back even further to 1976; Schjolberg (n. 10 above) 2.
23. Council of Europe, 'Convention on Cybercrime (ETS No 185) Explanatory Report' (Explanatory Report) http://conventions.coe.int/Treaty/en/Treaties/Html/185.htm accessed 19 August 2012.
24. Convention (n. 13 above).
25. Council of Europe, 'Project on Cybercrime Final Report' (Economic Crime Division of the Directorate General of Human Rights and Legal Affairs, 15 June 2009) 5.
26. Convention (n. 13 above) art 36(1).
27. Convention (n. 13 above) art 37(1).
28. Canada, Japan, South Africa and the United States of America.
29. Convention on Cybercrime CETS No. 185' (Council of Europe, 29 June 2011) http://conventions.coe.int/Treaty/Commun/ChercheSig.asp?NT=185&CM=8&DF=29/06/2011&[CL=ENG accessed 14 May 2012 (Convention).
30. The others are Andorra, Monaco and San Marino.
31. Canada, Japan and South Africa.
32. Convention on Cybercrime Chart of Signatures and Ratifications' (Council of Europe) http://conventions.coe.int/Treaty/Commun/ChercheSig.asp?NT=185&CM=8&DF=16/05/2012&CL=ENG accessed 17 May 2012.
33. The Convention entered into force for the United Kingdom on 1 September 2011 and entered into force for Malta on 1 August 2012; Council of Europe (n. 32 above).
34. Austria, Belgium, Czech Republic, the Republic of Georgia, Greece, Ireland, Liechtenstein, Luxembourg, Poland, Sweden, Switzerland and Turkey; Council of Europe (n. 32 above).
35. Austria, Belgium, Czech Republic, the Republic of Georgia, Greece, Ireland, Liechtenstein, Luxembourg, Poland, Sweden, Switzerland and Turkey; Council of Europe (n. 32 above).
36. Cybercrime LegislationAmendment Bill 2011, The Parliament of the Commonwealth of Australia, House of Representatives.
37. Legislative Summary of Bill C-51: Investigative Powers for the 21st Century Act, Parliament of Canada, 40th Parliament, 3rd Session, No. 40-3-C51E (3 February 2011) [1.3].
38. Kyodo News, 'Domestic Cyber crime Bill Passed' Japan Times (Kyodo, 17 June 2011) http://search.japantimes.co.jp/cgi-bin/nn20110617x3.html accessed 14 May 2012.
39. U. Geiser, 'Parliament Cracks Down on Cyber crime' (Swissinfo.ch, 2 March 2011) http://www.swissinfo.ch/eng/politics/Parliament'cracks'down'on'cybercrime.html?cid=29629848 accessed 14 May 2012.
40. Organisation of American States, Seventh Meeting of Ministers of Justice or other Ministers or Attorneys General of the Americas (REMJA-VII) 'Conclusions and Recommendations', Washington, D.C., 2008, http://www.oas.org/juridico/english/cybVII'CR.pdf accessed 14 May 2012.
41. New Zealand Government, 'New Zealand's Cyber Security Strategy' (New Zealand Government, 2011) 10.
42. Brenner (n. 15 above) 210. It is beyond the scope of this article to consider other suggested means of international enforcement, such as centralised international agencies responsible for investigating and/or prosecuting cybercrimes; Brenner (n. 15 above) 218-219.
43. More than 200 Children Identified and Rescued in Worldwide Police Operation' (Europol, 16 March 2011) https://www.europol.europa.eu/content/press/more-200-children-identified-and-rescued-worldwide-police-operation-465 accessed 14 May 2012.
44. Denial of Service' attacks are discussed in more detail in "Outdated Language" section.
45. R. Smith, P. Grabosky and G. Urbas, Cyber Criminals on Trial (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004) 7.
46. Convention (n. 13 above) Title 5.
47. Explanatory Report (n. 23 above) [71].
48. Internet Crime Complaint Center, '2010 Internet Crime Report' (2011) http://www.ic3.gov/media/annualreport/2010'IC3Report.pdf, accessed 14 May 2012.
49. P. Grabosky, R. Smith and G. Dempsey, Electronic Theft: Unlawful Acquisition in Cyberspace (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001).
50. M. Wasik, Crime and the Computer (Oxford: Clarendon Press 1991) 95-102.
51. Explanatory Report (n. 23 above) [86].
52. Explanatory Report (n. 23 above)., [83].
53. The Optional Protocol to the Convention on the Rights of the Child on the Sale of Children, Child Prostitution and Child Pornography, UN Doc.A/RES/54/263 (16 March 2001) and the Vienna International Conference on Combating Child Pornography on the Internet (Vienna, 1999).
54. Additional Protocol to the Convention on Cybercrime, Concerning the Criminalisation of Acts of a Racist or Xenophobic Nature Committed Through Computer Systems (2003), CETS No. 189.
55. National Offender Management Service and Scottish Executive, 'Consultation: On the Possession of Extreme Pornographic Material' (Home Office, 2005) 7.
56. The Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works (1886), 1161 UNTS 30.
57. Agreement on Trade Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (1994), 1869 UNTS 299.
58. World Intellectual Property Organisation Copyright Treaty (1996) 36 ILM 65; World Intellectual Property Organisation Performances and Phonograms Treaty (1996), 36 ILM 76.
59. M. Ermert, 'ITU Will Manage IP Addresses' (Google Translate tr, Heise Netze, 21 October 2009) http://www.heise.de/netze/meldung/ITU-will-IP-Adressen-verwalten-835928.html accessed 14 May 2012.
60. A. Maurushat, 'Australia's Accession to the Cyber crime Convention: Is the Convention Still Relevant in Combating Cyber crime in the Era of Botnets and Obfuscation Crime Tools' (2010) 33 University of New South Wales Law Journal 431, 432.
61. Convention (n. 13 above) art 1(a). Under art 1(b) 'computer data' is defined as 'any representation of facts, information or concepts in a form suitable for processing in a computer system, including a program suitable to cause a computer system to perform a function.
62. Law Commission (UK), Computer Misuse, Final Report No 186 (1989) [3.39].
63. 18 USC § 1030(e)(1).
64. Model Criminal Code Officers Committee, Model Criminal Code: Chapter 4, Damage and Computer Offences Final Report (2001) 125.
65. Maurushat (n. 59 above) 438.
66. Maurushat (n. 59 above) 436-437.
67. T. Rychlicki, 'Legal Issues of Criminal Acts Committed via Botnets' (2006) 12 Computer & Telecommunications Law Review 161.
68. European Commission, 'Proposed Directive on Attacks against Information Systems and Repealing Council Framework Decision 2005/222/JHA COM 517, Explanatory Memorandum' (2010) 3.
69. Message Labs Intelligence: 2010 Annual Security Report' (Message Labs) http://www.symanteccloud.com/mlireport/MessageLabsIntelligence'2010'Annual'Report'FINAL.pdf accessed 11 May 2012, 9.
70. E. J. Sinrod and W.P. Reilly, 'Cyber-Crimes: A Practical Approach to the Application of Federal Computer Crime Laws' (2000) 16 Santa Clara Computer & High Technology Law Journal 177, 189-191.
71. C. Arthur, 'British Student Charged Over Online Attacks in January' The Guardian (London, 25 August 2011) http://www.guardian.co.uk/technology/2011/aug/25/british-student-charged-online-attacks?INTCMP=ILCNETTXT3487, accessed 11May 2012.
72. Maurushat (n. 56 above) 432.
73. Explanatory Report (n. 23 above) [65].
74. Convention (n. 13 above) art 6.
75. All Party Parliamentary Internet Group, 'Revision of the Computer Misuse Act: Report of an Inquiry by the All Party Internet Group' (2004) [80].
76. Explanatory Notes to the Police and Justice Act 2006, [303].
77. P. Sommer, 'Criminalising Hacking Tools' (2006) 3 Digital Investigation 68, 70.
78. Maurushat (n. 56 above) 447.
79. All Party Parliamentary Internet Group (n. 74 above) [73].
80. All Party Parliamentary Internet Group (n. 74 above) [73].
81. Convention (n. 13 above) art 6(2).
82. Explanatory Report (n. 23 above) [77].
83. 'Computer-Related Offences' section.
84. A. Steel, 'The True Identity of Australian Identity Theft Offences: A Measured Response or an Unjustified Status Offence' (2010) 33:2 University of New South Wales Law Journal 503, 505.
85. Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (Committee on Consumer Policy) 'Scoping Paper on Online Identity Theft Ministerial Background Report' (Seoul, 2007) DSTI/CP(2007)3/Final, 17-24.
86. Model Criminal Code Officers Committee, 'Model Criminal Code: Chapter 3, Credit Card Skimming Offences, Final Report' (2006) 1.
87. Symantec Report on the Underground Economy July 07-June 08' (Symantec, November 2008) http://eval.symantec.com/mktginfo/enterprise/white'papers/b-whitepaper'underground'economy'report'11-2008-14525717.en-us.pdf accessed 11 May 2012.
88. Model Criminal Law Officers Committee, 'Identity Crime, Final Report' (2008) 12.
89. Identity crime' is a generic term used to describe those offences where the defendant uses a false identity in the commission of a criminal offence. 'Identity fraud' is a specific form of identity crime where a false identity is used to gain money, goods, benefits or services. Australasian Centre for Policing Research and the Australian Transaction Reports and Analysis Centre, 'Standardisation of Definitions of Identity Crime Terms: A Step Towards Consistency' (2006) Report Series No. 145.3, 9-10.
90. J. Clough, Principles of Cybercrime (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010) 207-220.
91. Criminal Code Act 1995 (Cth) s 372.1(b).
92. Article 6, 'Misuse of Devices', does create a range of offences in relation to passwords, access codes and similar data by which a computer system may be accessed. However, these relate to the hacking offences found in Articles 2 to 5 rather than fraud or other criminal offences; Explanatory Report (n 23) [71].
93. The principal US federal provisions were enacted as the Identity Theft and Assumption Deterrence Act of 1998, 18 USC § 1028 (1998).
94. Criminal Code Act 1995 (Cth) pt 9.5. Although some Australian states had enacted such offences as early as 2003; Steel (n. 83 above) 508.
95. Criminal Cod, R.S.C., 1985, c. C-46, s. 402.1-403. For a complete summary, see Legal and Legislative Affairs Division of Canada, Legislative Summary LS-637E, Bill S-4: An Act to Amend the Criminal Code (Identity Theft and Related Misconduct) (N. Holmes and D. Valiquet, Legal and Legislative Affairs Division of Canada, 2009).
96. Identity Cards Act 2006 (UK).
97. Steel (n. 83 above).
98. Council of Europe, 'Internet-Related Identity Theft Discussion Paper' (Project on Cybercrime, 22 November 2007), by M. Gercke, 31.
99. A.A. Gillespie, 'Child Protection on the Internet-Challenges for Criminal Law' (2002) 14 Child & Family Law Quarterly 411, 412.
100. P. Mitchell and J. Norrie, 'Clothing Logo Links NSW Girl to Internet "Predator"', Sydney Morning Herald (Sydney, 5 June 2011) http://www.smh.com.au/technology/technology-news/clothing-logo-links-nsw-girl-to-internet-predator-20110604-1fm5p.html accessed 11 May 2012.
101. Royal Commission into the New South Wales Police Service, Final Report, Volume V: The Paedophile Inquiry (1997), by Justice JRT Wood [16.27].
102. A.A. Gillespie, 'Children, Chatrooms and the Law' (2001) Criminal Law Review 435, 436-440.
103. R. O'Connell, A Typology of Cybersexploitation and On-line Grooming Practices (Cyberspace Research Unit, University of Central Lancashire, 2003) 6-10.
104. Clough (n. 89 above) 337.
105. Ashcroft v. American Civil Liberties Union, 542 US 656 (2004).
106. Council of Europe, Convention on the Protection of Children against Sexual Exploitation and Sexual Abuse, CETS N. 201, Explanatory Report (1 July 2010) [157].
107. Additional Protocol (n. 53 above).
108. This provision is also reflected in the European Commission Framework Directive on Combating the Sexual Abuse, Sexual Exploitation of Children and Child Pornography, repealing Framework Decision 2004/68/JHA (Brussels, 29 March 2010) COM(2010) 94 final, 2010/0064 (COD).
109. The Symantec Intelligence Report' (Symantec, February 2012) http://www.symantec.com/business/theme.jsp?themeid=state'of'spam accessed 11 May 2012.
110. Industry Canada, Stopping Spam: Creating a Stronger, Safer Internet (Report of the Task Force on Spam 2005) 7.
111. It is also increasingly prevalent in other networks such as SMS/MMS; Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, Report of the OECD Task Force on Spam: Anti-Spam Toolkit of Recommended Policies and Measures (2006) 20-21.
112. Congressional findings in relation to the Controlling the Assault of Non-solicited Pornography and Marketing (CAN-SPAM) Act 15 USC § 7703(c)(1). Federal Trade Commission, Spam Summit: The Next Generation of Threats and Solutions (2007) 2-3.
113. A. Davies and T. J. Thomas, 'An Act to Promote the Efficiency and Adaptability of the Canadian Economy By Regulating Certain Activities That Discourage Reliance on Electronic Means of Carrying Out Commercial Activities, Legislative Summary' (Publication no 40-3-C28-E, Library of Parliament 2010) 2.
114. Clough (n. 89 above) 239. Although the United States provisions are supplemented by specific criminal offences, these relate to serious conduct involving unauthorized access to, or use of, protected computers for the purposes of spam or falsifying of addressing or other identifying information; 18 USC §1037(a).
115. Explanatory Report (n. 23 above) [69].
116. Clough (n. 89 above) 239-242.
117. European Parliament and of the Council of the European Union, Directive on Privacy and Electronic Communications (12 July 2002) Directive 2002/58/EC.
118. Organisation for Economic Co-Operation and Development 'OECD Guidelines for the Security of Information Systems and Networks: Towards a Culture of Security' (2002).
119. R v. Boden [2002] QCA 164.
120. It is beyond the scope of this chapter to consider accountability for statesponsored attacks.
121. S.J. Shackleford and Richard Andres, 'State Responsibility for Cyber Attacks: Competing Standards for a Growing Problem' (2011) 42:3 Georgetown Journal of International Law 971.
122. International Strategy for Cyberspace' (The White House, 2011) http://www.whitehouse.gov/sites/default/files/rss'viewer/international'strategy'for'cyberspace.pdf accessed 14 May 2012.
123. Cyber Security Strategy' (Australian Government, 2009) http://www.ag.gov.au/Cybersecurity/Pages/default.aspx accessed 17 May 2012.
124. European Commission, 'Proposal for a Directive on Attacks Against Information Systems, Repealing Framework Decision 2005/222/JHA' (30 September 2010) Press Release Memo/10/463.
125. European Commission, 'Proposal for a Directive on Attacks Against Information Systems, Repealing Framework Decision 2005/222/JHA' (30 September 2010) Press Release Memo/10/463.
126. C. Wilson, 'Computer Attack and Cyberterrorism: Vulnerabilities and Policy Issues for Congress' (Congressional Research Service Report for Congress, 2005) 8-10.
127. The Stuxnet Worm' (Symantec, 2010) http://www.symantec.com/business/outbreak/index.jsp?id=stuxnet accessed 14 May 2012.
128. C. Walker, 'Cyber-Terrorism: Legal Principle and Law in the United Kingdom' (2006) 110:3 Pennsylvania State Law Review 625, 635-642.
129. R v. Lodhi [2006] NSWSC 584.
130. The White House, The National Strategy to Secure Cyberspace (2003) 7.
131. For example, possession of materials in preparation for a terrorist act; Criminal Code Act 1995 (Cth) s.101.4; Terrorism Act 2000 (UK) s. 57.
132. G. Weimann, 'Cyberterrorism: The Sum of All Fears?' (2005) Studies in Conflict and Terrorism 129, 130.
133. Clough (n. 89 above) 12.
134. Weimann (n. 129 above) 132-133.
135. A. P. Schmid, 'The Definition of Terrorism' in Alex P Schmid (ed), The Routledge Handbook of Terrorism Research (Abingdon: Routledge, 2011).
136. To further confuse matters a distinction is sometimes drawn between cyberterrorism and so-called 'hacktivism'; that is, the use of hacking by political activists; Weimann (n. 129 above) 135.
137. S. Keith, 'Fear-mongering or fact: The Construction of "Cyber-terrorism" in U.S., U.K., and Canadian News Media' (Safety and Security in a Networked World: Balancing Cyber-Rights and Responsibilities Oxford Internet Institute Conference, Oxford, England, 8-10 September 2005) 1-2.
138. Text and Status of the United Nations Conventions on Terrorism' (United Nations Treaty Office) http://treaties.un.org/Pages/DB.aspx?path=DB/studies/page2'en.xml&menu=MTDSG accessed 14 May 2012.
139. Report of the Ad Hoc Committee Established by General Assembly Resolution 51/210, UN Doc. Supp. No. 37 (A/57/37) (2002).
140. Committee of Experts on Terrorism, 'Opinion of CODEXTER on Cyberterrorism and Misuse of the Internet for Terrorist Purposes' (Council of Europe, 16 January 2008) https://wcd.coe.int/wcd/ViewDoc.jsp?Ref=CM(2007)177&Language=lanEnglish&Ver=original&Site=COE&BackColorInternet=DBDCF2&BackColorIntranet=FDC864&BackColorLogged=FDC864 accessed 14 May 2012 app II.
141. Walker (n. 125 above) 631.
142. Criminal Code Act 1995 (Cth) s 100.1(2)(f); Criminal Code, R.S.C., 1985, c. C-46, s. 83.01(1). The draft international convention on terrorism also refers to 'serious damage to an infrastructure facility'; UN General Assembly (n. 135 above) annex II, art. 2(b).
143. The Holy See is not a member state of the United Nations but has permanent observer status; 'Permanent Observers' (United Nations, 29 February 2008) http://www.un.org/en/members/nonmembers.shtml accessed 14 May 2012.
144. There are 193 members states of the United Nations. 'Member States' (United Nations, 3 July 2006), http://www.un.org/en/members/index.shtml accessed 14 May 2012.
145. Intergovernmental Group of Twenty Four' (Intergovernmental Group of Twenty Four, 2011) http://www.g24.org/ accessed 14 May 2012.
146. The Group of 77 at the United Nations' http://www.g77.org/ accessed 14 May 2012.
147. Council of Europe, Contribution of the Secretary General of the Council of Europe to the Twelfth United Nations Congress on Crime Prevention and Criminal Justice (16 February 2010) 19.
148. Report of the African Regional Preparatory Meeting for the Twelfth United Nations Congress on Crime Prevention and Criminal Justice, UN Doc. A/CONF. 213/RPM.4/1 (24 February 2010) [40].
149. Report of the Asian and Pacific Regional Preparatory Meeting for the Twelfth United Nations Congress on Crime Prevention and Criminal Justice, UN Doc. A/CONF.213/RPM.3/1 (8 September 2009) 28; Report of the Western Asian Regional Preparatory Meeting for the Twelfth United Nations Congress on Crime Prevention and Criminal Justice, UN Doc. A/CONF.213/RPM.2/1 (29 June 2009) [47].
150. Report of the Latin American and Caribbean Regional Preparatory Meeting for the Twelfth United Nations Congress on Crime Prevention and Criminal Justice, UN Doc. A/CONF.213/RPM.1/1 (26 May 2009) [41].
151. Report of the Twelfth United Nations Congress on Crime Prevention and Criminal Justice, UN Doc. A/conf.213/18 (18 May 2010), 56.
152. G. Masters, 'Global Cybercrime Treaty Rejected at UN' SC Magazine (Sydney, 23 April 2010), http://www.scmagazineus.com/global-cybercrime-treaty-rejected-atun/article/168630/ accessed 14 May 2012.
153. The Quintet of Attorneys General from Australia, Canada, New Zealand, the United Kingdom and the United States have recently resolved to promote the Convention as the key international instrument for dealing with cybercrime and use the Convention as a basis for delivering capacity building and awareness raising activities; 'Quintet of Attorneys General Action Plan to Fight Cyber Crime' (US Reference Service, 2011) http://usrsaustralia.state.gov/us-oz/2011/07/15/aag2.html accessed 17 May 2012. European Commission, 'Proposed Directive on Attacks against Information Systems and Repealing Council Framework Decision 2005/222/JHA COM (2010) 51:7, Explanatory Memorandum' (2010) 2.
154. Paragraph 42 of The 'Salvador Declaration' was adopted by the Commission on Crime Prevention and Criminal Justice and then by the Economic and Social Council in UN Economic and Social Council Res 2010/18 (22 July 2010) and by the General Assembly in UNGA Res 65/230 (1 April 2011) UN Doc A/65/457.
155. Paragraph 42 of The 'Salvador Declaration' was adopted by the Commission on Crime Prevention and Criminal Justice and then by the Economic and Social Council in UN Economic and Social Council Res 2010/18 (22 July 2010) and by the General Assembly in UNGA Res 65/230 (1 April 2011) UN Doc A/65/457.
156. Model Criminal Code Officers Committee (n. 63 above) 89.
157. Recommended for the endorsement of Law Ministers in 2002. At the meeting of Commonwealth Law Ministers in Sydney, Australia in 2011 ministers resolved that 'the Commonwealth Secretariat form a multidisciplinary working group of experts to review the practical implications of cybercrime in the Commonwealth and identify the most effective means of international co-operation and enforcement, taking into account, amongst others, the Council of Europe Convention on Cybercrime, without duplicating the work of other international bodies.' 'Commonwealth Law Ministers Meeting Communiqué 2011'(Commonwealth Secretariat) http://www.thecommonwealth.org/document/177370/238332/clmm'2011.htm, accessed 14 May 2012.
158. ITU Toolkit for Cybercrime Legislation' (International Telecommunication Union, February 2010).
159. Council of Europe (n. 25 above) 42.
160. European Commission, 'Proposed Directive on Attacks Against Information Systems And Repealing Council Framework Decision 2005/222/JHA COM (2010) 517, Explanatory Memorandum' (2010) 2.
161. For example, the proposal by the EU to replace its Council Framework Decision 2005/222/JHA of 24 February 2005 on Attacks Against Information Systems (2005) OJ L 69/67 with the European Commission 'Proposed Directive on Attacks Against Information Systems And Repealing Council Framework Decision' (2010) 2005/222/JHA; European Commission, 'Proposed Directive on Attacks Against Information Systems And Repealing Council Framework Decision' (2010) 2005/222/JHA COM, 517.
162. Convention (n. 13 above) Art. 44(3).
163. Additional Protocol (n. 53 above).
164. Council of Europe, 'Contribution of the Secretary General of the Council of Europe to the Twelfth United Nations Congress on Crime Prevention and Criminal Justice' (16 February 2010) 17.
165. List of Declarations Made with Respect to Treaty No. 185' (Council of Europe) http://conventions.coe.int/Treaty/Commun/ListeDeclarations.asp?NT=185&CM=8&DF=09/06/2011&CL=ENG&VL=1 accessed 14 May 2012.