Variability of solar/stellar activity and magnetic field and its influence on planetary atmosphere evolution

Earth, Planets and Space

Volumn 64, Issue 2, 2012, Pages 179-199

  Lammer, Helmut ^a   Güdel, Manuel ^b   Kulikov, Yuri ^c   Ribas, Ignasi ^d   Zaqarashvili, Teimuraz V ^a,e   Khodachenko, Maxim L ^a   Kislyakova, Kristina G ^f,g   Gröller, Hannes ^a   Odert, Petra ^g   Leitzinger, Martin ^g   Fichtinger, Bibiana ^g   Krauss, Sandro ^a   Hausleitner, Walter ^a   Holmström, Mats ^h   Sanz Forcada, Jorge ⁱ   Lichtenegger, Herbert I M ^a   Hanslmeier, Arnold ^g   Shematovich, Valery I ^j   Bisikalo, Dmitry ^j   Rauer, Heike ^k,l   Fridlund, Malcolm ^m   more..

^a Austrian Academy of Sciences ^*  (Austria)

^b UNIVERSITY OF VIENNA   (Austria)

^c POLAR GEOPHYSICAL INSTITUTE   (Russian Federation)

^d CSIC   (Spain)

^e ILIA STATE UNIVERSITY   (Georgia)

^f LOBACHEVSKY STATE UNIVERSITY OF NIZHNY NOVGOROD   (Russian Federation)

^g UNIVERSITY OF GRAZ   (Austria)

^h SWEDISH INSTITUTE OF SPACE PHYSICS   (Sweden)

ⁱ CENTRO DE ASTROBIOLOGÍA CSIC INTA   (Spain)

^j INSTITUTE OF ASTRONOMY   (Russian Federation)

^k GERMAN AEROSPACE CENTER DLR   (Germany)

^l TECHNISCHE UNIVERSITÄT BERLIN   (Germany)

^m EUROPEAN SPACE AGENCY   (Netherlands)

more..

Author keywords

Atmosphere evolution; ENAs; PLATO; Solar activity; Solar proxies; Solar wind; WSO UV; Young Sun

Indexed keywords

MAGNETIC FIELD; MARS; OBSERVATIONAL METHOD; PLANETARY ATMOSPHERE; PLANETARY EVOLUTION; SOLAR ACTIVITY; SOLAR WIND; VENUS;

EID: 84876354802     PISSN: 13438832     EISSN: 18805981     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.5047/eps.2011.04.002     Document Type: Conference Paper

References (129)

1. Alibert, Y. B. C, W. Benz, G. Wuchterl, O. Grasset, C. Sotin, C. Eiroa, T. Henning, T. Herbst, L. Kaltenegger, A. Léger, R. Liseau, H. Lammer, C. Beichman, W. Danchi, M. Fridlund, J. Lunine, F. Paresce, A. Penny, A. Quirrenbach, H. Röttgering, F. Selsis, J. Schneider, D. Stam, G. Tinetti, and G. J. White, Origin and formation of planetary systems, Astrobiology, 10, 19-32, 2010.
2. Audard, M., M. Giidel, and E. F. Guinan, Implications from Extreme-Ultraviolet observations for coronal heating of active stars, Astrophys. J. Lett., 513, L53-L56, 1999.
3. Audard, M., M. Giidel, J. J. Drake, and V. L. Kashyap, Extreme-Ultraviolet flare activity in late-type stars, Astrophys. J., 541, 396-409, 2000.
4. Ayres, T. R., Evolution of the solar ionizing flux, J. Geophys. Res., 102, 1641-1652, 1997.
5. Ayres, T. R., The cycles of α Centauri, Astrophys. J., 696, 1931-1949, 2009.
6. Bakalian, F., Production of hot nitrogen atoms in the martian thermosphere, Icarus, 183, 69-78, 2006.
7. Barnes, S. A., Ages for illustrative field stars using gyrochronology: Viability, limitations, and errors, Astrophys. J., 669, 1167-1189, 2007.
8. Bauer, S. J. and H. Lammer, Planetary Aeronomy, Springer Verlag, Heidelberg, New York, 2004.
9. Bowman, B. R., W. K. Tobiska, F. A. Marcos, C. Y. Huang, C. S. Lin, and W. J. Burke, A new empirical thermospheric density model JB2008 using new solar and geomagnetic indices, AIAA/AAS Astrodynamics Specialist Conference, AIAA 2008-6438, pp. 19, 2008.
10. Catala, C. and the PLATO team, PLATO: PLAnetary Transits and Oscillations of stars, Exp. Astron., 23, 329-356, 2009a.
11. Catala, C. and the PLATO team, PLATO: PLAnetary Transits and Oscillations of stars, Commun. Asteroseismol., 158, 330-336, 2009b.
12. Chamberlain, J. W., Planetary coronae and atmospheric evaporation, Planet. Space. Sci., 11, 901-996, 1963.
13. Chassefière, E., Hydrodynamic escape of oxygen from primitive atmospheres: applications to the cases of Venus and Mars, Icarus, 124, 537-552, 1996.
14. Cnossen, I., J. Sanz-Forcada, F. Favata, O. Witasse, T. Zegers, and N. F. Arnold, Habitat of early life: Solar X-ray and UV radiation at Earth's surface 4-3.5 billion years ago, J. Geophys. Res., 112(E2), E02008, 2007.
15. Dehant, V., H. Lammer, Yu. N. Kulikov, J.-M. Grießmeier, D. Breuer, O. Verhoeven, Ö. Karatekin, T. van Hoolst, O. Korablev, and P. Lognonné, Planetary magnetic dynamo effect on atmospheric protection of early Earth and Mars, Space Sci. Rev., 129, 279-300, 2007.
16. DeWarf, L. E., K. M. Datin, and E. F. Guinan, X-ray, FUV, and UV observations of α Centauri B: Determination of long-term magnetic activity cycle and rotation period, Astron. Astrophys., 722, 343-357, 2010.
17. Dorren, J. D. and E. F. Guinan, HD 129333: The Sun in its infancy, Astrophys. J., 428, 805-818, 1994a.
18. Dorren, J. D. and E. F. Guinan, The Sun in time: Detecting and modelling magnetic inhomogenities on Solar-type stars, in The Sun as a Variable Star: Solar and Stellar Irradiance Variations, edited by Pap, J. M., C. Fröhlich, H. S. Hudson, and S. K. Solanki, 206-216 pp., Proceedings of IAU Colloquium 143, held in Boulder, Colorado, USA, June 20-25, 1993, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, U.K.; New York, U.S.A., 1994b.
19. Dorren, J. D., M. Guedel, and E, F. Guinan, X-Ray emission from the Sun in its youth and old age, Astrophys. J., 448, 431-436, 1995.
20. Eggen, O. J., Distribution and correlation of age, abundance, and motion of lower main sequence stars, Astron. J., 111, 466-475, 1996.
21. Eggenberger, P., C. Charbonnel, S. Talon, G. Meynet, A. Maeder, F. Carrier, and G. Bourban, Analysis of α Centauri AB including seismic constraints, Astron. Astrophys., 422, 235-246, 2004.
22. Eggenberger, P., A. Miglio, F. Carrier, J. Fernandes, and N. C. Santos, Analysis of 70 Ophiuchi AB including seismic constraints, Astron. Astrophys., 482, 631-638, 2008.
23. Ekenbäck, A., M. Holmström, P. Wurz, J.-M. Grießmeier, H. Lammer, F. Selsis, and T. Penz, Energetic neutral atoms around HD 209458b: Estimations of magnetospheric properties, Astrophys. J., 709, 670-679, 2010.
24. Favata, F., G. Micela, S. L. Baliunas, J. H. M. M. Schmitt, M. Güdel, F. R. Harnden, Jr., S. Sciortino, and R. A. Stern, High-amplitude, long-term X-ray variability in the solar-type star HD 81809: The beginning of an X-ray activity cycle?, Astron. Astrophys., 418, L13-L16, 2004.
25. Favata, F, G. Micela, S. Orlando, J. H. M. M. Schmitt, S. Sciortino, and J. Hall, The X-ray cycle in the solar-type star HD 81809. XMM-Newton observations and implications for the coronal structure, Astron. Astrophys., 490, 1121-1126, 2008.
26. Fox, J. L. and A. B. Hać, Photochemical escape of oxygen from Mars: A comparison of the exobase approximation to a Monte Carlo method, Icarus, 204, 527-554, 2009.
27. Gaidos, E. J., M. Giidel, and G. A. Blake, The faint young Sun paradox: An observational test of an alternative solar model, Geophys. Res. Lett., 27, 501-503, 2000.
28. Gomez de Castro, A. I., I. Pagano, M. Sachkov, A. Lecavelier des Etangs, G. Piotto, R. Gonzalez, and B. Shustov, Science with the world space observatory-ultraviolet, in New Quests in Stellar Astrophysics. II. Ultraviolet Properties of Evolved Stellar Populations, Proceedings of the International Conference held in Puerto Vallarta, Mexico, April 16-20, 2007, edited by Chavez, M., E. Bertone, D. Rosa-Gonzalez, and L. H. Rodriguez-Merino, 319-327 pp., Berlin, Heidelberg, Springer, 2009.
29. Grießmeier, J. M., U. Motschmann, A. Stadelmann, T. Penz, H. Lammer, F. Selsis, I. Ribas, E. F. Guinan, H. K. Biernat, and W. W. Weiss, The effect of tidal locking on the magnetospheric and atmospheric evolution of "Hot Jupiter", Astron. Astrophys., 425, 753-762, 2004.
30. Grießmeier, J.-M., S. Preusse, M. Khodachenko, and U. Motschmann, Exoplanetary radio emission under different stellar wind conditions, Planet. Space Sci., 55, 618-630, 2007.
31. Gröller, H., V. I. Shematovich, H. I. M. Lichtenegger, H. Lammer, M. Pfleger, Yu. N. Kulikov, W. Macher, U. V. Amerstorfer, and H. K. Biernat, Venus' atomic hot oxygen environment, J. Geophys. Res., 115, E12017, doi:10.1029/2010JE003697, 2010.
32. Giidel, M., Are coronae of magnetically active stars heated by flares?, Astrophys. J. Lett., 480, L121-L124, 1997.
33. Giidel, M., X-Ray Astronomy of stellar coronae, Astron. Astrophys. Rev., 12, 71-237, 2004.
34. Giidel, M., The Sun in Time: Activity and environment, Living Rev. Sol. Phys., 4(3), 2007.
35. Giidel, M., J. H. M. M. Schmitt, and A. O. Benz, Microwave emission from X-ray bright solarlike stars: the F-G main sequence and beyond, Astron. Astrophys., 302, 775-787, 1995a.
36. Güdel, M., J. H. M. M. Schmitt, A. O. Benz, and N. M. Elias, II, The corona of the young solar analog EK Draconis, Astron. Astrophys., 301, 201-212, 1995b.
37. Giidel, M., E. F. Guinan, R. Mewe, J. S. Kaastra, and S. L. Skinner, A determination of the coronal emission measure distribution in the young solar analog EK Draconis from ASCA/EUVE spectra, Astrophys. J., 479, 416-426, 1997.
38. th Cambridge Workshop, edited by Garéýa López, R. J., R. Rebolo, and M. R. Zapaterio Osorio, Proceedings of a meeting held at Puerto de la Cruz, Tenerife, Spain, 4-8 October 1999, 662-667 pp., ASP Conference Series 223, San Francisco, U.S.A., 2001.
39. Giidel, M., M. Audard, V. L. Kashyap, J. J. Drake, and E. F. Guinan, Are coronae of magnetically active stars heated by flares? II. Extreme Ultraviolet and X-ray flare statistics and the differential emission measure distribution, Astrophys. J., 582, 423-42, 2003.
40. Guinan, E. F. and I. Ribas, Our changing Sun: the role of solar nuclear evolution and magnetic activity on Earth's atmosphere and climate, in The Evolving Sun and its Influence on Planetary Environments, edited by Montesinos, B., A. Giménz, and E. F. Guinan, 85-107 pp, ASP 269, San Francisco, 2002.
41. Guinan, E. F., I. Ribas, and G. M. Harper, Far-Ultraviolet emissions of the Sun in Time: Probing solar magnetic activity and effects on evolution of paleoplanetary atmospheres, Astrophys. J., 594, 561-572, 2003.
42. Hall, L. A., J. E. Higgins, C. W. Chagnon, and H. E. Hinteregger, Solarcycle variation of the extreme ultraviolet radiation, J. Geophys. Res., 74, 4181-4183, 1969.
43. Hedin, A. E., Extension of the MSIS thermosphere model into the middle and lower atmosphere, J. Geophys. Res., 96, 1159-1172, 1991.
44. Hodges, R. R., Jr., Distributions of hot oxygen for Venus and Mars, J. Geophys. Res., 105, 6971-6981, 2000.
45. Holmström, M., A. Ekenbäck, F. Selsis, T. Penz, H. Lammer, and P. Wurz, Energetic neutral atoms as the explanation for the high-velocity hydrogen around HD 209458b, Nature, 451, 970-972, 2008.
46. Hunten, D. M., Atmospheric evolution of the terrestrial planets, Science, 259, 915-920, 1993.
47. Kasting, J. F., D. P. Whitmire, and R. T. Reynolds, Habitable zones around Main Sequence Stars, Icarus, 101, 108-128, 1993.
48. Khodachenko, M. L., I. Ribas, H. Lammer, J.-M. Grießmeier, M. Leitner, F. Selsis, C. Eiroa, A. Hanslmeier, H. K. Biernat, C. J. Farrugia, and H. O. Rucker, Coronal mass ejection (CME) activity of low mass M Stars as an important factor for the habitability of terrestrial exoplanets. I. CME impact on expected magnetospheres of Earth-like exoplanets in close-in habitable zones, Astrobiology, 7, 167-184, 2007.
49. Kim, J., A. F. Nagy, J. L. Fox, and T. E. Cravens, Solar cycle variability of hot oxygen atoms at Mars, J. Geophys. Res., 103, 29339-29342, 1998.
50. King, R. R., M. J. McCaughrean, D. Homeier, F. Allard, R.-D. Scholz, and N. Lodieu, ε Indi Ba, Bb: A detailed study of the nearest known brown dwarfs, Astron. Astrophys., 510, A99, 2010.
51. Kjeldsen, H., T. R. Bedding, and J. Christensen-Dalsgaard, Measurements of stellar properties through Asteroseismology: A tool for planet transit studies, in Transiting Planets, Proceedings of the International Astronomical Union 2009, IAU Symposium, 253, 309-317 pp., Cambridge Univ. Press, Cambridge, UK, 2009.
52. Krestyanikova, M. A. and V. I. Shematovich, Stochastic models of hot planetary and satellite coronas: A hot oxygen corona of Mars, Sol. Syst. Res., 40, 384-392, 2006.
53. Kulikov, Y. N., H. Lammer, H. I. M. Lichtenegger, N. Terada, 1. Ribas, C. Kolb, D. Langmayr, R. Lundin, E. F. Guinan, S. Barabash, and h. K. Biernat, Atmospheric and water loss from early Venus, Planet. Space Sci, 54, 1425-1444, 2006.
54. Kulikov, Y. N., H. Lammer, H. I. M. Lichtenegger, T. Penz, D. Breuer, T. Spohn, R. Lundin, and h. K. Biernat, A comparative study of the influence of the active young Sun on the early atmospheres of Earth, Venus and Mars, Space Sci. Rev., 129, 207-243, 2007.
55. Lammer, H. and S. J. Bauer, Nonthermal atmospheric escape from Mars and Titan, J. Geophys. Res., 96, 1819-1825, 1991.
56. Lammer, H., H. I. M. Lichtenegger, C. Kolb, I. Ribas, E. F. Guinan, R. Abart, and S. J. Bauer, Loss of water from Mars: Implications for the oxidation of the soil, Icarus, 106, 9-25, 2003.
57. Lammer, H., H. I. M. Lichtenegger, H. K. Biernat, N. V. Erkaev, I. L. Arshukova, C. Kolb, H. Gunell, A. Lukyanov, M. Holmström, S. Barabash, T. L. Zhang, and W. Baumjohann, Loss of hydrogen and oxygen from the upper atmosphere of Venus, Planet. Space Sci., 54, 1445-1456, 2006.
58. Lammer, H., H. I. M. Lichtenegger, Yu. N. Kulikov, J.-M. Grießmeier, N. Terada, N. V. Erkaev, H. K. Biernat, M. L. Khodachenko, I. Ribas, T. Penz, and F. Selsis, Coronal mass ejection (CME) activity of low mass M stars as an important factor for the habitability of terrestrial exoplanets. II. CME-induced ion pick up of Earth-like exoplanets in close-in habitable zones, Astrobiology, 7, 185-207, 2007.
59. Lammer, H., J. F. Kasting, E. Chassefière, R. E. Johnson, Yu. N. Kulikov, and F. Tian, Atmospheric escape and evolution of terrestrial planets and satellites, Space Sci. Rev., 139, 399-436, 2008.
60. Lammer, H., J. H. Bredehöft, A. Coustenis, M. L. Khodachenko, L. Kaltenegger, O. Grasset, D. Prieur, F. Raulin, P. Ehrenfreund, M. Yamauchi, J.-E. Wahlund, J.-M. Grießmeier, G. Stangl, C. S. Cockell, Yu. N. Kulikov, L. Grenfell, and H. Rauer, What makes a planet habitable?, Astron. Astrophys., 17, 181-249, 2009.
61. Lammer, H., A. Hanslmeier, J. Schneider, I. K. Stateva, M. Barthelemy, A. Belu, D. Bisikalo, M. Bonavita, V. Eybl, V. Coudé Du Foresto, M. Fridlund, R. Dvorak, S. Eggl, J.-M. Grießmeier, M. Güdel, E. Günther, W. Hausleitner, M. Holmström, E. Kallio, M. L. Khodachenko, A. A. Konovalenko, S. Krauss, L. V. Ksanfomality, Yu. N. Kulikov, K. Kyslyakova, M. Leitzinger, R. Liseau, E. Lohinger, P. Odert, E. Palle, A. Reiners, I. Ribas, H. O. Rucker, N. Sarda, J. Seckbach, V. I. Shematovich, A. Sozzetti, A. Tavrov, and M. Xiang-Grüß, Exoplanet status report: Observation, characterization and evolution of exoplanets and their host stars, Sol. Syst. Res., 44, 290-310, 2010.
62. Lammer, H., K. G. Kislyakova, M. Holmström, M. L. Khodachenko, and J.-M. Grießmeier, Hydrogen ENA-cloud observation and modeling as a tool to study star-exoplanet interaction, Astrophys. Space Sci., 335, 9-23, doi:10.1007/s10509-011-0604-2, 201 la.
63. Lammer, H., V. Eybl, K. G. Kislyakova, J. Weingrill, M. Holmström, M. L. Khodchenko, Yu. N. Kulikov, A. Reiners, M. Leitzinger, P. Odert, M. Xian Grüß, B. Dorner, M. Güdel, and A. Hanslmeier, UV transit observations of EUV-heated expanded thermospheres of Earth-like exoplanets around M-stars: Testing atmosphere evolution scenarios, Astrophys. Space Sci., 335, 39-50, doi:10.1007/s10509-011-0646-5, 201 lb.
64. Lanza, A. F., I. Pagano, G. Leto, S. Messina, S. Aigrain, R. Alonso, M. Auvergne, A. Baglin, P. Barge, A. S. Bonomo, P. Boumier, A. Collier Cameron, M. Comparato, G. Cutispoto, J. R. de Medeiros, B. Foing, A. Kaiser, C. Moutou, P. S. Parihar, A. Silva-Valio, and W. W. Weiss, Magnetic activity in the photosphere of CoRoT-Exo-2a. Active longitudes and short-term spot cycle in a young Sun-like star, Astron. Astrophys., 493, 193-200, 2009.
65. Lecavelier des Etangs, A., D. Ehrenreich, A. Vidal-Madjar, G. E. Ballester, J.-M. Désert, R. Ferlet, G. Hébrard, D. K. Sing, K.-0. Tchakoumegni, and S. Udry, Evaporation of the planet HD 189733b observed in H I Lyman-α, Astron. Astrophys., 514, A72, doi:10.1051/0004-6361/200913347, 2010.
66. Lichtenegger, H. I. M., H. Gröller, H. Lammer, Y. N. Kulikov, and V. I. Shematovich, On the elusive hot oxygen corona of Venus, Geophys. Res. Lett., 36, L10204, doi:10.1029/2009GL037575, 2009.
67. 2 levels during Earth's Hadean epoch, Icarus, 210, 1-7, 2010.
68. Lim, J. and S. M. White, Limits to mass outflows from late-type dwarf stars, Astrophys. J. Lett, 462, L91-L94, 1996.
69. Lundin, R., H. Lammer, and I. Ribas, Planetary magnetic fields and solar forcing: Implications for atmospheric evolution, Space Sci. Rev., 129, 245-278, 2007.
70. Mackay, D. H., M. Jardine, A. Collier Cameron, J. F. Donati, and G. A. J. Hussain, Polar caps on active stars: magnetic flux emergence and transport, Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc, 354, 737-752, 2004.
71. Massi, M., J. Neidhöfer, G. Torricelli-Ciamponi, and F. Chiuderi-Drago, Activity cycles in UX ARIETIS, Astron. Astrophys., 332, 149-154, 1998.
72. Messina, S. and E. F. Guinan, Magnetic activity of six young solar analogues I. Star spot cycles from long-term photometry, Astron. Astrophys., 393, 225-237, 2002.
73. Messina, S. and E. F. Guinan, Magnetic activity of six young solar analogues II. Surface differential rotation from long-term photometry, Astron. Astrophys., 409, 1017-1030, 2003.
74. Montes, D., J. López-Santiago, M. C. Gálvez, M. J. Fernández-Figueroa, E. De Castro, and M. Cornide, Late-type members of young stellar kinematic groups-I. Single stars, Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc, 328, 45-63, 2001.
75. Nagy, A. F., T. E. Cravens, J. H. Yee, and A. I. F. Stewart, Hot oxygen atoms in the upper atmosphere of Venus, Geophys. Res. Lett., 8, 629-632, 1981.
76. 9.6 years, Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta Suppl, 13, 293-301, 1980.
77. Newman, M. J. and R. T. Rood, Implications of solar evolution for the Earth's early atmosphere, Science, 198, 1035-1037, 1977.
78. Öpik, E. J., Selective escape of gases, Geophys. J. R. Astron. Soc, 7, 490-509, 1963.
79. Owen, T., The Martian atmosphere-Some unanswered questions, J. Mol. Evol., 14, 5-12, 1979.
80. Peres, G., S. Orlando, F. Reale, R. Rosner, and H. Hudson, The Sun as an X-ray star. II. Using the Yohkoh/Soft X-ray telescope-derived solar emission measure versus temperature to interpret stellar X-ray observations, Astrophys. J., 528, 537-551, 2000.
81. Pham, Lê Binh San, Ö. Karatekin, and V. Dehant, Effects of meteorite impacts on the atmospheric evolution of Mars, Astrobiology, 9, 45-54, 2009.
82. Phillips, R. J., M. T. Zuber, S. C. Solomon, M. P. Golombek, B. M. Jakosky, W. B. Banerdt, D. E. Smith, R. M. E. Williams, B. M. Hynek, O. Aharonson, and S. A. Hauck, Ancient geodynamics and global-scale hydrology on Mars, Science, 291, 2587-2592, 2001.
83. Ribas, I., E. F. Guinan, M. Güdel, and M. Audard, Evolution of the solar activity over time and effects on planetary atmospheres. I. High-energy irradiances (1-1700 Å), Astrophys. J., 622, 680-694, 2005.
84. Rieger, E., G. H. Share, D. J. Forrest, G. Kanbach, C. Reppin, and E. L. Chupp, Nature, 312, 623-625, 1984.
85. Roble, R. G., E. C. Ridley, and R. E. Dickinson, On the global mean structure of the thermosphere, J. Geophys. Res., 92, 8745-8758, 1987.
86. Robrade, J., J. H. M. M. Schmitt, and F. Favata, X-rays from α-Centauri-The darkening of the solar twin, Astron. Astrophys, 442, 315-321, 2005.
87. Sagan, C. and G. Mullen, Earth and Mars: Evolution of atmospheres and surface temperatures, Science, 177, 52-56, 1972.
88. Sanz-Forcada, J., N. S. Brickhouse, and A. K. Dupree, The structure of stellar coronae in active binary systems, Astrophys. J. Suppl., 145, 147-179, 2003.
89. Sanz-Forcada, J., G. Micela, I. Ribas, A. M. T. Pollock, C. Eiroa, A. Velasco, E. Solano, and D. Garcia-Alvarez, Evaporation in close planets produced by XUV radiation, Astron. Astrophys., 532, A6, 2011.
90. Scalo, J., L, Kaltenegger, A. G. Segura, M. Fridlund, I. Ribas, Yu. N. Kulikov, J. L. Grenfell, H. Rauer, P. Odert, M. Leitzinger, F. Selsis, M. L. Khodachenko, C. Eiroa, J. Kasting, and H. Lammer, M stars as targets for terrestrial exoplanet searches and biosignature detection, Astrobiology, 7, 85-166, 2007.
91. Schrijver, K. J. and A. M. Title, On the formation of polar spots in Sun-like stars, Astrophys. J., 551, 1099-1106, 2001.
92. Schüssler, M. and S. A. Solanki, Why rapid rotators have polar spots, Astron. Astrophys., 264, L13-L16, 1992.
93. Sm, Astron. Astrophys., 314, 503-512, 1996.
94. Sekiya, M., K. Nakazawa, and C. Hayashi, Dissipation of the primordial terrestrial atmosphere due to irradiation of the solar EUV, Prog. Theor. Phys., 64, 1968-1985, 1980a.
95. Sekiya, M., K. Nakazawa, and C. Hayashi, Dissipation of the rare gases contained in the primordial Earth's atmosphere, Earth Planet. Sci. Lett., 50, 197-201, 1980b.
96. Shematovich, V. I., D. Bisikalo, S. Krauss, W. Hausleitner, and H. Lammer, Influence of the hot oxygen corona on the satellite drag in the Earth's upper atmosphere, Sol. Syst. Res., 45, 238-246, 2011.
97. Shustov, B., M. Sachov, A. I. Gomez de Castro, I. Ana, and I. Pagano, WSO-UVultraviolet mission for the next decade, Astrophys. Space Sci., 320, 187-190, 2009.
98. Skumanich, A. and J. A. Eddy, Aspects of long-term variability in Sun and stars, in Solar Phenomena in Stars and Stellar Systems, 349-397 pp., D. Reidel Publishing Co., Dordrecht, 1981.
99. Smithtro, C. G. and J. J. Sojka, A new global average model of the coupled thermosphere and ionosphere, J. Geophys. Res., 110, A08305, doi:100.1029/2004JA010781, 2005a.
100. Smithtro, C. G. and J. J. Sojka, Behavior of the ionosphere and thermosphere subject to extreme solar cycle conditions, J. Geophys. Res., 110(A8), A08306, 2005b.
101. Soderblom, D. R., The ages of stars, Ann. Rev. Astron. Astrophys., 48, 581-629, 2010.
102. Soderblom, D. R. and M. Mayor, Stellar kinematic groups. I. The Ursa Major group, Astron. J., 105, 226-249, 1993.
103. Stankov, A., M. Baldesarra, O. Piersanti, M. Fridlund, R. Lindberg, and N. Rando, Definition phase activities for ESA's Cosmic Vision mission PLATO, in Society of Photo-Optical Instrumentation Engineers (SPIE) Conference Series, edited by Oschmann, J. M., Jr., M. C. Clampin, and H. A. MacEwen, Proceedings of the SPIE, 7731, 77311M-77311M, pp. 2010.
104. Strassmeier, K. G., Starspots, Astron. Astrophys. Rev., 17, 251-308, 2009.
105. Sutton, E. K., J. M. Forbes, R. S. Nerem, and T. N. Woods, Neutral density response to the solar flares of October and November, 2003, Geophys. Res. Lett., 33, L22101, doi:10.1029/2006GL027737, 2006.
106. Telleschi, A., M. Güdel, K. Briggs, M. Audard, J.-U. Ness, and S. L. Skinner, Coronal evolution of the Sun in Time: High-resolution X-ray spectroscopy of solar analogs with different ages, Astrophys. J., 622, 653-679, 2005.
107. Terada, N., Yu. N. Kulikov, H. Lammer, H. I. M. Lichtenegger, T. Tanaka, H. Shinagawa, and T. Zhang, Atmosphere and water loss from early Mars under extreme solar wind and Extreme Ultraviolet conditions, Astrobiology, 9, 55-70, 2009.
108. Tian, F, Thermal escape from super Earth atmospheres in the habitable zones of M Stars, Astrophys. J., 703, 905-909, 2009.
109. Tian, F., O. B. Toon, A. A. Pavlov, and H. De Sterck, A hydrogen-rich early Earth atmosphere, Science, 308, 1014-1017, 2005.
110. Tian, F., J. F. Kasting, H. Liu, and R. G. Roble, Hydrodynamic planetary thermosphere model: 1. The response of the Earth's thermosphere to extreme solar EUV conditions and the significance of adiabatic cooling, J. Geophys. Res., 113, doi:10.1029/2007JE002946, 2008a.
111. Tian, F, S. C. Solomon, L. Qian, J. Lei, and R. G. Roble, Hydrodynamic planetary thermosphere model: 2. Coupling of an electron transport/energy deposition model, J. Geophys. Res., 113(E7), E07005, 2008b.
112. Tian, F., J. F Kasting, and S. C. Solomon, Thermal escape of carbon from the early Martian atmosphere, Geophys. Res. Lett., 36(2), L02205, 2009.
113. Tobiska, W. K., Recent solar extreme ultraviolet irradiance observations and modelling: A review, J. Geophys. Res., 98, 18879-18893, 1993.
114. Tobiska, W. K. and F. G. Eparvier, EUV97: Improvements to EUV irradiance modeling in the soft X-rays and FUV, Sol. Phys., 177, 147-159, 1998.
115. Valeille, A., M. R. Combi, V. Tenishev, S. W. Bougher, and A. F. Nagy, A study of suprathermal oxygen atoms in Mars upper thermosphere and exosphere over the range of limiting conditions, Icarus, 206, 18-27, 2010.
116. Vecchio, A., M. Laurenza, V. Carbone, and M. Storini, Quasi-biennial modulation of solar neutrino flux and solar and galactic cosmic rays by solar cyclic activity, Astrophys. J., 709, L1-L5, 2010.
117. Vidal-Madjar, A., A. Lecavelier des Etangs, J. M. Désert, G. E. Ballester, R. Ferlet, G. Hébrard, and M. Mayor, An extended upper atmosphere around the extrasolar planet HD209458b, Nature, 422, 143-146, 2003.
118. Walker, J. C. G., Evolution of the atmosphere of Venus, J. Atmos. Sci., 32, 1248-1256, 1975.
119. 1 Ceti as observed by MOST, Astrophys. J., 659, 1611-1622, 2007.
120. Wargelin, B. J. and J. J. Drake, Observability of stellar winds from late-type dwarfs via charge exchange X-ray emission, Astrophys. J. Lett., 546, L57-L60, 2001.
121. Watson, A. J., T. M. Donahue, and J. C. G. Walker, The dynamics of a rapidly escaping atmosphere: applications to the evolution of Earth and Venus, Icarus, 48, 150-166, 1981.
122. Wood, B. E., Astrospheres and solar-like stellar winds, Living Rev. Sol. Phys., 1(2), 2004.
123. Wood, B. E. and J. L. Linsky, The Local ISM and its interaction with the winds of nearby late-type stars, Astrophys. J., 492, 788-803, 1998.
124. Wood, B. E., H.-R. Müller, G. Zank, and J. L. Linsky, Measured mass loss rates of solar-like stars as a function of age and activity, Astrophys. J., 574, 412-425, 2002.
125. Wood, B. E., H.-R. Müller, G. P. Zank, J. L. Linsky, and S. Redfield, New mass-loss measurements from astrospheric Ly-α absorption, Astrophys. J., 628, L143-L146, 2005.
126. Zahnle, K. J. and J. C. G. Walker, The evolution of solar ultraviolet luminosity, Rev. Geophys., 20, 280-292, 1982.
127. Zaqarashvili, T. V., M. Carbonell, R. Oliver, and J. L. Ballester, Magnetic Rossby waves in the solar tachocline and Rieger-type periodicities, Astrophys. J., 709, 749-758, 2010a.
128. Zaqarashvili, T. V., M. Carbonell, R. Oliver, and J. L. Ballester, Quasi-biennial oscillations in the solar tachocline caused by magnetic Rossby wave instabilities, Astrophys. J. Lett., 724, L95-L98, 2010b.
129. Zaqarashvili, T. V, R. Oliver, J. L. Ballester, M. Carbonell, M. L. Khodachenko, H. Lammer, M. Leitzinger, and P. Odert, Rossby waves and polar spots in rapidly rotating stars: implications for stellar wind evolution, Astron. Astrophys., 532, A139, 2011.