The development and challenges of rechargeable non-aqueous lithium-air batteries

International Journal of Smart and Nano Materials

Volumn 4, Issue 1, 2013, Pages 27-46

  Zhang, Lei Lei ^a,b   Wang, Zhong Li ^a   Xu, Dan ^a   Zhang, Xin Bo ^a   Wang, Li Min ^a  

^a CHANGCHUN INSTITUTE OF APPLIED CHEMISTRY   (China)

^b UNIVERSITY OF CHINESE ACADEMY OF SCIENCES   (China)

Author keywords

catalyst; electrolyte; high energy density; lithium air battery; separator

Indexed keywords

CATALYSTS; CATHODES; ELECTROLYTES; PRODUCT DESIGN; SEPARATORS;

CATHODE STRUCTURE; CHARGE AND DISCHARGE; COMPLEX CHEMICAL REACTIONS; DEVELOPMENT AND CHALLENGES; ELECTROLYTE COMPOSITIONS; HIGH ENERGY DENSITIES; LITHIUM METAL ANODE; TECHNICAL CHALLENGES;

LITHIUM-AIR BATTERIES;

EID: 84876123387     PISSN: 19475411     EISSN: 1947542X     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/19475411.2012.659227     Document Type: Article

References (109)

1. B. Richter, D. Goldston, G. Crabtree, L. Glicksman, D. Goldstein, D. Kammen, M. Levine, M. Lubell, M. Savitz, and D. Sperling, Energy Future: Think Efficiency, American Physical Society, College Park, MD, 2008.
2. D.J. Mackay, Sustainable Energy-Without the Hot Air, UIT Cambridge, Cambridge, UK, 2009.
3. D. Linden, Handbook of Batteries and Fuel Cells, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1984.
4. S.J. Visco and E. Nimon, Lithium metal aqueous batteries, 12th International Meeting on Lithium Batteries, Nara, Japan, 2004.
5. A.S. Arico, P. Bruce, B. Scrosati, J.-M. Tarascon, and W. van Schalkwijk, Nanostructured materials for advanced energy conversion and storage devices, Nat. Mater. 4 (2005), pp. 366-377. (Pubitemid 40557887)
6. M. Armand and J.M. Tarascon, Building better batteries, Nature 451 (2008), pp. 652-657. (Pubitemid 351220555)
7. T. Ogasawara, A. Debart, M. Holzapfel, P. Novak, and P.G. Bruce, Rechargeable Li2O2 electrode for lithium batteries, J. Am. Chem. Soc. 128 (2006), pp. 1390-1393. (Pubitemid 43192054)
8. S.S. Sandhu, J.P. Fellner, and G.W. Brutchen, Diffusion-limited model for a lithium/air battery with an organic electrolyte, J. Power Sourc. 164 (2007), pp. 365-371. (Pubitemid 44959665)
9. K. Abraham, A brief history of non-aqueous metal-air batteries, J. Electrochem. Soc. 3 (2008), pp. 42-67.
10. E.L. Littauer and K.C. Tsai, Anodic behavior of lithium in aqueous-electrolytes, J. Electrochem. Soc. 123 (1976), pp. 771-776.
11. K.M. Abraham and Z. Jiang, A polymer electrolyte-based rechargeable lithium/oxygen battery, J. Electrochem. Soc. 143 (1996), pp. 1-5. (Pubitemid 126607726)
12. P.G. Bruce, Energy storage beyond the horizon: Rechargeable lithium batteries, Solid State Ionics.179 (2008), pp. 752-760.
13. B. Ellis, K. Lee, and L. Nazar, Positive electrode materials for Li-ion and Li batteries, Chem. Mater. 22 (2010), pp. 691-714.
14. G. Girishkumar, B. McCloskey, A.C. Luntz, S. Swanson, and W. Wilcke, Lithiumair battery: Promise and challenges, J. Phys. Chem. Lett. 1 (2010), pp. 2193-2203.
15. A. Kraytsberg and Y. Ein-Eli, Review on Li-air batteries-opportunities, limitations and perspective, J. Power Sourc. 196 (2011), pp. 886-893.
16. R. Padbury and X. Zhang, Lithium-oxygen batteries-limiting factors that affect performance, J. Power Sourc. 196 (2011), pp. 4436-4444.
17. M.-K. Song, S. Park, F.M. Alamgir, J. Cho, andM. Liu, Nanostructured electrodes for lithiumion and lithium-air batteries: The latest developments, challenges, and perspectives, Mater. Sci. Eng. R 72 (2011), pp. 203-252.
18. X. Ren, S.S. Zhang, D.T. Tran, and J. Read, Oxygen reduction reaction catalyst on lithium/air battery discharge performance, J. Mater. Chem. 21 (2011), pp. 10118-10125.
19. Y.-C. Lu, Z. Xu, H.A. Gasteiger, S. Chen, K. Hamad-Schifferli, and Y. Shao-Horn, Platinumgold nanoparticles: A highly active bifunctional electrocatalyst for rechargeable lithiumair batteries, J. Am. Chem. Soc. 132 (2010), pp. 12170-12171.
20. S.D. Beattie, D.M. Manolescu, and S.L. Blair, High-capacity lithium-air cathodes, J. Electrochem. Soc. 156 (2009), pp. A44-A47.
21. O. Crowther, B. Meyer, M. Morgan, and M. Salomon, Primary Li-air cell development, J. Power Sourc. 196 (2011), pp. 1498-1502.
22. J.-G. Zhang, D. Wang, W. Xu, J. Xiao, and R.E. Williford, Ambient operation of Li/air batteries, J. Power Sourc. 195 (2010), pp. 4332-4337.
23. Y. Li, J. Wang, X. Li, J. Liu, D. Geng, J. Yang, R. Li, and X. Sun, Nitrogen-doped carbon nanotubes as novel cathode for lithium-air batteries, Electrochem. Comm. 13 (2011), pp. 668-672.
24. X.H. Yang, P. He, and Y.Y. Xia, Preparation of mesocellular carbon foam and its application for lithium/oxygen battery, Electrochem. Comm. 11 (2009), pp. 1127-1130.
25. C.K. Park, S.B. Park, S.Y. Lee, H. Lee, H. Jang, andW.I. Cho, Electrochemical performances of lithium-air cell with carbon materials, Bull. Kor. Chem. Soc. 31 (2010), pp. 3221-3224.
26. M. Mirzaeian, High capacity carbon-based electrodes for lithium/oxygen batteries, Power Syst. Tech. 31 (2007), pp. 90-96.
27. M. Mirzaeian and P.J. Hall, Preparation of controlled porosity carbon aerogels for energy storage in rechargeable lithium oxygen batteries, Electrochim. Acta 54 (2009), pp. 7444-7451.
28. M. Mirzaeian and P.J. Hall, Characterizing capacity loss of lithium oxygen batteries by impedance spectroscopy, J. Power Sourc. 195 (2010), pp. 6817-6824.
29. E. Yoo and H. Zhou, Liair rechargeable battery based on metal-free graphene nanosheet catalysts, ACS Nano 5 (2011), pp. 3020-3026.
30. Y.Wang and H. Zhou, To draw an air electrode of a Li-air battery by pencil, Energ. Environ. Sci. 4 (2011), pp. 1704-1707.
31. Y. Li, J. Wang, X. Li, D. Geng, R. Li, and X. Sun, Superior energy capacity of graphene nanosheets for a nonaqueous lithium-oxygen battery, Chem. Comm. (2011), pp. 9438-9440.
32. Y. Wang, L. Cheng, F. Li, H. Xiong, and Y. Xia, High electrocatalytic performance of Mn3O4/mesoporous carbon composite for oxygen reduction in alkaline solutions, Chem. Mater. 19 (2007), pp. 2095-2101. (Pubitemid 46686393)
33. T. Kuboki, T. Okuyama, T. Ohsaki, and N. Takami, Lithium-air batteries using hydrophobic room temperature ionic liquid electrolyte, J. Power Sourc. 146 (2005), pp. 766-769.
34. C. Tran, X.Q. Yang, and D.Y. Qu, Investigation of the gas-diffusion-electrode used as lithium/air cathode in non-aqueous electrolyte and the importance of carbon material porosity, J. Power Sourc. 195 (2010), pp. 2057-2063.
35. C. Tran, J. Kafle, X.Q. Yang, and D. Qu, Increased discharge capacity of a Li-air activated carbon cathode produced by preventing carbon surface passivation, Carbon 49 (2011), pp. 1266-1271.
36. G.Q. Zhang, J.P. Zheng, R. Liang, C. Zhang, B. Wang, M. Hendrickson, and E.J. Plichta, Lithium-air batteries using SWNT/CNF buckypapers as air electrodes, J. Electrochem. Soc. 157 (2010), pp. A953-A956.
37. R.R. Mitchell, B.M. Gallant, C.V. Thompson, and Y. Shao-Horn, All-carbon-nanofiber electrodes for high-energy rechargeable Li-O2 batteries, Energ. Environ. Sci. 4 (2011), pp. 2952-2958.
38. J. Read, Characterization of the lithium/oxygen organic electrolyte battery, J. Electrochem. Soc. 149 (2002), pp. A1190-A1195. (Pubitemid 35170813)
39. J. Xiao, D.H. Wang, W. Xu, D.Y. Wang, R.E. Williford, J. Liu, and J.G. Zhang, Optimization of air electrode for Li/air batteries, J. Electrochem. Soc. 157 (2010), pp. A487-A492.
40. A. Débart, J. Bao, G. Armstrong, and P.G. Bruce, An O2 cathode for rechargeable lithium batteries: The effect of a catalyst, J. Power Sourc. 174 (2007), pp. 1177-1182. (Pubitemid 350117188)
41. D. Zhang, Z. Fu, Z. Wei, T. Huang, and A. Yu, Polarization of oxygen electrode in rechargeable lithium oxygen batteries, J. Electrochem. Soc. 157 (2010), pp. A362-A365.
42. B. Scrosati and J. Garche, Lithium batteries: Status, prospects and future, J. Power Sourc. 195 (2010), pp. 2419-2430.
43. A. Débart, A. Paterson, J. Bao, and P.G. Bruce, α-MnO2 nanowires: A catalyst for the O2 electrode in rechargeable lithium batteries, Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 47 (2008), pp. 4521-4524.
44. L. Jin, L. Xu, C. Morein, C.h. Chen, M. Lai, S. Dharmarathna, A. Dobley, and S.L. Suib, Titanium-containing γ-MnO2 (TM) hollow spheres: One-step synthesis and catalytic activities in Li/air batteries and oxidative chemical reactions, Adv. Funct. Mater. 20 (2010), pp. 3373-3382.
45. J. Li, N. Wang, Y. Zhao, Y. Ding, and L. Guan, MnO2 nanoflakes coated on multi-walled carbon nanotubes for rechargeable lithium-air batteries, Electrochem. Comm. 13 (2011), pp. 698-700.
46. G. Zhang, J. Zheng, R. Liang, C. Zhang, B. Wang, M. Au, M. Hendrickson, and E. Plichta, α-MnO2/carbon nanotube/carbon nanofiber composite catalytic air electrodes for rechargeable lithium-air batteries, J. Electrochem. Soc. 158 (2011), pp. A822-A827.
47. V.M.B. Crisostomo, J.K. Ngala, S. Alia, A. Dobley, C. Morein, C.H. Chen, X. Shen, and S.L. Suib, New synthetic route, characterization, and electrocatalytic activity of nanosized manganite, Chem. Mater. 19 (2007), pp. 1832-1839. (Pubitemid 46608223)
48. C.S. Johnson, S.H. Kang, J.T. Vaughey, S.V. Pol, M. Balasubramanian, and M.M. Thackeray, Li2O removal from Li5FeO4: A cathode precursor for lithium-ion batteries, Chem. Mater. 22 (2010), pp. 1263-1270.
49. L. Trahey, C. Johnson, J. Vaughey, S.H. Kang, L. Hardwick, S. Freunberger, P. Bruce, and M. Thackeray, Activated lithium-metal oxides as catalytic electrodes for Li-O2 cells, Electrochem. Solid-State Lett. 14 (2011), pp. A64-A66.
50. D. Zhang, R.S. Li, T. Huang, and A.S. Yu, Novel composite polymer electrolyte for lithium air batteries, J. Power Sourc. 195 (2010), pp. 1202-1206.
51. A. Thapa, S. Kazuki, H. Matsumoto, and T. Ishihara, Lithium-air rechargeable batteries using MnO2-carbon based air electrode, 216th Meeting of the Electrochemical Society, Vienna, Austria, 2009.
52. Y.G. Wang and H.S. Zhou, A lithium-air battery with a potential to continuously reduce O2 from air for delivering energy, J. Power Sourc. 195 (2010), pp. 358-361.
53. H. Cheng and K. Scott, Carbon-supported manganese oxide nanocatalysts for rechargeable lithium-air batteries, J. Power Sourc. 195 (2010), pp. 1370-1374.
54. K.B. Chung, J.K. Shin, T.Y. Jang, D.K. Noh, Y. Tak, and S.H. Baeck, Preparation and analyses of MnO2/carbon composites for rechargeable lithium-air battery, Rev. Adv. Mater. Sci. 28 (2011), pp. 54-58.
55. H. Minowa, M. Hayashi, M. Takahashi, and T. Shodai, Electrochemical properties of carbon materials and La0.6Sr0.4Fe0.6Mn0.4O3 electrocatalysts for air electrodes of lithium-air secondary batteries, Electrochemistry 78 (2010), pp. 353-356.
56. J. Suntivich, H.A. Gasteiger, N. Yabuuchi, H. Nakanishi, J.B. Goodenough, and Y. Shao-Horn, Design principles for oxygen-reduction activity on perovskite oxide catalysts for fuel cells and metal-air batteries, Nat. Chem. 3 (2011), pp. 546-550.
57. F. Cheng, J. Shen, B. Peng, Y. Pan, Z. Tao, and J. Chen, Rapid room-temperature synthesis of nanocrystalline spinels as oxygen reduction and evolution electrocatalysts, Nat. Chem. 3 (2010), pp. 79-84.
58. S.S. Zhang, X. Ren, and J. Read, Heat-treated metal phthalocyanine complex as an oxygen reduction catalyst for non-aqueous electrolyte Li/air batteries, Electrochim. Acta 56 (2011), pp. 4544-4548.
59. Y.C. Lu, H.A. Gasteiger, M.C. Parent, V. Chiloyan, and Y. Shao-Horn, The influence of catalysts on discharge and charge voltages of rechargeable Li-oxygen batteries, Electrochem. Solid-State Lett. 13 (2010), pp. A69-A72.
60. A.K. Thapa, K. Saimen, and T. Ishihara, Pd/MnO2 air electrode catalyst for rechargeable lithium/air battery, Electrochem. Solid-State Lett. 13 (2010), pp. A165-A167.
61. A.K. Thapa and T. Ishihara, Mesoporous α-MnO2/Pd catalyst air electrode for rechargeable lithium-air battery, J. Power Sourc. 196 (2011), pp. 7016-7020.
62. Y. Lu, H. Gasteiger, E. Crumlin, R. McGuire Jr, and Y. Shao-Horn, Electrocatalytic activity studies of select metal surfaces and implications in Li-air batteries, J. Electrochem. Soc. 157 (2010), pp. A1016-A1025.
63. V. Giordani, S.A. Freunberger, P.G. Bruce, J.M. Tarascon, and D. Larcher, H2O2 decomposition reaction as selecting tool for catalysts in Li-O2 cells, Electrochem. Solid-State Lett. 13 (2010), pp. A180-A183.
64. S.A. Freunberger, Y.H. Chen, N.E. Drewett, L.J. Hardwick, F. Bardé, and P.G. Bruce, The lithium-oxygen battery with ether-based electrolytes, Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 50 (2011), pp. 1-6.
65. J. Read, K. Mutolo, M. Ervin, W. Behl, J. Wolfenstine, A. Driedger, and D. Foster, Oxygen transport properties of organic electrolytes and performance of lithium/oxygen battery, J. Electrochem. Soc. 150 (2003), pp. A1351-A1356.
66. W. Xu, J. Xiao, J. Zhang, D.Y.Wang, and J.G. Zhang, Optimization of nonaqueous electrolytes for primary lithium/air batteries operated in ambient environment, J. Electrochem. Soc. 156 (2009), pp. A773-A779.
67. I. Kowalczk, J. Read, and M. Salomon, Li-air batteries: A classic example of limitations owing to solubilities, Pure Appl. Chem. 79 (2007), pp. 851-860.
68. W. Xu, J. Xiao, D.Y. Wang, J. Zhang, and J.G. Zhang, Effects of nonaqueous electrolytes on the performance of lithium/air batteries, J. Electrochem. Soc. 157 (2010), pp. A219-A224.
69. K. Xu, Nonaqueous liquid electrolytes for lithium-based rechargeable batteries, Chem. Rev. 104 (2004), pp. 4303-4418.
70. D. Shanmukaraj, S. Grugeon, G. Gachot, S. Laruelle, D. Mathiron, J.M. Tarascon, and M. Armand, Boron esters as tunable anion carriers for non-aqueous batteries electrochemistry, J. Am. Chem. Soc. 132 (2010), pp. 3055-3062.
71. S.A. Freunberger, Y. Chen, Z. Peng, J.M. Griffin, L.J. Hardwick, F. Barde, P. Novak, and P.G. Bruce, Reactions in the rechargeable lithium-O2 battery with alkyl carbonate electrolytes, J. Am. Chem. Soc. 133 (2011), pp. 8040-8047.
72. Y.C. Lu, D.G. Kwabi, K.P.C. Yao, J.R. Harding, J. Zhou, L. Zuin, and Y. Shao-Horn, The discharge rate capability of rechargeable Li-O2 batteries, Energ. Environ. Sci. 4 (2011), pp. 2999-3007.
73. J. Read, Ether-based electrolytes for the lithium/oxygen organic electrolyte battery, J. Electrochem. Soc. 153 (2006), pp. A96-A100.
74. M. Morita, H. Hayashida, and Y. Matsuda, Effects of crown-ether addition to organic electrolytes on the cycling behavior of the TiS electrode, J. Electrochem. Soc. 134 (1987), pp. 2107-2111. (Pubitemid 17655847)
75. G. Nagasubramanian and S. Distefano, 12-Crown-4 ether-assisted enhancement of ionicconductivity and interfacial kinetics in polyethylene oxide electrolytes, J. Electrochem. Soc. 137 (1990), pp. 3830-3835.
76. G. Nagasubramanian, A.I. Attia, and G. Halpert, Effects of 12-crown-4 ether on the electrochemical performance of CoO and TiS cathodes in li polymer electrolyte cells, J. Electrochem. Soc. 139 (1992), pp. 3043-3046. (Pubitemid 23597651)
77. W. Xu, J. Xiao, D.Y. Wang, J.A. Zhang, and J.G. Zhang, Crown ethers in nonaqueous electrolytes for lithium/air batteries, Electrochem. Solid-State Lett. 13 (2010), pp. A48-A51.
78. H.S. Lee, X. Sun, X.Q. Yang, and J. McBreen, Synthesis and study of new cyclic boronate additives for lithium battery electrolytes, J. Electrochem. Soc. 149 (2002), pp. A1460-A1465. (Pubitemid 35457940)
79. H.S. Lee, Z.F. Ma, X.Q. Yang, X. Sun, and J. McBreen, Synthesis of a series of fluorinated boronate compounds and their use as additives in lithium battery electrolytes, J. Electrochem. Soc. 151 (2004), pp. A1429-A1435.
80. L.F. Li, H.S. Lee, H. Li, X.Q. Yang, K.W. Yang,W.S. Yoon, J. McBreen, and X.J. Huang, New electrolytes for lithium ion batteries using LiF salt and boron based anion receptors, J. Power Sourc. 184 (2008), pp. 517-521.
81. B. Xie, H.S. Lee, H. Li, X.Q. Yang, J. McBreen, and L.Q. Chen, New electrolytes using Li2O or Li2O2 oxides and tris(pentafluorophenyl) borane as boron based anion receptor for lithium batteries, Electrochem. Comm. 10 (2008), pp. 1195-1197.
82. S.S. Zhang, D. Foster, and J. Read, Discharge characteristic of a non-aqueous electrolyte Li/O2 battery, J. Power Sourc. 195 (2010), pp. 1235-1240.
83. S. Hasegawa, N. Imanishi, T. Zhang, J. Xie, A. Hirano, Y. Takeda, and O. Yamamoto, Study on lithium/air secondary batteries-stability of NASICON-type lithium ion conducting glassceramics with water, J. Power Sourc. 189 (2009), pp. 371-377.
84. P. He, Y. Wang, and H. Zhou, A Li-air fuel cell with recycle aqueous electrolyte for improved stability, Electrochem. Comm. 12 (2010), pp. 1686-1689.
85. B. Kumar and J. Kumar, Cathodes for solid-state lithium-oxygen cells: Roles of NASICON glass-ceramics, J. Electrochem. Soc. 157 (2010), pp. A611-A616.
86. Y. Shimonishi, T. Zhang, P. Johnson, N. Imanishi, A. Hirano, Y. Takeda, O. Yamamoto, and N. Sammes, A study on lithium/air secondary batteries-stability of NASICON-type glass ceramics in acid solutions, J. Power Sourc. 195 (2010), pp. 6187-6191.
87. T. Zhang, N. Imanishi, Y. Shimonishi, A. Hirano, Y. Takeda, O. Yamamoto, and N. Sammes, A novel high energy density rechargeable lithium/air battery, Chem. Comm. (2010), pp. 1661-1663.
88. B. Kumar, J. Kumar, R. Leese, J.P. Fellner, S.J. Rodrigues, and K.M. Abraham, A solid-state, rechargeable, long cycle life lithium-air battery, J. Electrochem. Soc. 157 (2010), pp. A50-A54.
89. G.L. Cui, Z.H. Liu, H.B. Wang, X. Chen, and P. X. Han, A separator preparation of Li-air battery (in Chinese), China Patent #101707241, 2010.
90. A.S. Yu, W.J. Wang, X.R. Zhang, and D. Zhang, High capacity rechargable all-solid Li-air battery (in Chinese), China Patent #101267057, 2008.
91. D. Wang, J. Xiao, W. Xu, and J. Zhang, High capacity pouch-type Li-air batteries, J. Electrochem. Soc. 157 (2010), pp. A760-A764.
92. Z. Peng, S.A. Freunberger, L.J. Hardwick, Y. Chen, V. Giordani, F. Bardé, P. Novák, D. Graham, J.-M. Tarascon, and P.G. Bruce, Oxygen reactions in a non-aqueous Li+ electrolyte, Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 50 (2011), pp. 6351-6355.
93. S.J. Visco, B.D. Katz, Y.S. Nimon, and L.C. Dejonghe, Protected active metal electrode and battery cell structures with non-aqueous interlayer architecture, US Patent #7282295, 2007.
94. M. Singh, I. Gur, H.B. Eitouni, and N.P. Balsara, Solid electrolyte material manufacturable by polymer processing methods, US Patent Application #12271829, 2009.
95. J.B. Bates, N.J. Dudney, B. Neudecker, A. Ueda, and C.D. Evans, Thin-film lithium and lithium-ion batteries, Solid State Ionics 135 (2000), pp. 33-45. (Pubitemid 32028930)
96. X. Yang and Y. Xia, The effect of oxygen pressures on the electrochemical profile of lithium/oxygen battery, J. Solid-State Electrochem. 14 (2010), pp. 109-114.
97. J. Zhang, W. Xu, and W. Liu, Oxygen-selective immobilized liquid membranes for operation of lithium-air batteries in ambient air, J. Power Sourc. 195 (2010), pp. 7438-7444.
98. J.A. Zhang,W. Xu, X.H. Li, andW. Liu, Air dehydration membranes for nonaqueous lithium-air batteries, J. Electrochem. Soc. 157 (2010), pp. A940-A946.
99. G.M. Veith and N.J. Dudney, Current collectors for rechargeable Li-air batteries, J. Electrochem. Soc. 158 (2011), pp. A658-A663.
100. W.K. Behl, J. Read, A. Pitt, J. Wolfenstine, and D. Foster, Temperature performance of the lithium/O2 battery, J. Indian Chem. Soc. 82 (2005), pp. 1055-1057.
101. C.O. Laoire, S. Mukerjee, K.M. Abraham, E.J. Plichta, and M.A. Hendrickson, Elucidating the mechanism of oxygen reduction for lithium-air battery applications, J. Phys. Chem. C 113 (2009), pp. 20127-20134.
102. C.O. Laoire, S. Mukerjee, K.M. Abraham, E.J. Plichta, and M.A. Hendrickson, Influence of nonaqueous solvents on the electrochemistry of oxygen in the rechargeable lithium-air battery, J. Phys. Chem. C. 114 (2010), pp. 9178-9186.
103. J.S. Hummelshøj, J. Blomqvist, S. Datta, T. Vegge, J. Rossmeisl, K.S. Thygesen, A.C. Luntz, K.W. Jacobsen, and J.K. Norskov, Communications: Elementary oxygen electrode reactions in the aprotic Li-air battery, J. Chem. Phys. 132 (2010), pp. 071101-1-071101-4.
104. W. Xu, V.V. Viswanathan, D.Y. Wang, S.A. Towne, J. Xiao, Z.M. Nie, D.H. Hu, and J.G. Zhang, Investigation on the charging process of Li2O2-based air electrodes in Li-O2 batteries with organic carbonate electrolytes, J. Power Sourc. 196 (2011), pp. 3894-3899.
105. W. Xu, K. Xu, V.V. Viswanathan, S.A. Towne, J.S. Hardy, J. Xiao, Z. Nie, D. Hu, D.Wang, and J.G. Zhang, Reaction mechanisms for the limited reversibility of Li-O2 chemistry in organic carbonate electrolytes, J. Power Sourc. 196 (2011), pp. 9631-9639.
106. F. Mizuno, S. Nakanishi, Y. Kotani, S. Yokoishi, and H. Iba, Rechargeable Li-air batteries with carbonate-based liquid electrolytes, Electrochemistry 78 (2010), pp. 403-405.
107. T. Fujinaga and S. Sakara, Polarographic investigation of dissolved-oxygen in non-aqueous solvent, Bull. Chem. Soc. Jpn. 47 (1974), pp. 2781-2786.
108. D.T. Sawyer, G. Chiericato, C.T. Angelis, E.J. Nanni and T. Tsuchiya, Effects of media and electrode materials on the electrochemical reduction of dioxygen, Anal. Chem. 54 (1982), pp. 1720-1724.
109. D. Aurbach, M. Daroux, P. Faguy, and E. Yeager, The electrochemistry of noble-metal electrodes in aprotic organic solvents containing lithium salts, J. Electroanal. Chem. 297 (1991), pp. 225-244.