Understanding the Importance of Attachment in Shame Traumatic Memory Relation to Depression: The Impact of Emotion Regulation Processes

Clinical Psychology and Psychotherapy

Volumn 20, Issue 2, 2013, Pages 149-165

  Matos, Marcela ^a   Pinto Gouveia, José ^a   Costa, Vânia ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF COIMBRA   (Portugal)

Author keywords

Attachment; Depression; Dissociation; Rumination; Shame Traumatic Memory; Thought Suppression

Indexed keywords

ADULT; ARTICLE; DEPRESSION; EMOTION; FEMALE; HUMAN; MALE; MEMORY; MENTAL STRESS; OBJECT RELATION; PSYCHOLOGICAL ASPECT; SHAME;

ADULT; DEPRESSIVE DISORDER; EMOTIONS; FEMALE; HUMANS; MALE; MEMORY; OBJECT ATTACHMENT; SHAME; STRESS, PSYCHOLOGICAL;

EID: 84875804958     PISSN: 10633995     EISSN: 10990879     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1002/cpp.786     Document Type: Article

References (149)

1. Aldao, A., Nolen-Hoeksema, S., & Schweizer, S. (2010). Emotion-regulation strategies across psychopathology: A meta-analytic review. Clinical Psychology Review, 30, 217-237.
2. American Psychiatric Association (2000). Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (4th Edition-TR) Washington, DC: Task Force.
3. Andrews, B. (2002). Body shame and abuse in childhood. In P. Gilbert and J. Miles (Eds.). Body shame: Conceptualisation, research and treatment (pp. 256-266). London: Brunner.
4. Andrews, B., & Hunter, E. (1997). Shame, early abuse, and course of depression in a clinical sample: A preliminary study. Cognition and Emotion, 11, 373-381.
5. Baldwin, M.W. (1992). Relational schemas and the processing of social information. Psychological Bulletin, 112, 461-484.
6. Baldwin, M.W. (1997). Relational schemas as a source of if-then self-inference procedures. Review of General Psychology, I, 326-335.
7. Baldwin, M.W. (Ed.) (2005). Interpersonal cognition. New York: Guilford Press.
8. Baldwin, M.W., & Dandeneau, S.D. (2005). Understanding and modifying the relational schemas underlying insecurity. In M.W. Baldwin (Ed.) Interpersonal cognition (pp. 33-61). New York: Guilford Press.
9. Baldwin, M.W., & Holmes, J.G. (1987). Salient private audiences and awareness of the self. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 52, 1087-1098.
10. Bargh, J.A., & Williams, L.E. (2007). On the automatic or nonconscious regulation of emotion. In J.J. Gross (Ed.), Handbook of emotion regulation. New York: Guilford.
11. Baron, R.M., & Kenny, D.A. (1986). The moderator-mediator variable distinction in social psychological research: Conceptual, strategic, and statistical considerations. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 51, 1173-1182.
12. Baumeister, R.F., & Leary, M.R. (1995). The need to belong: Desire for interpersonal attachments as a fundamental human motivation. Psychological Bulletin, 117, 497-529.
13. Baumeister, R.F., Bratslavsky, E., Finkenauer, C., & Vohs, K.D. (2001). Bad is stronger than good. Review of General Psychology, 5, 323-370.
14. Berenbaum, H., Raghavan, C.L., Vernon H.N., & Gomez, J. (2003). A taxonomy of emotional disturbances, Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice, 10, 206-226.
15. Berntsen, D., & Rubin, D.C. (2006). Centrality of Event Scale: A measure of integrating a trauma into one's identity and its relation to post-traumatic stress disorder symptoms. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 44, 219-231.
16. Berntsen, D., & Rubin, D.C. (2007). When a trauma becomes a key to identity: Enhanced integration of trauma memories predicts posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 21, 417-431.
17. Bowlby, J. (1969). Attachment: Attachment and loss, Vol. 1. London: Hogarth Press.
18. Bowlby, J. (1973) Attachment and loss: Volume 2. Separation: Anxiety and anger, New York: Basic Books.
19. Bowlby, J. (1980). Loss: Sadness and depression. Attachment and loss, Vol. 3. London: Hogarth Press.
20. Brewin, C.R. (2006). Understanding cognitive behaviour therapy: A retrieval competition account. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 44, 765-784.
21. Buss, D.M. (2003). The evolution of desire: Strategies of human mating (Rev. Ed.). New York: Free Press.
22. Byrne, R.W. (1995). The thinking ape. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
23. Cacioppo, J.T., Berston, G.G., Sheridan, J.F., & McClintock, M.K. (2000). Multilevel integrative analyses of human behavior: Social neuroscience and the complementing nature of social and biological approaches. Psychological Bulletin, 126, 829-843.
24. Campbell-Sills, L., & Barlow, D.H. (2007). Incorporating emotion regulation into conceptualizations and treatments of anxiety and mood disorders. In J.J. Gross (Ed.) Handbook of emotion regulation (pp. 542-560). New York: Guilford Press.
25. Carlson, B.E., & Putnam, F.W. (1993). An update on the Dissociative Experiences Scale. Dissociation, 6, 16-27.
26. Carter, C.S. (1998). Neuroendocrine perspectives on social attachment and love. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 23, 779-818.
27. Cassidy, J., & Shaver, P.R. (1999, Eds.). Handbook of attachment: Theory, research and clinical applications (pp. 115-140). New York: Guilford Press.
28. Cheung, M.S.P., Gilbert, P., & Irons, C. (2004). An exploration of shame, social rank and rumination in relation to depression. Personality and Individual Differences, 36, 1143-1153.
29. Chu, J.E., & Dill, D.L. (1990). Dissociative symptoms in relation to childhood physical and sexual abuse. The American Journal of Psychiatry, 147, 887-892.
30. Chu, J., Frey, L., Ganzel, B., & Matthews, J. (1999). Memories of childhood abuse: Dissociation, amnesia, and corroboration. The American Journal of Psychiatry, 156, 749-755.
31. Claesson, K., & Sohlberg, S. (2002). Internalized shame and early interactions characterized by indifference, abandonment and rejection: replicated findings. Clinical Psychology & Psychotherapy, 9(4), 277-284.
32. Cole, P.M., Martin, S.E., & Dennis, T.A. (2004). Emotion regulation as a scientific construct: Challenges and directions for child development research. Child Development, 75, 317-333.
33. Conway, M.A. (2005). Memory and the self. Journal of Memory and Language, 53, 594-628.
34. Conway, M., & Pleydell-Pearce, C.W. (2000). The construction of autobiographical memories in the self-memory system. Psychological Review, 107, 261-288.
35. Coons, P., Bowman, E., Pellow, T., & Schneider, P. (1989). Post-traumatic aspects of the treatment of victims of sexual abuse and incest. Psychiatric Clinics of North America, 12, 325-335.
36. Cozolino, L. (2006). The neuroscience of human relationships: Attachment and the developing social brain. New York: W. W. Norton & Co.
37. Depue, R.A., & Morrone-Strupinsky, J.V. (2005). A neurobehavioral model of affiliative bonding: Implications for conceptualizing a human trait of affiliation. The Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 28, 313-395.
38. Diamond, L.M., & Aspinwall, L.G. (2003). Emotion regulation across the life span: An integrative perspective emphasizing self-regulation, positive affect, and dyadic processes. Motivation and Emotion, 27, 125-156.
39. Dickerson, S.S., & Kemeny, M.E. (2004). Acute stressors and cortisol response: A theoretical integration and synthesis of laboratory research. Psychological Bulletin, 130, 335-391.
40. Dinis, A., Matos, M., & Pinto-Gouveia, J. (2008). Portuguese translation and adaptation of the Dissociative Experiences Questionnaire: DES-II. (Unpublished manuscript)
41. Gerhardt, S. (2004). Why love matters: How affection shapes a baby's brain. London: Brunner-Routledge.
42. Gilbert, P. (1989). Human nature and suffering. Hove: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
43. Gilbert, P. (1998). What is shame? Some core issues and controversies. In P. Gilbert and B. Andrews (Eds.). Shame: Interpersonal behaviour, psychopathology and culture (pp. 3-36). New York: Oxford University Press.
44. Gilbert, P. (2002). Body shame: A biopsychosocial conceptualisation and overview, with treatment implications. In P. Gilbert and J. Miles (Eds.). Body shame: Conceptualisation, research and treatment (pp. 3-54). London: Brunner.
45. Gilbert, P. (2003). Evolution, social roles and the differences in shame and guilt. Social Research, 70, 1205-1230.
46. Gilbert, P. (2006). A biopsychosocial and evolutionary approach to formulation with a special focus on shame. In N. Tarrier (Ed.), Case formulation in cognitive behaviour therapy: The treatment of challenging and complex cases (pp. 81-112). Hove: Routledge.
47. Gilbert, P. (2007a). The evolution of shame as a marker for relationship security. In J.L. Tracy, R.W. Robins & J.P. Tangney (Eds.), The self-conscious emotions: Theory and research (pp. 283-309). New York: Guilford Press.
48. Gilbert, P. (2007b). Evolved minds and compassion in the therapeutic relationship. In N.P. Gilbert and R. Leahy (Eds.). The therapeutic relationship in the cognitive behavioural psychotherapies (pp. 106-142). Hove: Routledge.
49. Gilbert, P. (2009a). Evolved minds and compassion focused imagery in depression. In L. Stropa (Eds.). Imagery and the threatened self: Perspectives on mental imagery in cognitive therapy. (p. 206-231). London: Routledge.
50. Gilbert, P. (2009b). The compassionate mind. London: Constable-Robinson.
51. Gilbert, P. (2010). Compassion Focused Therapy: Distinctive Features. London: Routledge.
52. Gilbert, P., & Gerlsma, C. (1999). Recall of favouritism in relation to psychopathology. British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 38, 357-373.
53. Gilbert, P., & Perris, C. (2000). Early experiences and subsequent psychosocial adaptation. An introduction. Clinical Psychology & Psychotherapy, 7(4), 243-245.
54. Gilbert, P., Allan, S., & Goss, K. (1996). Parental representations, shame, interpersonal problems, and vulnerability to psychopathology. Clinical Psychology & Psychotherapy, 3(1), 23-34.
55. Gilbert, P., Cheung, M. S.-P., Grandfield, T., Campey, F., & Irons, C. (2003). Recall of threat and submissiveness in childhood: development of a new scale and its relationship with depression, social comparison and shame. Clinical Psychology & Psychotherapy, 10(2), 108-115.
56. Gilbert, P., McEwan, K., Matos, M., & Rivis, A. (2011). Fears of compassion: Development of three self-report measures. Psychology and Psychotherapy: Theory, Research and Practice, 84, 239-255.
57. Gilbert, P., McEwan, K., Gibbons, L., Chotai, S., Duarte, J., & Matos, M., (2011). Fears of compassion and happiness in relation to alexithymia, mindfulness and self-criticism. Psychology and Psychotherapy: Theory, Research and Practice (In press).
58. Gratz, K.L., & Roemer, L. (2004). Multidimensional assessment of emotion regulation and dysregulation: Development, factor structure, and initial validation of the Difficulties in Emotion Regulation Scale. Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment, 36, 41-54.
59. Greenberg, L.S. (2002). Emotion-focused therapy: Coaching clients to work through their feelings. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
60. Griffin, M.G., Resick, P.A., & Mechanic, M.B. (1997). Objective assessment of peritraumatic dissociation: Psychophysiological indicators. The American Journal of Psychiatry, 154, 1081-1088.
61. Gross, J.J. (1998). The emerging field of emotion regulation: An integrative review. Review of General Psychology, 2, 271-299.
62. Gross, J.J. (Ed.) (2007). Handbook of emotion regulation. New York, NY: Guilford Press.
63. Gross, J.J., & Munoz, R.E. (1995). Emotion regulation and mental health. Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice, 2, 151-164.
64. Gross, J.J., Richards, J.M., & John, O.P. (2006). Emotion regulation in everyday life. In D.K. Snyder, J. Simpson, & J.N. Hughes (Eds.), Emotion regulation in couples and families: Pathways to dysfunction and health (pp. 13-35). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
65. Guidano, V.F., & Liotti, G. (1983). Cognitive processes and emotional disorders. New York: Guilford Press.
66. Hong, R.Y. (2007). Differential associations with anxious and depressive symptoms and coping behavior. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 45, 277-290.
67. Irons, C., Gilbert, P., Baldwin, M.W., Baccus, J.R., & Palmer, M. (2006). Parental recall, attachment relating and self-attacking/self-reassurance: Their relationship with depression. British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 45, 297-308.
68. Irwin, H.J. (1998). Affective predictors of dissociation. II. Shame and guilt. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 54, 237-245.
69. Just, N., & Alloy, L.B. (1997). The response styles theory of depression: Tests and an extension of the theory. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 106, 221-229.
70. Kashdan, T.B., Elhai, J.D., & Breen, W.E. (2008). Social anxiety and disinhibition: An analysis of curiosity and social rank appraisals, approach-avoidance conflicts, and disruptive risk-taking behavior. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 22, 925-939.
71. Kaufman, G. (1989). The psychology of shame: Theory and treatment of shame-based syndromes. New York: Springer.
72. Kuehner, C., & Webber, I. (1999). Responses to depression in unipolar depression patients: An investigation of Nolen-Hoeksema's response style theory. Psychological Medicine, 29, 1323-1333.
73. Kuyken, W., & Brewin, C.R. (1994). Intrusive memories of childhood abuse during depressive episodes. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 32, 525-528.
74. Lewis, M. (1992). Shame: The exposed self: New York: The Free Press.
75. Linehan, M.M. (1993). Cognitive behavioral treatment of borderline personality disorder. New York: Guilford Press.
76. Liotti, G. (2000) Disorganized attachment, models of borderline states, and evolutionary psychotherapy. In P. Gilbert & K. Bailey (Eds.), Genes on the couch: Essays in evolutionary psychotherapy (pp. 232-256). Hove: Psychology Press.
77. Lovibond, P., & Lovibond, H. (1995). The structure of negative emotional states: Comparison of the Depression Anxiety Stress Scales (DASS) with beck depressive and anxiety inventories. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 3, 335-343.
78. Lynch, T.R., Trost, W.T., Salsman, N., & Linehan, M.M., (2007). Dialectical behavior therapy for borderline personality disorder. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, 3, 181-205.
79. Masten, A.S. (2001). Ordinary magic: Resilience processes in development. American Psychologist, 56, 227-238.
80. Matos, M., & Pinto-Gouveia, J. (2006). The shame experiences interview. Unpublished manuscript.
81. Matos, M., & Pinto-Gouveia, J. (2010). Shame as a traumatic memory. Clinical Psychology & Psychotherapy, 17(4), 299-312.
82. Matos, M., & Pinto-Gouveia, J., (2010). Propriedades psicométricas da versão portuguesa da Escala do Impacto do Acontecimento-Revista (IES-R). Psychologica (In press)
83. Matos, M., & Pinto-Gouveia, J. (2011). The different impact of shame memories with attachment figures and with others on depression vulnerability. (Submitted manuscript)
84. Matos, M., Pinto-Gouveia, J., & Gilbert, P. (2010). The effect of shame and shame memories on paranoid ideation and social anxiety in a general community sample. (Manuscript under review);
85. McAdams, D.P. (2001). The psychology of life stories. Review of General Psychology, 5, 100-122.
86. McAdams, D.P., Josselson, R. & Lieblich, A. (Eds.) (2006). Identity and story: Creating self in narrative. Washington, DC: APA Books.
87. McFarlane, A.C. (1988). The longitudinal course of posttraumatic morbidity. The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 176, 30-39.
88. Mennin, D.S., & Farach, F.J. (2007). Emotion and evolving treatments for adult psychopathology. Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice, 14, 329-352.
89. Michael, T., Halligan, S.L., Clark, D.M., & Ehlers, A. (2007). Rumination in posttraumatic stress disorder. Depression and Anxiety, 24, 307-317.
90. Mikulincer, M., & Shaver, P.R. (2004). Security-based self-representations in adulthood: Contents and processes. In W.S. Rholes & J.A. Simpson (Eds.), Adult attachment: Theory, research, and clinical implications (pp. 159-195). New York: Guilford Press.
91. Mikulincer, M., & Shaver, P. (2005). Mental representations of attachment security: Theoretical foundations for a positive social psychology. In M.W. Baldwin (Ed.) Interpersonal cognition (p.233-266). New York: Guilford Press.
92. Mikulincer, M., & Shaver, P.R. (2007). Attachment in adulthood: Structure, dynamics, and change. New York: Guilford.
93. Moberly N.J., & Watkins E.R. (2008). Ruminative self-focus, negative life events, and negative affect. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 46, 1034-1039.
94. Muris, P., Roelofs, J., Rassin, E., Franken, I., & Mayer, B. (2005). Mediating effects of rumination and worry on the links between neuroticism, anxiety and depression. Personality and Individual Differences, 39, 1105-1111.
95. Nolen-Hoeksema, S. (2000). The role of rumination in depressive disorders and mixed anxiety/depressive symptoms. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 109, 504-511.
96. Nolen-Hoeksema, S., Morrow, J., & Fredrickson, B.L. (1993). Response styles and the duration of episodes of depressed mood. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 102, 20-28.
97. Nolen-Hoeksema, S., Wisco, B.E., & Lyubomirsky, S. (2008). Rethinking rumination. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 3, 400-424.
98. Offen, L., Thomas, G., & Waller, G. (2003). Dissociation as a mediator of the relationship between recalled parenting and the clinical correlates of auditory hallucinations. British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 42, 231-241.
99. Ogawa, J.R., Sroufe, L.A., Weinfeld, N.S., Carlson, E.A., & Egeland, B. (1997). Development and the fragmented self: Longitudinal study of dissociative symptomatology in a nonclinical sample. Development and Psychopathology, 9, 855-879.
100. Pais-Ribeiro, J., Honrado, A., & Leal, I. (2004). Contribuição para o estudo da adaptação portuguesa das Escalas de Ansiedade Depressão e Stress de Lovibond e Lovibond. Psychologica, 36, 235-246.
101. Panksepp, J. (1998). Affective neuroscience: The foundation of human and animal emotion. New York: Oxford University Press.
102. Papageorgiou, C., & Wells, A. (2003). An empirical test of a clinical metacognitive model of rumination and depression. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 27, 261-273.
103. Parker, G. (1983). Parental overprotection: A risk factor in psychosocial development. New York: Grune and Stratton.
104. Perris, C. (1994). Linking the experience of dysfunctional parental rearing with manifest psychopathology: A theoretical framework. In C. Perris, W.A. Arrindell, & M. Eisemann (Eds.) Parenting and psychopathology. Chichester: Wiley.
105. Perry, B., Pollard, R., Blakley, T., Baker W., & Vigilante, D. (1995). Childhood trauma, the neurobiology of adaptation, and "use dependent" development of the brain: How states become traits. Journal of Infant Mental Health, 16, 271-291.
106. Pinto-Gouveia, J., & Albuquerque, P. (2007). Portuguese translation and adaptation of the White Bear Suppression Inventory. (Unpublished manuscript)
107. Pinto-Gouveia, J., & Dinis, A. (2006). Portuguese translation and adaptation of the Rumination Responses Questionnaire. (Unpublished manuscript)
108. Pinto-Gouveia, J., & Matos, M. (2010). Can shame memories become a key to identity? The centrality of shame memories predicts psychopathology. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 25, 281-290. DOI: 10.1002/acp1689.
109. Purdon, C. (1999). Thought suppression and psychopathology. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 37, 1029-1054.
110. Putnam, F.W., Guroff, J.J., Silberman, E.K., Barban, L., & Post, R.M. (1986). The clinical phenomenology of multiple personality disorder: Review of 100 cases. The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 47, 285-293.
111. Putnam, F.W., Carlson, E.B., Ross, C.A., Anderson, G., Clark, P., Torem, M., Bowman, E.S., Coons, P., Chu, J.A., Dill, D.L., Loewenstein, R.J., & Braun, B.G. (1996). Patterns of dissociation in clinical and nonclinical samples. The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 184, 673-679.
112. Raes, F., & Hermans, D. (2008). On the mediating role of subtypes of rumination in the relationship between childhood emotional abuse and depressed mood: Brooding vs. reflection, Depression and Anxiety, 25, 1067-1070.
113. Rockliff, H., Karl, A., McEwan, K., Gilbert, J., Matos, M., & Gilbert, P. (2011). Effects of Intranasal Oxytocin on 'Compassion Focused Imagery'. Emotion. DOI: 10.1037/a0023861
114. Ross, C.A., Miller, D.S., Reagor, P., Bjornson, L., Fraser, G.A., & Anderson, G. (1991). Structured interview: Data on 102 cases of multiple personality disorder from four centers. The American Journal of Psychiatry, 147, 596-601.
115. Rottenberg, J., & Gross, J.J. (2003). When emotion goes wrong: Realizing the promise of affective science. Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice, 10, 227-232.
116. Rottenberg, J., & Gross, J.J. (2007). Emotion and emotion regulation: A map for psychotherapy researchers. Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice, 14, 323-328.
117. Rottenberg, J., Gross, J.J., & Gotlib, I.H. (2005). Emotion context insensitivity in major depressive disorder. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 114, 627-639.
118. Safran, J.D., & Segal, Z.V. (1990). Interpersonal process in cognitive therapy. New York: Basic Books.
119. Schore, A.N. (1994). Affect regulation and the origin of the self: The neurobiology of emotional development. Hillsdale: N.J. Lawrence Erlbaum.
120. Schore, A.N. (1998). Early shame experiences and infant brain development. In P. Gilbert & B. Andrews (Eds.) Shame: Interpersonal behavior, psychopathology and culture (pp. 57-77). New York: Oxford University Press.
121. Schore, A.N. (2001). The effects of early relational trauma on right brain development, affect regulation, and infant mental health. Infant Mental Health Journal, 22, 201-269.
122. Siegel, D. (2001). Toward an interpersonal neurobiology of the developing mind: Attachment relationships, "mindsight, " and neural integration. Infant Mental Health Journal, 22, 67-94.
123. Singer, J.A., & Salovey, P. (1993). The remembered self: Emotion and memory in personality. New York: Free Press.
124. Spasojevic, J., & Alloy, L.B. (2001). Rumination as a common mechanism relating depressive risk factors to depression. Emotion, 1(1), 25-37.
125. Speckens, A.M., Ehlers, A., Hackmann, A., Ruths, F.A., & Clark, D.M. (2007). Intrusive memories and rumination in patients with post-traumatic stress disorder: A phenomenological comparison. Memory, 15, 249-257.
126. Stuewig, J., & McCloskey, L. (2005). The impact of maltreatment on adolescent shame and guilt: Psychological routes to depression and delinquency. Child Maltreatment, 10, 324-336.
127. Sutin, A.R., & Robins, R.W. (2008). Going forward by drawing from the past: Personal strivings, personally meaningful memories, and personality traits. Journal of Personality, 76, 631-663.
128. Szasz, P.L. (2009). A mediation analysis of thought suppression, depressive rumination, and depression. Journal of Cognitive and Behavioral Psychotherapies Vol.9, No. 2, September 2009, 199-209.
129. Szentagotai, A. (2006). Irrational beliefs, thought suppression and distress-A mediation analysis. Journal of Cognitive and Behavioral Psychotherapies, 6, 119-127.
130. Talbot J.A., Talbot, N.L., & Tu X. (2004). Shame-proneness as a diathesis for dissociation in women with histories of childhood sexual abuse. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 17, 445-448.
131. Tangney, J.P., & Dearing, R.L. (2002). Shame and guilt. New York: Guilford Press.
132. Tangney, J.P. & Fischer, K.W. (Eds.) (1995). The self-conscious emotions: Shame, guilt, embarrassment, and pride. New York: Guilford Press.
133. Teicher, M. (2002). Scars that won't heal: The neurobiology of child abuse. Scientific American, 286, 68-75.
134. Tracy, J.L., & Robins, R.W. (2004). Putting the self into self-conscious emotions: A theoretical model. Psychological Inquiry, 15, 103-125.
135. Trapnell, P.D., & Campbell, J.D. (1999). Private self-consciousness and the five-factor model of personality: Distinguishing rumination from reflection. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 76, 284-304.
136. Treynor, W., Gonzalez, R., & Nolen-Hoeksema, S. (2003). Rumination reconsidered: A psychometric analysis, Cognitive Therapy and Research, 27, 247-25.
137. Ward, A., Lyubomirsky, S., Sousa, L., & Nolen-Hoeksema, S. (2003). Can't quite commit: Rumination and uncertainty. Personality & Social Psychology Bulletin, 29, 96-107.
138. Watkins, E. (2004). Adaptive and maladaptive ruminative self-focus during emotional processing. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 42, 1037-1052.
139. Watkins, E. (2008). Constructive and unconstructive repetitive thought. Psychological Bulletin, 134, 163-206
140. Webb, M., Heisler, D., Call, S., Chickering, S.A., & Colburn, T.A. (2007). Psychological maltreatment: Its relationship to shame, guilt, and depression. Child Abuse & Neglect: The International Journal, 31, 1143-1153.
141. Wegner, D.M., & Erber, R. (1992). The hyperaccessibility of suppressed thoughts. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 63, 903-912.
142. Wegner, D.M., & Zanakos, S. (1994). Chronic thought suppression. Journal of Personality, 62, 615-640.
143. Wegner, D.M., Schneider, D.J., Carter, S.R., & White, T.L. (1987). Paradoxical effects of thought suppression. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 53, 5-13.
144. Weiss, D.S., & Marmar, C.R. (1997). The Impact of Event Scale-Revised. In J.P. Wilson & T.M. Keane (Eds), Assessing psychological trauma and PTSD (pp. 399-411). NY: The Guilford Press.
145. Wells, A. (2000). Emotional disorders and metacognition: Innovative cognitive therapy. Chichester, UK: Wiley.
146. Wells, A., & Papageorgiou, C. (1995). Worry and the incubation of intrusive images following stress, Behaviour Research and Therapy, 33, 579-583.
147. Wenzlaff, R.M., & Wegner, D.M. (2000). Thought suppression. Annual Review of Psychology, 51, 59-91.
148. Yoshizumi, T., Murase, S., Murakami, T., & Takai, J. (2007). Dissociation as a mediator between perceived parental rearing style and depression in an adult community population using college students. Personality and Individual Differences, 43, 353-364.
149. Zatzick, D.F., Marmar, C.F., Weiss, D.T., & Metzler, T. (1994). Does trauma-linked dissociation vary across ethnic groups? The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 182, 576-582.