A Comparative Study of the Principles Governing Criminal Responsibility in the Major Legal Systems of the World (England, United States, Germany, France, Denmark, Russia, China, and Islamic legal tradition)

Criminal Law Forum

Volumn 24, Issue 1, 2013, Pages 1-48

  Elewa Badar, Mohamed ^a   Marchuk, Iryna ^b  

^a Elliott Jaques Building   (United Kingdom)

^b UNIVERSITY OF COPENHAGEN   (Denmark)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 84875655018     PISSN: 10468374     EISSN: 15729850     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1007/s10609-012-9187-z     Document Type: Article

References (279)

1. GP Fletcher, Rethinking Criminal Law (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000) (reprint of a book first published by Little, Brown in 1978).
2. GP Fletcher, Basic Concepts of Criminal Law (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998) 4.
3. GP Fletcher, The Grammar of Criminal Law: American, Comparative and International, Volume I: Foundations (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007).
4. H Wechsler, 'Symposium on the Model Penal Code' (1963) 63 Columbia Law Review 589
5. H Wechsler, 'The Model Penal Code Project of the American Law Institute' (1951-1952) 20 University of Kansas City Law Review 205.
6. F Wharton, A Treatise of the Criminal Law of the United States: Comprising a General View of the Criminal Jurisprudence of the Common and Civil Law and a Digest of the Penal Statutes of the General Government, and of Massachusetts, New York, Pennsylvania, Virginia and Ohio; with the Decisions on Cases Arising upon Those Statutes (4th edn, Philadelphia: Kay & Brothers, 1857) 111.
7. L Katz, Crimes of Omission, Bad Acts and Guilty Minds: Conundrums of the Criminal Law (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1987) 140-145
8. L Katz, MS Moore, and SJ Morse (eds), Foundations of Criminal Law (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999) 170.
9. The Model Penal Code (§ 2.01) clearly provides that a 'person is not guilty of an offence unless his liability is based on conduct that includes a voluntary act'.
10. M Lippman, Contemporary Criminal Law: Concepts, Cases, and Controversies (Thousand Oaks: SAGE Publications, 2009) 85.
11. ATH Smith, 'On Actus Reus and Mens Rea' in PR Glazebrook (ed), Reshaping the Criminal Law (London: Stevens & Sons, 1978) 95, at 96.
12. RA Duff, Intention, Agency and Criminal Liability: Philosophy of Action and the Criminal law (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1990) 34.
13. JW Salmond and PJ Fitzgerald, Salmond on Jurisprudence (8th edn, London: Sweet & Maxwell, 1930) 394.
14. G Williams, Textbook of Criminal Law (2nd edn, London: Stevens & Sons, 1983) 76.
15. JWC Turner (ed), Kenny's Outline of Criminal Law (19th edn, London: Cambridge University Press, 1966) 36.
16. G Williams, 'Oblique Intention' (1987) 46 Cambridge Law Journal 417.
17. R v. Moloney [1985] AC 905 (HL), at 915, per Stephen Brown J.
18. DPP v. Smith [1961] AC 290 (HL).
19. Ibid., at 327 (HL) per Lord Viscount Kilmuir (emphasis added).
20. Criminal Justice Act 1967, s. 8 (UK): 'A court or jury, in determining whether a person has committed an offence, - (a) shall not be bound in law to infer that he intended or foresaw a result of his actions by reason only of its being a natural and probable consequence of those actions; but (b) shall decide whether he did intend or foresee that result by reference to all the evidence, drawing such inferences from the evidence as appear proper in the circumstances.' 17 Hyam v. DPP [1975] AC 55 (HL).
21. Ibid., at 65-79, per Lord Hailsham.
22. Ibid., at 85, per Lord Viscount Dilhorne.
23. Ibid., at 95-98, per Lord Cross.
24. R. v. Moloney (n. 13 above).
25. Ibid., at 925 (emphasis added).
26. Ibid., at 929.
27. R. v. Hancock and Shankland [1986] 1 AC 455 (HL), at 460, per Lord Scarman.
28. R. v. Nedrick [1986] 83 Cr. App. R. 267 (CA) (Crim. Div).
29. Ibid., at 270-271 (emphasis added).
30. J Smith, 'Commentary on Nedrick' (1986) Criminal Law Review 742, at 743-744
31. G Williams, 'The Mens Rea for Murder: Leave it Alone' (1989) 105 Law Quarterly Review 387
32. JR Spencer, 'Murder in the Dark: A Glimmer of Light?' (1986) 45 Cambridge Law Journal 361, at 366-367.
33. R. v. Woollin, [1999] 1 AC 82 (HL).
34. Ibid., at 97 (emphasis added).
35. CMV Clarkson, HM Keating, and SR Cunningham, Clarkson and Keating Criminal Law: Text and Materials (6th edn, London: Sweet & Maxwell, 2007), 126.
36. A Norrie, 'After Woollin' (1999) Criminal Law Review 532, at 538.
37. J Horder, 'Intention in the Criminal Law - A Rejoinder' (1995) 58 Modern Law Review 678, at 687.
38. A Ashworth, Principles of Criminal Law (6th edn, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2009) 176-177.
39. Williams, Textbook of Criminal Law (n. 9 above) 96.
40. R. v. G [2004] 1 AC 1034.
41. R. v. Cunningham [1957] 2 Q.B. 396.
42. Turner (n. 10 above), 186.
43. R. v. Briggs (Note) [1977] 1 WLR 605 (CA); [1977] All ER 475 (CA)
44. R. v. Parker (Daryl) [1977] 1 WLR 600 (CA); [1977] 2 All ER 37, (CA). Both cases classified the test of recklessness as 'subjective'.
45. R v. Caldwell [1982] AC 341 (HL).
46. Ibid., at 355.
47. R. v. Lawrence [1982] AC 510, 526 (HL).
48. R. v. G and Another [2004] 1 AC 1034 (HL).
49. R. v. G and Another [2004] 1 AC 1034, 1055 and 1060 (HL), per Lords Bingham and Steyn.
50. D Ormerod, Smith and Hogan: Criminal Law (11th edn, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005) 108.
51. Williams, Textbook of Criminal Law (n. 9 above) 123.
52. Westminster City Council v. Croyalgrange Ltd and Another [1986] 2 All ER 353 (HL).
53. Ibid., at 359, per Lord Bridge.
54. Williams, Textbook of Criminal Law (n. 9 above) 125.
55. Leslie George Griffiths v. R. [1974] 60 Cr App R 14 (CA) 18.
56. A Criminal Code for England and Wales (1989) Law Com. No 177.
57. R. v. Briscoe, 2010 SCC 13 [2010] 1 S.C.R. 411, para. 21; See also: R. v. Lagacé (2003) 181 C.C.C. (3d) 12 (Ont. C.A.); Sansregret v. The Queen [1985] 1 S.C.R. 570 and R. v. Jorgensen [1995] 4 S.C.R. 55.
58. R. v. Jorgensen [1995] 4 S.C.R. 55, at para. 103.
59. Sansregret v. The Queen [1985] 1 S.C.R. 570.
60. Ibid., at 584.
61. D Stuart, Canadian Criminal Law, A Treatise (4th edn, Toronto: Thomson Carswell, 2001) 231.
62. Duong, [1998] 15 C.R. (5th) 209 (Ont. C. A.) 402, cited in Stuart (n. 58 above) 231. 'Wilful blindness' is delineated as a state of mind which is aptly described as deliberate ignorance and is subjective in nature.
63. Williams, Textbook of Criminal Law (n. 9 above) 88.
64. English scholars differ as to whether negligence can properly be described as mens rea. On this see an explanation by A Ashworth, Principles of Criminal Law (4th edn, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003) 193-196
65. Turner (n. 10 above) 38
66. Williams, Text Book of Criminal Law (n. 10 above) 90-91.
67. Williams, Textbook of Criminal Law (n. 9 above) 90.
68. For an explanation on the difference between recklessness and negligence, consult: Turner (n. 10 above) 38-39.
69. The Law Commission Report on 'Murder, Manslaughter and Infanticide, Project 6 of the Ninth Programme of Law Reform: Homicide' (Law Com. No 304, 2006) para. 3.60, at 64 accessed 5 October 2012, endorsed the definition of 'causing death by gross negligence' adopted in its earlier report, 'Involuntary Manslaughter' (Law Com No 237, 1996), para. 5.34.
70. Turner (n. 10 above) 39.
71. Andrew v. DPP [1937] 2 All ER 552, 556 (HL), per Lord Atkin.
72. J Hall, General Principles of Criminal Law (2nd edn, Indianapolis: The Bobbs- Merrill Company Inc., 1960) 163.
73. G Williams, Textbook of Criminal Law (2nd edn, First Indian Reprint, New Delhi: Universal Law Publishing Co. Pvt. Ltd., 1999) 90-91.
74. Hall (n. 67 above) 70.
75. Morissette v. United States, 342 U.S. 246, 252 (1952).
76. WR LaFave, Criminal Law (4th edn, Hornbook Series Student Edition, Eagan: Thomson West, 2003) 242.
77. RM Perkins and RN Boyce, Criminal Law (3rd edn, The Foundation Press, Inc., 1982) 828.
78. J Stephen, in Regina v. Tolston, L.R. 23 Q.B.Div. 168, 185 (1889).
79. LaFave (n. 71 above) 239.
80. In the Code's formulation, these types of liability, save for negligence, have to be determined subjectively.
81. RJ Bacigal, Criminal Law and Procedure: An Introduction (2nd edn, Eagan: West Thomson Learning, 2002) 39.
82. Pursuant to § 1.13(9), an 'element of an offence' means such conduct, attendant circumstances or results as is included in the description of the offence; OR establishes the required kind of culpability; OR negatives an excuse or justification for such conduct; OR negatives a defence under the statute of limitations; OR establishes jurisdiction or venue.
83. LaFave (n. 71 above) 244.
84. U.S. - U.S. v. Anton, 683 F.2d 1011 (7th Cir. 1982) (overruled on other grounds by U.S. v. Carlos-Colmenares, 253 F.3d 276 (7th Cir. 2001)).
85. Neb. - State v. Stewart, 219 Neb. 347, 363 N.W.2d 368 (1985). Intent may be general or specific. See: La. - State v. Fuller, 414 So. 2d 306 (La. 1982); Mich. - People v. Nowack, 462 Mich. 392, 614 N.W.2d 78 (2000); S.D. - State v. Schouten, 2005 SD 122, 707 N.W.2d 820 (S.D. 2005).
86. Model Penal Code, § 2.02(1)(a).
87. Model Penal Code, § 2.02(1)(a).
88. KW Simons, 'Does Punishment for "Culpable Indifference" Simply Punish for "Bad Character"? Examining the Requisite Connection between Mens Rea and Actus Reus' (2002) 6 Buffalo Criminal Law Review 219, at 239.
89. Model Penal Code, § 2.02(1)(b).
90. Model Penal Code, § 2.02(7) (emphasis added). In United States v. Leary 395 U.S. 6 (1969) and United States v. Turner 396 U.S. 398 (1970), the Supreme Court approved the use of Section 2.02(7) of the Model Penal Code.
91. American Law Institute, Model Penal Code and Commentaries (Philadelphia: American Law Institute, 1980), §2.02 Comment at 248.
92. JL Marcus, 'Model Penal Code Section 2.02(7) and Willful Blindness' (1992-1993) 102 Yale Law Journal 2235.
93. United States v. Jewell, 532 F.2d 697 (9th Cir. 1976).
94. United States v. Valle-Valdez, 554 F.2d 911, 914 (9th Cir. 1977). Contra
95. RM Perkins, '"Knowledge" as a Mens Rea Requirement' (1977-1978) 29 Hastings Law Journal 953, at 964 (arguing that the notion adopted by courts that it is not culpable to form 'a conscious purpose to avoid learning the truth' unless a person is aware of facts indicating a high probability of that truth results from a failure to distinguish culpability from proof).
96. Tison v. Arizona, 481 U.S. 137, 150, 107 S.Ct. 1676, 95 L.Ed.2d 127 (1987); United States v. U.S. Gypsum Co., 438 U.S. 422, 445, 98 S.Ct. 2864, 57 L.Ed.2d 854 (1978); W. R. LaFave, Substantive Criminal Law (2nd edn, St. Paul, MN: Thomson/ West Group, 2003) § 5.2(e), at 354; see also Carter v. United States, 530 U.S. 255, 268, 120 S.Ct. 2159, 147 L.Ed.2d 203 (2000).
97. United States v. Bailey, 444 U.S. 394, 405, 100 S.Ct. 624, 62 L.Ed.2d 575 (1980).
98. Pierre v. Attorney General of U.S., 528 F.3d 180, 192 (3rd Cir., Jun 09, 2008) (NO. 06-2496). Bailey's test was challenged in this case.
99. Auguste v. Ridge, 395 F.3d 123, 133 n. 7 (3d Cir. 2005) 145-146, citing in support Carter v. United States, 530 U.S. at 269, 120 S.Ct. 2159.
100. DE Hall, Criminal Law and Procedure (4th edn, Albany: Thomson Delmar Learning, 2004) 52.
101. People v. Lara, 44 Cal.App.4th 102, 51 Cal.Rptr.2d 402, 96 Cal. Daily Op. Serv. 2281, 96 Daily Journal D.A.R. 3793 (Cal.App. 2 Dist. Apr 02, 1996) (NO. B091227), referring to § 242; People v. Colantuono (1994) 7 Cal.4th at p. 217, 26 Cal.Rptr.2d 908, 865 P.2d 704.
102. LaFave (n. 71 above) 269.
103. Model Penal Code, § 2.02 (2)(c) reads: A person acts recklessly with respect to a material element of an offense when he consciously disregards a substantial and unjustifiable risk that the material element exists or will result from his conduct. The risk must be of such a nature and degree that, considering the nature and purpose of the actor's conduct and the circumstances known to him, its disregard involves a gross deviation from the standard of conduct that a law-abiding person would observe in the actor's situation.
104. DM Treiman, 'Recklessness and the Model Penal Code' (1981) 9 American Journal of Criminal Law 281, at 351.
105. Model Penal Code and Commentaries (n. 87 above), § 2.02 Comment at 237.
106. Perkins and Boyce (n. 72 above) 840-849 (original footnote omitted).
107. Model Penal Code, § 2.02 (2)(d).
108. People v. Garris, 159 A.D.2d 744, 551 N.Y.S.2d 971 (N.Y.A.D. 3 Dept., Mar 01, 1990) (NO. 57607).
109. Ibid., at 745 citing in support of its conclusions People v. Ricardo B., 73 N.Y.2d 228, 235-236, 538 N.Y.S.2d 796, 535 N.E.2d 1336; People v. Haney, 30 N.Y.2d 328, 335, 333 N.Y.S.2d 403, 284 N.E.2d 564
110. W Donnino, Practice Commentaries, McKinney's Cons. Laws of N.Y., Book 39, Penal Law art. 125, at 492-493.
111. V Krey and R Esser, Deutsches Strafrecht: Allgemeiner Teil (German Criminal Law General Part) (4th edn, Stuttgart: Kohlhammer, 2011) 104-113.
112. This three-stage structure of the criminal offence in German Criminal Law was firstly introduced by Franz von Liszt in his classical Lehrbuch of 1881. The same idea was developed by Ernst Beling (Die Lehre vom Verbrechen (Tübingen: Mohr, 1906)
113. Die Lehre vom Tatbestand (Tübingen: Mohr, 1930)).H-H Jescheck, 'The Doctrine of Mens Rea in German Criminal Law: Its Historical Background and Present Statute' (1975) 8 Comparative and International Law Journal of Southern Africa 112, at 114-115.
114. WF Ebke and MW Finkin, Introduction to German Law (The Hague: Kluwer Law International, 1996) 387.
115. W Naucke, 'An Insider's Perspective on the Significance of German Criminal Theory's General System for Analyzing Criminal Acts' (1984) Brigham Young University Law Review 305.
116. Krey & Esser (n. 109 above).
117. H Schumann, 'Criminal Law' in J Zekoll and M Reimann (eds), Introduction to German Law (2nd edn, The Hague: Kluwer Law International, 2005) 387, at 398.
118. J Wessels and W Beulke, Strafrecht: Allgemeiner Teil, (40th edn, Heidelberg: Mü ller Verlag, 2010) 144.
119. K Waaben and LB Langsted, Strafferettens almindelige del, I ansvarslæren, 5. reviderede udgave, 1 oplag (København: Karnov Group Denmark A/S, 2011) 63 (in Danish).
120. The case on the application of strict liability under Danish criminal law was submitted to the EC Court (326/88 Hansen & Søn). The Court held that the regulation at dispute granted member states considerable discretion as to the introduction of legal provisions concerning criminal liability.
121. LB Langsted, P Garde, and V Greve, Criminal Law: Denmark (2nd edn, København: DJØF Publishing, 2004) 47.
122. Waaben and Langsted (n. 116 above) 65.
123. K Waaben, 'Criminal Law' in J Verstergaard (ed), Criminal Justice in Denmark: A Reader (København: DIS, 1983).
124. B Chabert and P-O Sur, Droit pénal général (Paris: Dalloz, 1997) quoted in C Elliot, French Criminal Law (London: Willan Publishing, 2001) 59.
125. J Bell, et al., Principles of French Law (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998) 206
126. B Dikson, Introduction to French Law (London: Pitman Publishing, 1994) 102.
127. French Criminal Code, Article 121-123.
128. A Raroga (ed), Criminal Law of Russian Federation: General Part (4th edn, Moscow: EKSMO Publisher, 2010) 48-54 (in Russian).
129. L Gauhman and S Maksimov, Criminal Law of Russian Federation: General Part (2nd edn, Moscow: OMEGA-L Publisher, 2010) 82-83
130. Raroga (n. 123 above) 49-51.
131. According to Article 5(1) of the Criminal Code of Russian Federation (hereinafter - CCRF): 'A person shall be subject to criminal responsibility only for those socially harmful acts (omissions) and socially harmful consequences in respect to which his guilt has been established'.
132. Article 3(1) of the CCRF reads: 'The criminality of conduct, its punishability and other legal consequences shall be determined by the present Code alone'.
133. I Kosachenko (ed), Criminal Law: General Part (4th edn, Moscow: NORMA Publisher, 2009) 170-171 (in Russian).
134. Kosachenko (n. 127 above) 186
135. Raroga (n. 123 above) 71.
136. Gauhman and Maksimov (n. 124 above) 107.
137. Article 2(1) of the CCRF.
138. Kosachenko (n. 127 above) 189-190
139. Gauhman and Maksimov (n. 124 above) 115-116.
140. DA Garbatobich, Qualification of Criminal Offences by the Subjective Element (Moscow: Yurlitinform, 2009) 7 (in Russian).
141. Q Xinqiu, Criminal Law (Beijing: China University of Political Science and Law Press, 2007) 31.
142. W Luo, 'China' in KJ Heller and MD Dubber (eds), The Handbook of Comparative Criminal Law (Palo Alto: Stanford University Press, 2011)
143. citing in support I Dobinson, 'Criminal Law' in W Chenguang and Z Xianchu (eds), Introduction to Chinese Law (Hong Kong: Sweet and Maxwell Asia, 1997) 111.
144. Q Xinjiu, The Spirit and Scope of Criminal Law (Beijing: China University of Political Science and Law Press, 2003) 14-15, 384-386.
145. Articles 13-16 of the 1997 Chinese Criminal Code.
146. Ibid., Article 17.
147. Ibid., Article 18.
148. Luo (n. 134 above) 148.
149. H Welzel, Das deutsche Strafrecht (11th edn, Berlin: de Gruyter, 1969) 64
150. K Lackner and K Kühl, Strafgesetzbuch (München: Beck'sche Verlagsbuchhandlung, 2011) 105 et seq.
151. C Roxin, Strafrecht: Allgemeiner Teil (München: Beck'sche Verlagsbuchhandlung, 1997) 364.
152. Bell (n. 121 above) 225.
153. J-C Soyer, Droit pénal et procédure pénale (18th edn, Paris: LGDJ, 2004) 98.
154. D Sternberg-Lieben, in A Schönke and H Schrö der (eds), Strafgesetzbuch: Kommentar (28th edn, München: Beck'sche Verlagsbuchhandlung, 2010) 260.
155. Lackner and Kühl (n. 140 above) 113 et seq.
156. Wessels & Beulke (n. 115 above) 82.
157. G Stefan, G Levasseur and B Bouloc, Droit pénal general (18th edn, Paris: DALLOZ, 2003) 230 and 235.
158. C Elliot, 'The French Law of Intent and Its Influence on the Development of International Criminal Law' (2000) 11 Criminal Law Forum 35, at 38.
159. Bell (n. 121 above) 226.
160. Article 25(2) of the CCRF.
161. Garbatobich (n. 132 above) 8-20.
162. Commission of Legislative Affairs of the Standing Committee of the NPC, The Chinese Criminal Law of People's Republic of China: Interpretation of the Provisions, Legislative Reasons and Relevant Legal Documents (Beijing: Peking University Press, 2009) 21.
163. R Qilin, Criminal Law (Beijing: China University of Political Science and Law Press, 2008) 86.
164. V Greve, A Jensen, PD Jensen, and GT Nielsen, Kommenteret straffelov: almindelig del, 9. omarbejdede udgave (København: Jurist- og Økonomforbundets Forlag, 2009) 223 (in Danish)
165. B Dahl, T Melchior, and D Tamm, Danish Law in a European Perspective (2nd edn, Copenhagen: Thomson Publishers, 2002) 479-480
166. Langsted, Garde and Greve (n. 118 above) 56.
167. A Ross, Forbrydelse og Straf, Analytiske og refarmatoriske bidrag til kriminalrettens almindelige del (København: Nyt Nordisk Forlag Arnold Busck, 1974) 9-54 (in Danish).
168. Waaben and Langsted (n. 116 above) 166.
169. Sternberg-Lieben (n. 142 above) 261
170. Lackner and Kühl (n. 140 above) 114
171. Wessels & Beulke (n. 115 above) 83.
172. H-H Jescheck and T Weigend, Lehrbuch des Strafrechts: Allgemeiner Teil (Berlin: Duncker & Humblot, 1996) 298 et seq.
173. In this case dolus directus first degree does not apply because D did not aim for the death of crew members and passengers. This fatal result was neither the final goal nor the necessary interim goal.
174. H Renout, Droit pénal general (Orléans: É ditions Paradigme, 2008) 140.
175. Stefan, Levasseur and Bouloc (n. 144 above) 229.
176. Elliot (n. 121 above) 67.
177. Article 25(3) of the CCRF.
178. Kosachenko (n. 127 above) 279.
179. This is akin to the concept of 'wilful blindness' in common law which applies to the situations when a person deliberately avoids learning the truth.
180. Greve, Jensen, Jensen, and Nielsen (n. 151 above) 224.
181. H Schumann, 'Criminal Law' in Ebke and Finkin (n. 113 above) 389-390.
182. Entscheidungen des Bundesgerichtshofs in Strafsachen (BGHSt) 7, 363, 368-370
183. Krey & Esser (n. 109 above) 155.
184. BGH NStZ 2000, 165 quoted in G Taylor, 'Concepts of Intention in German Criminal Law' (2004) 24 Oxford Journal of Legal Studies 99.
185. ME Badar, Mens rea - Mistake of Law & Mistake of Fact in German Criminal Law: A Survey for International Criminal Tribunals (2005) 5 International Criminal Law Review 203, at 228-232.
186. Langsted, Garde, and Greve (n. 118 above) 480
187. G Toftegaard Nielsen, Strafferet I, Ansvaret (København: DJØF Publishing, 2008) 69-74.
188. UfR 1979, 576H and UfR 1992, 455 H.
189. Waaben and Langsted (n. 116 above) 168.
190. Ibid., at 168-169
191. Greve, Jensen, Jensen and Nielsen (n. 151 above) 225.
192. Greve, Jensen, Jensen, and Nielsen (n. 151 above) 225
193. Langsted, Garde, and Greve (n. 118 above) 57.
194. Soyer (n. 141 above) 102.
195. Stefan, Levasseur, and Bouloc (n. 144 above) 238.
196. Renout (n. 157 above) 153-155.
197. K Lackner and K Kühl, Strafgesetzbuch Kommentar, 25. Auflage (München: Verlag C. H. Beck, 2007) 104
198. H Tröndle and T Fischer, Strafgesetzbuch und Nebengesetze, 53. Auflage (München: Verlag C. H. Beck, 2006) 107.
199. Case is reproduced in Deutscher Reichstag, Stenographische Berichte, at 2568 ff.
200. C Mullins, The Leipzig Trials: An Account of the War Criminals' Trials and a Study of German Mentality (London: H.F. & G. Witherby, 1921) 151 ff.
201. Lackner and Kühl (n. 177 above) 104
202. Tröndle and Fischer (n. 177 above) 107.
203. J Baumann, U Weber, and W Mitsch, Strafrecht Allgemeiner Teil, Lehrbuch, 11. neubearbeitete Auflage (Bielefeld: Verlag Ernst und Werner Gieseking, 2003) 525.
204. French Criminal Code, Article 121-123.
205. Russian Criminal Code, Article 26(2).
206. Raroga (n. 123 above) 139-141.
207. Article 26(3) of the CCRF.
208. Kosachenko (n. 127 above) 286.
209. Article 15(1), Chinese Criminal Code.
210. Waaben and Langsted (n. 116 above) 177.
211. Ibid., at 178.
212. Greve et al. (n. 151 above) 220-223.
213. A Layish, 'The Transformation of the Shari'a from Jurists Law to Statutory Law' (2004) 1 Die Welt des Islams, New Series 86
214. FA Hassan, 'The Sources of Islamic Law' (1982) 76 American Society of International Law Proceedings 65, at 65.
215. MC Bassiouni, The Shari'a and Post-Conflict Justice (2010) 15 (on file with the author).
216. J Esoisutim, 'Contemporary Islam: Reformation or Revolution?' in J Esposito (ed), The Oxford History of Islam (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999) 643.
217. H Hamoudi, 'The Death of Islamic Law' (2009) 38 Georgia Journal of International and Comparative Law 316, at 325.
218. R Peters, Crime and Punishment in Islamic Law (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007) 124.
219. AQ 'Oudah, Criminal Law of Islam (Z Aijaz, translation) (vol II, New Delhi: Kitabbhavan, 2005) 77.
220. E Ghodsi, 'Murder in the Criminal Law of Iran and Islam' (2004) 68 Journal of Criminal Law 160, at 165.
221. AO Naseef, Encyclopedia of Seerah, vol III, The Muslim Schools Trust, London (1982) 741, in YY Bambale, Crimes and Punishment under Islamic Law (Lagos: Malthouse Press, 2003) 6.
222. Oudah, Criminal Law of Islam (n. 196 above) 77.
223. AF Bahnassi, 'Criminal Responsibility in Islamic Criminal Law' in MC Bassiouni (ed), The Islamic Criminal Justice System (New York: Oceana Publications, 1982) 175.
224. Peters (n. 195 above) 42.
225. L Zakariyah, 'Applications of Legal Maxims in Islamic Criminal Law with Special Reference to Sharī'ah Law in Northern Nigeria (1999-2007)' (DPhil thesis, University of Wales, 2009) 64.
226. M Ibn Mandhur, Lisan al-'Arab (vol 1, Beirut: Daru Sādir, n.d.) 96, al-Raghib al-alAsfahānĩ: al-Mufradād fi gharib ial-Qurān ed. Muhammad Sayyid Kaylani (Lebanon: Dar al-Ma'rifah n.d.) explained the meaning of Amr in verses 97 and 123, 154, of Suwar al-Hũ d, al-Imran, respectively.
227. See Muhammad Siddiq Ibn Ahmad al-Burnuu, Mawsū'ah al-Qawā'id al-fiqhiyyah n.p. 1416, vol. 1, at.133, in L. Zakariyah, 'Applications of Legal Maxims in Islamic Criminal Law with Special Reference to Sharī'ah Law in Northern Nigeria (1999-2007)' (DPhil thesis, University of Wales, 2009) 64.
228. Zakariyah (n. 204 above) 65.
229. Al-Bukhari, Sahih, Volume 1, Book 1, hadith no. 1, narrated by 'Umar bin Al-Khattab; Muslim, Sahih, Book 20, hadith no. 4692.
230. 'Oudah, Criminal Law of Islam (n. 196 above) 103.
231. Bahnassi (n. 200 above) 177.
232. AQ 'Oudah, Encyclopedia in Islamic Criminal Jurisprudence: With Commentary by Ayat Allah Ismail Al Sadr and Opinions of Tawfik Al Shawy Etal (vol I, part 3, Cairo: Dar Al Shirouq, 2001) 49 [hereinafter 'Oudah, Encyclopedia vol I].
233. Bahnassi (n. 200 above) 178
234. N Sanad, The Theory of Crime and Criminal Responsibility in Islamic Law, Shari'a (Chicago: Office of International Criminal Justice, University of Illinois, 1991) 87.
235. J Schacht, An Introduction to Islamic Law (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1964) 181.
236. PR Powers, 'Offending Heaven and Earth: Sin and Expiation in Islamic Homicide Law' (2007) 14 Islamic Law and Society 42, at 47 fn. 10.
237. 'Oudah, Encyclopedia vol. I (n. 210 above) 45.
238. Ibn Qudāma, al-Mughnī, II vols. (Beirut: Dār Ihyā'al-Turāth al-'Arabī, n.d.), vol VII, at 648-649, in Peters (n. 195 above) 44.
239. Oudah, Criminal Law of Islam (n. 196 above) 87.
240. Peters (195 above) 42.
241. Ghodsi (n. 197 above) 165.
242. SS Haneef, Homicide in Islam: Legal Structure and the Evidence Requirements (Kuala Lumpur: A.S. Noordeen, 2000) 30-39.
243. Caliph Umar, Caliph Uthman, and Caliph Ali cited in SS Haneef, Homicide in Islam: Legal Structure and the Evidence Requirements (Kuala Lumpur: A.S. Noordeen, 2000) 32.
244. Ibn Rushd cited in SS Haneef, Homicide in Islam: Legal Structure and the Evidence Requirments (Kuala Lumpur: A.S. Noordeen, 2000) 32-33.
245. Bahnassi (n. 200 above) 177
246. 'Oudah, Criminal Law of Islam (n. 196 above) 88.
247. Al-Dasuqi Commentary 215, 237,
248. Bahnassi (n. 200 above) 177.
249. M Abu Zahra, Al Jarima Wal Uquba Fil Islam (Crime and Punishment in Islamic Law) (Cairo: Dar al Fiqr al 'Araby', 1998) 289.
250. Schacht (n. 212 above) 181.
251. M Lippman, S McConville, and M Yarushelmi, Islamic Criminal law and Procedure (New York: Greenwood Press, 1988) 51.
252. Haneef (n. 219 above) 44, fn. 153.
253. Powers (n. 213 above) 48
254. Lippman, McConville, and Yarushelmi (n. 226 above) 50.
255. IAK Nyazee, General Principles of Criminal Law: Islamic and estern (Islamabad: Advanced Legal Studies Institute, 2000) 98
256. 'Oudah, Criminal Law of Islam (n. 196 above) 88.
257. Haneef (n. 219 above) 17, fn. 15
258. Abu Hanifa, cited in Powers (n. 213 above) 48.
259. Schacht (n. 212 above) 182.
260. Verdict no. 639 of 26 May 1957 Goldozian 62 in E Ghodsi, 'Murder in The Criminal Law of Iran and Islam' (2004) 68 Journal of Criminal Law 160, at 166.
261. Verdicts no 3834, 3835 and 3836 of December 1956; Verdicts 640 and 641 of 26 May 1957
262. Verdict 4098 of 27 January 1957 Goldozian 62 in Ghodsi (n. 233 above) 166.
263. Verdict 1684 of 14 June 1957 I. Goldozian, Special Criminal law (Moassese Entesharat Tehran University: Tehran, 2001) 62 in Ghodsi (n. 232 above) 166.
264. Nyazee (n. 229 above) 99
265. Haneef (n. 219 above) 35.
266. Schacht (n. 212 above) 182.
267. Bahnassi (n. 200 above) 174.
268. See Powers (n. 213 above) 48
269. Peters (n. 195 above) 43
270. Nyazee (n. 229 above) 98.
271. 'Oudah, Criminal Law of Islam (n. 196 above) 89.
272. JND Anderson, 'Homicide in Islamic Law' (1951) 13 Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London 811, at 819
273. cited in Powers (n. 213 above) 47
274. 'Oudah, Criminal Law of Islam (n. 196 above) 88-92.
275. 'Oudah, Criminal Law of Islam (n. 196 above) 103.
276. Article 206 of the 1991 Penal Code of Islamic Republic of Iran.
277. Ghodsi (n. 197 above) 166.
278. Fletcher (n. 2 above).
279. Mohamed Elewa Badar, The Concept of Mens Rea in International, Criminal Law: The Case for a Unified Approach (Oxford: Hart, 2013).