Different paths of reconstruction: Military reform in post-war Sierra Leone and Liberia

International Peacekeeping

Volumn 20, Issue 1, 2013, Pages 2-16

  Nilsson, Desirée ^a   Kovacs, Mimmi Söderberg ^a  

^a UPPSALA UNIVERSITY   (Sweden)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 84875284076     PISSN: 13533312     EISSN: 1743906X     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/13533312.2013.761825     Document Type: Article

References (135)

1. For analyses of SSR, see inter alia, Albrecht Schnabel and Hans Born, Security Sector Reform Narrowing the Gap between Theory and Practice, Geneva: The Geneva Centre for the Democratic Control of Armed Forces (DCAF), 2011
2. Heiner Hanggi, 'Conceptualising Security Sector Reform and Reconstruction', in Alan Bryden and Hanggi (eds), Reform and Reconstruction of the Security Sector, Munster: LIT Verlag, 2004, pp.3-18
3. Michael Brzoska, 'Introduction: Criteria for Evaluating Post-Conflict Reconstruction and Security Sector Reform in Peace Support Operations', International Peacekeeping, Vol.13, No.1, 2006, pp.1-13
4. Alpaslan Ozerdem, 'Insurgency, Militias and DDR as Part of Security Sector Reconstruction in Iraq: How Not to Do It', Disasters, Vol.34 (suppl.1), 2010, pp.40-59.
5. Hanggi (see n.1 above), p.1.
6. Matthew Hoddie and Caroline A. Hartzell, 'Civil War Settlements and the Implementation of Military Power-Sharing Arrangements', Journal of Peace Research, Vol.40, No.3, 2003, pp.303-20;
7. Monica Toft, Securing the Peace: The Durable Settlement of Civil Wars, Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2010;
8. Barbara F. Walter, Committing to Peace: The Successful Settlement of Civil Wars, Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2002.
9. Katherine Glassmyer and Nicholas Sambanis, 'Rebel Military Integration and Civil War Termination', Journal of Peace Research, Vol.45, No.3, 2008, pp.365-84
10. William D. Stanley and Charles T. Call, 'Military and Police Reform after Civil Wars', in John Darby and Roger MacGinty (eds), Contemporary Peace Making: Conflict, Peace Processes and Post-War Reconstruction, New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2008, pp.300-12.
11. Stanley and Call (see n.4 above), pp.300-12.
12. Kimberly Marten, 'Patronage vs. Professionalism in New Security Institutions', PRISM, Vol.2, No.4, 2011, p.92.
13. See, e.g., Brzoska (see n.1 above)
14. Stephen F. Burgess, 'Fashioning Integrated Security Forces after
15. Conflict', African Security, Vol.1, No.2, 2008, pp.69-91
16. Florence Gaub, Military Integration after Civil Wars: Multiethnic Armies, Identity and Post-Conflict Reconstruction, London: Routledge, 2010
17. Sven Gunnar Simonsen, 'Building "National" Armies Building Nations? Determinants for Postintervention Integration Efforts', Armed Forces and Society, Vol.33, No.4, 2007, pp.571-90.
18. See, inter alia, Brzoska (see n.1 above); Neil Cooper and Michael Pugh, 'Security-Sector Trans formation in Post-Conflict Societies', working paper 5, London: Conflict Security and Development Group, King's College London, 2002 (at: http://securityanddevelopment.org/pdf/work5.pdf)
19. Hanggi (see n.1 above)
20. Schnabel and Born (see n.1 above).
21. For a discussion of these aspects see, for example, Daniel Bendix and Ruth Stanley, 'Deconstructing Local Ownership of Security Sector Reform: A Review of the Literature', African Security Review, Vol.17, No.2, 2008, pp.93-104
22. David M. Law, 'Conclusion: Security Sector (Re)Construction in Post-Conflict Settings', International Peacekeeping, Vol.13, No.1, 2006, pp.111-23
23. Schnabel and Born (see n.1 above).
24. Peace Agreement between the Government of Sierra Leone and the Revolutionary United Front of Sierra Leone', Lomé, 1999 (at: www.sierra-leone.org/lomeaccord.html).
25. John L. Hirsch, Sierra Leone: Diamonds and the Struggle for Democracy, Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner, 2001, p.81.
26. Yusuf Bangura, 'Strategic Policy Failure and Governance in Sierra Leone', The Journal of Modern African Studies, Vol.38, No.4, 2000, p.564.
27. Desirée Nilsson and Mimmi Soderberg Kovacs, 'Breaking the Cycle of Violence? Promises and Pitfalls of the Liberian Peace Process', Civil Wars, Vol.7, No.4, 2005, pp.396-414.
28. Lomé Peace Agreement (see n.10 above), article 17.
29. This has previously also been noted by Kayode J. Fayemi, 'Governing Insecurity in Post-Conflict States: The Case of Sierra Leone and Liberia', in Bryden and Hanggi (eds) (see n.1 above), pp.179-205.
30. Peace Agreement Between the Government of Liberia and the Liberians United for Reconciliation and Democracy (LURD) and the Movement for Democracy in Liberia (MODEL) and Political Parties', Accra, 18 Aug. 2003 (at: http://ucdp.uu.se), article I.
31. Ibid., article VII (italics added).
32. Desirée Nilsson, Crafting a Secure Peace: Evaluating the Liberia Comprehensive Peace Accord, Uppsala and New York: Uppsala University and the Mediation Support Unit, UN Department of Political Affairs, 2009.
33. Accra Peace Agreement (see n.16 above), article VII.
34. Peter Albrecht and Paul Jackson, Security System Transformation in Sierra Leone, 1997-2007, Birmingham: Global Facilitation Network for Security Sector Reform and International Alert, 2009, pp.46-49, 63-64.
35. Ibid., pp.51-53
36. Andrew M. Dorman, Blair's Successful War: British Military Intervention in
37. Sierra Leone, Aldershot: Ashgate, 1999, p.93.
38. Dorman (see n.21 above), pp.98-100.
39. International Crisis Group (ICG), Liberia: Uneven Progress in Security Sector Reform, Dakar/Brussels: ICG, 2009, p.i
40. Judy Smith-Hohn, Rebuilding the Security Sector in Post-Conflict Societies: Perceptions from Urban Liberia and Sierra Leone, London: Transaction Publishers, 2010, p.75.
41. Adedeji Ebo, The Challenges and Opportunities of Security Sector Reform in Post-Conflict Liberia, Geneva: DCAF, 2005, pp.16, 18-9
42. Interview by author with LURD representative at the peace negotiations, Monrovia, May 2011.
43. Ibid., p.24
44. ICG (see n.23 above), p.9.
45. Marcus Mohlin, 'The Strategic Use of Military Contractors: American Commercial Military Service Providers in Bosnia and Liberia, 1995-2009', unpublished PhD thesis, National Defence University, Helsinki, 2012, pp.189, 196.
46. Adedeji Ebo, 'Local Ownership and Emerging Trends in SSR: A Case Study of Outsourcing in Liberia', in Timothy Donais (ed.), Local Ownership and Security Sector Reform, Munster: LIT Verlag, 2008, p.160.
47. Mohlin (see n.26 above), p.189.
48. Elizabeth Blunt, 'Liberia Recruits a New Army', BBC News, 26 Jan. 2006
49. Thomas Jaye, 'Parliamentary Oversight and Lessons Learned from Internationalized Security Sector Reform', New York: Center on International Cooperation, New York University, 2009 (at: www.cic.nyu.edu/peacebuilding/docs/Liberia_SSR.pdf), p.5.
50. Albrecht and Jackson (see n.20 above), pp.57, 65-66.
51. Interview by author with representative of the Human Rights Commission, Freetown, 22 Apr. 2010.
52. Albrecht and Jackson (see n.20 above), p.66
53. ICG, Sierra Leone: Managing Uncertainty, Free town/Brussels: ICG, 2001, p.12
54. David Keen, Conflict and Collusion in Sierra Leone, Oxford: James Currey, 2005, p.284.
55. Keen (see n.32 above), p.284.
56. Interview by author with IMATT adviser A, Freetown, 22 April 2010.
57. Albrecht and Jackson (see n.20 above), p.65.
58. ICG (see n.23 above), p.11.
59. Ryan Nichols, 'Disarming Liberia: Progress and Pitfalls', in Nicholas Florquin and Eric Berman (eds), Armed and Aimless: Armed Groups, Guns and Human Security in the ECOWAS Region, Geneva: Small Arms Survey, 2005, p.116.
60. Wolf-Christian Paes, 'The Challenges of Disarmament, Demobilization and Reintegration in Liberia', International Peacekeeping, Vol.12, No.2, 2005, p.255.
61. ICG (see n.23 above), pp.i, 12 Interview by author with international advisor to the MoD, Monrovia, 7 May 2011.
62. ICG (see n.23 above), p.11.
63. Thomas Dempsey, 'Security Sector Reform in Liberia Part I: An Assessment of Defense Reform', paper 2008-01, Peacekeeping and Stability Operations Institute, U.S. Army, 2008 (at: http://pksoi.army.mil/srt/documents/Perspectives_SSR%20in%20Liberia%20Pt1.pdf), p.2.
64. ICG (see n.23 above), p.11.
65. Dempsey (see n.40 above), p.2
66. ICG (see n.23 above), p.13.
67. Albrecht and Jackson (see n.20 above), pp.65, 67
68. Mark Malan, 'Security and Military Reform', in Mark Malan, Sarah Meek, Thokozani Thusi, Jeremy Ginifer and Patrick Coker (eds), Sierra Leone: Building the Road to Recovery, Pretoria: Institute for Security Studies, 2003, p.99
69. Interview by author with IMATT adviser B, Freetown, 22 April 2010.
70. ICG (see n.23 above), pp.10, 12-13
71. Mohlin (see n.26 above), pp.192, 196-99.
72. Dempsey (see n.40 above), pp.2-5
73. ICG (see n.23 above), p.13, n.63.
74. Interview by author with IMATT advisers A and B, Freetown, 22 April 2010.
75. Adedeji Ebo, 'The Challenges and Lessons of Security Sector Reform in Post-Conflict Sierra Leone', Conflict, Security and Development, Vol.6, No.4, 2006, pp.487-91
76. Jeremy Ginifer, 'The Challenges of Security Sector and Security Reform Processes in Democratic Transitions: The Case of Sierra Leone', Democratization, Vol.13, No.5, 2006, pp.799-800
77. Adrian Horn, Funmi Olonisakin, and Gordon Peake, 'United Kingdom-Led Security Sector Reform in Sierra Leone', Civil Wars, Vol.8, No.2, 2006, pp.119-20
78. Interview by author with IMATT adviser B, Freetown, 13 Jan. 2011.
79. Interview by author with MoD, Freetown, 29 Apr. 2010.
80. Interview by author with international security adviser, Freetown, 26 Apr. 2010.
81. Interviews by author with RSLAF officers, Freetown, 28 Apr. 2010 and IMATT adviser A, Freetown, 22 Apr. 2010.
82. Interviews by author with international security adviser, Freetown, 26 Apr. 2010.
83. J. Wesley Washington, 'Liberia Activates Coast Guard Unit', UN Focus, Vol.6, No.2, 2009/10, pp.6-7.
84. Interview by author with AFRICOM advisers, Monrovia, 11 May 2011.
85. Speech by H.E. Ellen Johnson Sirleaf, President of the Republic of Liberia and Commander-In Chief', AFL, Barclay Training Center, Monrovia, 11 Feb. 2011 (at: www.emansion.gov.lr/doc/20110211_President_2011_AFDay_Speech.pdf).
86. ICG, Liberia: How Sustainable Is the Recovery?, Dakar/Brussels: ICG, 2011, p.11.
87. Interview by author with AFRICOM advisers, Monrovia, 11 May 2011.
88. Mohlin (see n.26 above), pp.200-203.
89. Dempsey (see n.40 above), p.2.
90. Interview by author with AFRICOM advisers, Monrovia, 11 May 2011.
91. Interview by author with IMATT adviser B, Freetown, 22 Apr. 2010.
92. Albrecht and Jackson (see n.20 above), pp.147-48.
93. Ebo (see n.47 above), p.494.
94. Osman Gbla, 'Security Sector Reform under International Tutelage in Sierra Leone', International Peacekeeping, Vol.13, No.1, 2006, p.88
95. Ginifer (see n.47 above), p.802
96. Interview by author with IMATT adviser B, Freetown, 22 Apr. 2010.
97. Albrecht and Jackson (see n.20 above), p.149.
98. Interview by author with IMATT adviser B, Freetown, 13 Jan. 2011.
99. ICG, Rebuilding Liberia: Prospects and Perils, Freetown/Brussels: ICG, 2004, pp.16-7.
100. Malan (see n.43 above), p.99.
101. Albrecht and Jackson (see n.20 above), pp.194-5
102. Smith Hohn (see n.23 above).
103. Horn, Olonisakin and Peake (see n.47 above), p.120.
104. Interview by author with legal adviser with the RSLAF, Freetown, 4 Jan. 2011.
105. Ebo (see n.47 above), pp.486-87. For a discussion of programmes where the military provides services to civil authorities, see Cooper and Pugh (see n.8 above), pp.45-46.
106. Interviews by author in Freetown, Bo, Pujehun, Kenema, Kono and Makeni, Jan. 2011.
107. Dempsey (see n.40 above), p.1.
108. ICG (see n.23 above), p.15.
109. Interview by author with AFRICOM advisers, Monrovia, 11 May 2011.
110. Ebo (see n.24 above)
111. Jaye (see n.29 above).
112. Interview by author with representative of the Parliamentary Defence Committee, Monrovia, 10 May 2011.
113. Interview by author with AFRICOM advisers, Monrovia, 11 May 2011.
114. Smith Hohn (see n.23 above), pp.94-95.
115. Horn, Olonisakin and Peake (see n.47 above), p.120.
116. Interview by author with IMATT advisers A and B, Freetown, 22 Apr. 2010.
117. A company for ECOWAS, AU and the UN peace support operations was set up and a reconnaissance company was deployed to Darfur as part of UNAMID in 2009. Interview by author with MoD, Freetown, 29 Apr. 2010.
118. Interviews by author with RSLAF officers, Freetown, 28 Apr. 2010, and representative of the Human Rights Commission, Freetown, 22 Apr. 2010.
119. Ginifer (see n.47 above), p.801.
120. Albrecht and Jackson (see n.20 above), p.145.
121. Author correspondence with IMATT adviser A, 24 May 2010.
122. Interviews by author, Freetown, Apr. 2010.
123. Dempsey (see n.40 above), p.4.
124. Interview by author with AFRICOM advisers, Monrovia, 11 May 2011.
125. Nicholas Cook, 'Liberia's Post-War Development: Key Issues and U.S. Assistance', Report for Congress, Congressional Research Service, Washington DC, 2010 (at: www.fas.org/sgp/crs/row/RL33185.pdf)
126. Ebo (see n.27 above), pp.160-64
127. ICG (see n.23 above), p.5
128. Nilsson (see n.18 above).
129. Patricia Jallah-Scott, Security Sector Reform and Local Ownership in Liberia, Nairobi and London: African Leadership Centre, 2008, pp.11, 39-40
130. Alexander Loden, 'Civil Society and Security Sector Reform in Post-Conflict Liberia: Painting a Moving Train without Brushes', International Journal of Transitional Justice, Vol.1, No.2, 2007, p.300
131. Interviews by author with former representatives of the warring parties, and civil society actors, Monrovia, 4-11 May 2011.
132. Ebo (see n.24 above).
133. Morten Bøas and Karianne Stig, 'Security Sector Reform in Liberia: An Uneven Partnership without Local Ownership', Journal of Intervention and Statebuilding, Vol.4, No.3, 2010, p.289.
134. Mark Malan, 'Security Sector Reform in Liberia: Mixed Results from Humble Beginnings', The Strategic Studies Institute of the U.S. Army War College, 2008 (at: www.StrategicStudiesInstitute.army.mil).
135. Military spending in post-conflict societies has been found to be associated with a higher risk of renewed conflict, see Paul Collier and Anke Hoeffler, 'Military Expenditure in Post-Conflict Societies', Economics of Governance, Vol.7, No.1, 2006, pp.89-107.