Gender and Ethnicity in Juvenile Risk Assessment

Criminal Justice and Behavior

Volumn 40, Issue 4, 2013, Pages 388-408

  Shepherd, Stephane M ^a   Luebbers, Stefan ^a   Dolan, Mairead ^a  

^a MONASH UNIVERSITY   (Australia)

Author keywords

ethnicity; gender; juvenile offenders; risk assessment

Indexed keywords

EID: 84875024180     PISSN: 00938548     EISSN: 15523594     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1177/0093854812456776     Document Type: Article

References (198)

1. Andrews C.OJJDP tribal youth initiatives. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Justice Programs, Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention; 2003:.
2. Andrews D. A.,Bonta J.LSI-R: The Level of Service Inventory-Revised. Toronto, Canada: Multi-Health Systems; 1995:.
3. Andrews D. A.,Bonta J. A.The psychology of criminal conduct. 2006). The psychology of criminal conduct (4th ed.). Cincinnati, OH: Anderson.Cincinnati, OH: Anderson; 2006:.
4. Andrews D. A.,Guzzo L.,Raynor P.,Rowe R. C.,Rettinger L. J.,Brews A.,Wormith J. S.Are the major risk/need factors predictive of both female and male reoffending? A test with the eight domains of the Level of Service/Case Management Inventory.International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology. 2012;56:113-133.
5. Augimeri L.,Koegl C.,Webster C. D.,Levene K.The Early Assessment of Risk List for Boys (EARL-20B), Version 2. Toronto, Canada: Earlscourt Child and Family Centre; 2001:.
6. AuslanderB. A. (1998). An exploratory study investigating variables in relation to juvenile sexual reoffending (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). Florida State University, Tallahassee.
7. Australian Bureau of Statistics. (2006). 4705.0-Population distribution, Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Australians, 2006. Retrieved from http://www.abs.gov.au/ausstats/abs@.nsf/mf/4705.0.
8. Australian Bureau of Statistics. (2009). 1338.1-NSW state and regional indicators, June 2009. Retrieved from http://www.abs.gov.au/ausstats/abs@.nsf/Products/1338.1~Dec+2009~Main+Features~Statistics+News+NSW?OpenDocument.
9. Australian Institute of Criminology. (2010). Juvenile detention statistics. Retrieved from http://www.aic.gov.au/statistics/criminaljustice/juveniles_detention.aspx.
10. Australian Institute of Health and Welfare. (2008). Juvenile justice in Australia 2006-07 juvenile justice series number 4. Retrieved from http://www.aihw.gov.au/publication-detail/?id=6442468142.
11. Baird C.Model classification systems in correctional field services.Corrections Magazine. 1981;43:36-41.
12. BarrettS. (2006). Pathways to detention (Doctoral dissertation). Griffith University, Brisbane, Australia. Retrieved from http://www4.gu.edu.au:8080/adt-root/uploads/approved/adt-QGU20070824.112806/public/01Front.pdf.
13. BartelsL. (2011). Crime prevention programs for culturally and linguistically diverse communities in Australia (Research in Practice No. 18). Canberra: Australian Institute of Criminology. Retrieved from http://www.aic.gov.au/publications.
14. BaurJ. (2006). Future migration and policing: Examining assumptions (Australasian Centre for Policing Research Issues no. 5). Canberra: Australasian Centre for Policing Research. Retrieved from http://anzpaa.org.au/anzpire/acpr-publications.
15. Bechtel K.,Lowenkamp C. T.,Latessa E. J.Assessing the risk of re-offending for juvenile offenders using the Youthful Level of Service/Case Management Inventory.Journal of Offender Rehabilitation. 2007;45:85-108.
16. Belknap J.,Holsinger K.The gendered nature of risk factors for delinquency.Feminist Criminology. 2006;1:48-71.
17. Benda B. B.Gender differences in life-course theory of recidivism: A survival analysis.International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology. 2005;49:325-342.
18. Bhui H. S.Race, racism and risk assessment: Linking theory to practice with Black mentally disordered offenders.Probation Journal. 1999;46:171-181.
19. Bishop D. M.Our children, their children: Confronting racial and ethnic difference in American juvenile justice. Hawkins D. F.Kempf-Leonard K., ed. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press; 2005:23-82.
20. Bishop D.,Frazier C. E.The influence of race in juvenile justice processing.Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency. 1988;25:242-263.
21. Blanchette K.Revisiting effective classification strategies for women offenders in Canada.Feminism & Psychology. 2004;14:231-236.
22. Blanchette K.,Brown S. L.The assessment and treatment of women offenders: An integrative perspective. Chichester, UK: Wiley; 2006:.
23. BloomB.OwenB.CovingtonS. (2002). Gender-responsive strategies: Research, practice and guiding principles for women offenders. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice, National Institute of Corrections. Retrieved from http://er.uqam.ca/nobel/k27114/doclucie/genderprison.pdf.
24. Bolt D. M.,Hare R. D.,Vitale J. E.,Newman J. P.A multigroup item response theory analysis of the Psychopathy Checklist-Revised.Psychological Assessment. 2004;16:155-168.
25. Bonta J.,Pang B.,Wallace-Capretta S.Predictors of recidivism among incarcerated female offenders.The Prison Journal. 1995;75:277-294.
26. Borum R.,Bartel P.,Forth A.Manual for the Structured Assessment of Violence Risk in Youth. Tampa: University of South Florida; 2003:.
27. Brandt J. R.Assessment of psychopathy in a population of incarcerated adolescent offenders.Dissertation Abstracts International. 1993;54 (9-b): 4908.
28. BrandtJ. R.KennedyW. A.PatrickC. J.CurtinJ. (1997). Assessment of psychopathy in a population of incarcerated adolescent offenders. Psychological Assessment, 9, 429-435. Retrieved from http://dionysus.psych.wisc.edu/lit/articles/BrandtJ1997a.pdf.
29. BridgesG.SteenS. (1998). Racial disparities in official assessments of juvenile offenders: Attributional stereotypes as mediating mechanisms. American Sociological Review, 63, 544-570. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/2657267.
30. Special report: Women offenders. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice; 1999:.
31. CampbellM. (2004). The relative contribution of psychopathy and traditional risk factors in predicting young offender recidivism (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). Dalhousie University, Halifax, Canada.
32. Catchpole R.,Gretton H.The predictive validity of risk assessment with violent young offenders: A 1-year examination of criminal outcome.Criminal Justice and Behavior. 2003;30:688-708.
33. Cauffman E.,Lexcen F. J.,Goldweber A.,Shulman E. P.,Grisso T.Gender differences in mental health symptoms among delinquent and community youth.Youth Violence and Juvenile Justice. 2007;5:287-307.
34. Caulfield L.Rethinking the assessment of female offenders.Howard Journal of Criminal Justice. 2010;49:315-327.
35. Chapman J. F.,Desai R. A.,Falzer P. R.,Borum R.Violence risk and race in a sample of youth in juvenile detention: The potential to reduce disproportionate minority confinement.Youth Violence and Juvenile Justice. 2006;4:170-184.
36. ChenS.MatruglioT.WeatherburnD.HuaJ. (2005). The transition from juvenile to adult criminal careers (Crime and Justice Bulletin: Contemporary Issues in Crime and Justice No. 86). Sydney, Australia: NSW Bureau of Crime Statistics and Research. Retrieved from http://www.bocsar.nsw.gov.au/.
37. Chesney-Lind M.The female offender: Girls, women, and crime. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage; 1997:.
38. Chesney-Lind M.,Morash M.,Stevens T.Girls troubles, girls' delinquency, and gender responsive programming: A review.Australian & New Zealand Journal of Criminology. 2008;41:162-189.
39. Chesney-Lind M.,Sheldon R.Girls, delinquency, and juvenile justice. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth; 1998:.
40. Coid J.,Yang M.,Ullrich S.,Zhang T.,Sizmur S.,Roberts C.,Rogers R. D.Gender differences in structured risk assessment: Comparing the accuracy of five instruments.Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology. 2009;77:337-348.
41. Collins J.,Reid C.Minority youth, crime, conflict, and belonging in Australia.Journal of International Migration and Integration. 2009;10:377-391.
42. Cooke D. J.,Kosson D. S.,Michie C.Psychopathy and ethnicity: Structural, item, and test generalizability of the Psychopathy Checklist-Revised (PCL-R) in Caucasian and African American participants.Psychological Assessment. 2001;13:531-542.
43. Daigle L. E.,Cullen F. T.,Wright J. P.Gender differences in the predictors of juvenile delinquency: Assessing the generality-specificity debate.Youth Violence and Juvenile Justice. 2007;5:254-286.
44. Dawson D. Risk of violence assessment: Aboriginal offenders and the assumption of homogeneity. Paper presented at the Best Practice Interventions in Corrections for Indigenous People Conference; 1999Adelaide, Australia; 1999.
45. Department of Corrections. (2007). Over-representation of Maori in the criminal justice system: An exploratory report. Retrieved from http://www.corrections.govt.nz/__data/assets/pdf_file/0004/285286/Over-representation-of-Maori-in-the-criminal-justice-system.pdf.
46. Desai R. A.,Chapman J.,Falzer P. R.,Borum R.Mental illness, violence risk, and race in juvenile detention: Implications for disproportionate minority contact.American Journal of Orthopsychiatry. 2012;82:32-40.
47. de Vogel V.,de Ruiter C.The HCR-20 in personality disordered female offenders: A comparison with a matched sample of males.Clinical Psychology and Psychotherapy. 2005;12:226-240.
48. DoddsL. D. (2000). Legislative exclusion statutes and psychopathy: Balancing rehabilitation ideals and retribution goals with juvenile offenders (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). MCP Hahnemann University, Philadelphia, PA.
49. Dolan M.,Doyle M.Violence risk prediction. Clinical and actuarial measures and the role of the Psychopathy Checklist.British Journal of Psychiatry. 2000;177:303-311.
50. DolanM.VollmB. (2009). Antisocial personality disorder and psychopathy in women: A literature review on the reliability and validity of assessment instruments, International Journal of Law and Psychiatry, 32, 2-9. Retrieved from http://dx.doi.org.ezproxy.lib.monash.edu.au/10.1016/j.ijlp.2008.11.002.
51. Douglas K. S.,Cox D. N.,Webster C. D.Violence risk assessment: Science and practice.Legal and Criminological Psychology. 1999;4:149-184.
52. Douglas K.,Ogloff J.,Nicholls T.,Grant I.Assessing risk for violence among psychiatric patients: The HCR-20 Violence Risk Assessment Scheme and the Psychopathy Checklist.Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology. 1999;67:917-930.
53. Edens J. F.,Cahill W. F.Psychopathy in adolescence and criminal recidivism in young adulthood longitudinal results from a multiethnic sample of youthful offenders.Assessment. 2007;14:57-64.
54. Edens J. F.,Campbell J. S.,Weir J. M.Youth psychopathy and criminal recidivism: A meta-analysis of the psychopathy checklist measures.Law and Human Behavior. 2006;31:53-75.
55. Eggen A. T. J.,van der Laan A. M.,Engelhard B. J. M.,Blom M.,Broeders A. P. A.,Bogaerts S.Criminaliteit en rechtshandhaving 2004: ontwikkelingen en samenhangen. Eggen A. T. J.van der Heide W., ed. The Hague, Netherlands: WODC; 2005:89-128.
56. Enebrink P.,Langstrom N.,Gumpert C. H.Predicting aggressive and disruptive behavior in referred 6- to 12-year-old boys.Assessment. 2006;13:356-367.
57. FarringtonD. P.PainterK. (2004). Gender differences in risk factors for offending (Home Office Findings 196). Retrieved from www.homeoffice.gov.uk.
58. FergussonD. M.HorwoodL. J. (2002). Male and female offending trajectories. Development and Psychopathology, 14, 159-177. Retrieved From http://journals.cambridge.org.ezproxy.lib.monash.edu.au/action/displayJournal?jid=DPP.
59. Flores A. W.,Lowenkamp C. T.,Holsinger A. M.,Latessa E. J.Predicting outcome with the Level of Service Inventory-Revised: The importance of implementation integrity.Journal of Criminal Justice. 2006;34:523-529.
60. FloresA. W.TravisL. F.LatessaE. J. (2003). Case classification for juvenile corrections: An assessment of the Youth Level of Service/Case Management Inventory (YLS/CMI)(May). Cincinnati, OH: Center for Criminal Justice Research, Division of Criminal Justice, University of Cincinnati. Retrieved from https://www.ncjrs.gov/pdffiles1/nij/grants/204005.pdf.
61. Folsom J.,Atkinson J. L.The generalizability of the LSI-R and the CAT to the prediction of recidivism in female offenders.Criminal Justice and Behavior. 2007;34:1044-1056.
62. Ford J. D.,Elhai J. D.,Connor D. F.,Freuh B. C.Poly-victimization and risk of posttraumatic, depressive, and substance use disorders and involvement in delinquency.Journal of Adolescent Health. 2010;46:545-552.
63. Forouzan E.,Cooke D. J.Figuring out la femme fatale: Conceptual and assessment issues concerning psychopathy in females.Behavioral Sciences and the Law. 2005;23:765-778.
64. Forth A. E.,Brown S. L.,Hart S. D.,Hare R. D.The assessment of psychopathy in male and female non-criminals: Reliability and validity.Personality and Individual Differences. 1996;20:531-543.
65. Forth A. E.,Hart S. D.,Hare R. D.Assessment of psychopathy in male young offenders.Psychological Assessment: A Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology. 1990;2:342-344.
66. Forth A. E.,Kosson D. S.,Hare R. D.Hare PCL: Youth Version (PCL:YV) rating booklet. Toronto, Canada: Multi-Health Systems; 2003:.
67. Funk S. J.Risk assessment for juveniles on probation: A focus on gender.Criminal Justice and Behavior. 1999;26:44-68.
68. Gammelgard M.,Weizmann-Henelius G.,Kaltiala-Heino R.The predictive validity of the Structured Assessment of Violence Risk in Youth (SAVRY) among institutionalised adolescents.Journal of Forensic Psychiatry & Psychology. 2008;19:352-370.
69. Gammelgard M.,Weizmann-Henelius G.,Koivisto A.,Eronen M.,Kaltiala-Heino R.Gender differences in violence risk profiles.Journal of Forensic Psychiatry & Psychology. 2012;23:76-94.
70. Gavazzi S. M.,Yarcheck C. M.,Chesney-Lind M.Global risk indicators and the role of gender in a juvenile detention sample.Criminal Justice and Behavior. 2006;33:597-612.
71. Glaser D.Prediction and classification: Criminal justice decision making. Gottfreson D. M.Tonry M., ed. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago; 1987:249-292.
72. Gossner D.,Wormith J. S.The prediction of recidivism among young offenders in Saskatchewan.Canadian Journal of Police & Security Services. 2007;5:70-82.
73. Grann M.The PCL-R and gender.European Journal of Psychological Assessment. 2000;16:147-149.
74. GrettonH.AbramowitzC. (2002, March). SAVRY: Contribution of items and scales to clinical risk judgments and criminal outcomes. Paper presented at the American Psychology and Law Society biennial conference, Austin, TX. Retrieved from http://savry.fmhi.usf.edu/SAVRY_Research.htm.
75. Hamburger M. E.,Lilienfeld S. O.,Hogben M.Psychopathy, gender and gender roles: Implications for antisocial and histrionic personality disorders.Journal of Personality Disorders. 1996;10 (1): 41-55.
76. Hare R.Manual for the Hare Psychopathy Checklist, Second Edition, Revised. Toronto, Canada: Multi-Health Systems; 2003:.
77. HarrisonP. M.BeckA. J. (2006). Prison and jail inmates at midyear 2005 (NCJ 213133). Washington, DC: Bureau of Justice Statistics. Retrieved from http://www.ncjrs.gov/App/publications/abstract.aspx?ID1/4234627.
78. HicksM.RogersR.CashelM. (2000). Predictions of violent and total infractions among institutionalized male juvenile offenders. Journal of the American Academy of Psychiatry and the Law, 28, 183-190. Retrieved from http://www.jaapl.org/archive/2000.dtl.
79. HiltermanE. (2007, June). Use of SAVRY by clinicians and its relation with recidivism by juveniles in Catalonia, Spain. Paper presented at the meeting of the International Association of Forensic Mental Health Services, Montreal, Canada. Retrieved from http://www.scribd.com/doc/23944617/Savry-Research-Tables.
80. Hoge R. D.,Andrews D. A.Youth Level of Service/Case Management Inventory users manual. New York, NY: Multi-Health Systems; 2006:.
81. Hoge R. D.,Andrews D. A.Youth Level of Service/Case Management Inventory 2.0 (YLS/CMI 2.0) users manual. Toronto, Canada: Multi-Health Systems; 2010:.
82. Holsinger A.M.,Lowenkamp C.T.,Latessa E.J.Ethnicity, gender, and the Level of Service Inventory-Revised.Journal of Criminal Justice. 2003;31:.
83. Holsinger K.,Holsinger A. M.Differential pathways to violence and self-injurious behavior: African American and White girls in the juvenile justice system.Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency. 2005;42:211-242.
84. Huizinga D.,Thornberry T.,Knight K.,Lovegrove P.,Loeber R.,Hill K.,Farrington D.Disproportionate minority contact in the juvenile justice system: A study of differential minority arrest/referral to court in three cities. Washington, DC: Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention; 2007:.
85. IlacquaG. E.CoulsonG. E.LombardoD.NutbrownV. (1999). Predictive validity of the Young Offender Level of Service Inventory for criminal recidivism of male and female young offenders. Psychological Reports, 84, 1214-1218. Retrieved from www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov.
86. Jung S.,Rawana E. P.Risk and need assessment of juvenile offenders.Criminal Justice and Behavior. 1999;26:69-89.
87. Kaufman J. M.,Rebellon C. J.,Thaxton S.,Agnew R.A general strain theory of racial differences in criminal offending.Australian and New Zealand Journal of Criminology. 2008;41:421-437.
88. Kempf-Leonard K.,Johansson P.Gender and runaways: Risk factors, delinquency, and juvenile justice experiences.Youth Violence and Juvenile Justice. 2007;5:308-327.
89. Kenny D. T.,Lennings C. J.Cultural group differences in social disadvantage in NSW, Australia: Implications for service delivery.Psychology, Psychiatry and Law. 2007;14:294-305.
90. Kosson D. S.,Cyterski T. D.,Steuerwald B. L.,Neumann C. S.,Walker-Matthews S.The reliability and validity of the Psychopathy Checklist: Youth Version in nonincarcerated adolescent males.Psychological Assessment. 2002;14:97-109.
91. Krischer M. K.,Sevecke K.Early traumatization and psychopathy in female and male juvenile offenders.International Journal of Law and Psychiatry. 2008;31:253-262.
92. LandryL.SinhaM. (2008). Adult correctional services in Canada 2005/2006. Juristat, 28, 1-26. Retrieved from www.statcan.gc.ca.
93. Latimer J.,Foss L. C.The sentencing of aboriginal and non-aboriginal youth under the young offenders act: A multivariate analysis.Canadian Journal of Criminology and Criminal Justice. 2005;47:481-500.
94. Leistico A. R.,Salekin R. T.Testing the reliability and validity of the Risk, Sophistication-Maturity, and Treatment Amenability Instrument (RST-I): An assessment tool for juvenile offenders.International Journal of Forensic Mental Health. 2003;2:101-117.
95. Leistico A.R.,Salekin R.T.,DeCoster J.,Rogers R.A Large-Scale Meta-Analysis Relating the Hare Measures of Psychopathy to Antisocial Conduct.Law and Human Behavior. 2008;32:28-45.
96. Levene K. S.,Augimeri L. K.,Pepler D. J.,Walsh M. M.,Webster C. D.,Koegl C. J.The Early Assessment Risk List for Girls (EARL-21G), Version 1-Consultation edition. Toronto, Canada: Earlscourt Child and Family Centre; 2001:.
97. LincolnR.LynchM.O'ConnorI.OgilvieE. (1997). Peer networks and other influences on aboriginal offending. Retrieved from www.criminologyresearchcouncil.gov.au/reports/18-96-7.pdf.
98. Litwack T. R.,Kirschner S. M.,Wack R. C.The assessment of dangerousness and predictions of violence: Recent research and future prospects.Psychiatric Quarterly. 1993;64:245-273.
99. LivingstonM.StewartA.AllardT.OgilvieJ. (2008). Understanding juvenile offending trajectories. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Criminology, 41, 345-363. Retrieved from http://www.griffith.edu.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0014/208121/Understanding-Juvenile-Offending-Trajectories-2008-ANZJOC.pdf.
100. LivseyS. E. (2005). Is the YLS a valid predictor of juvenile recidivism? (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). Michigan State University, East Lansing.
101. Lodewijks H. P. B.,de Ruiter C.,Doreleijers T. A. H.Gender differences in violent outcome and risk assessment in adolescent offenders after residential treatment.International Journal of Forensic Mental Health. 2008;7:133-146.
102. LoucksA. D.ZambleE. (2000). Predictors of criminal behavior and prison misconduct in serious female offenders. Retrieved from http://www.hawaii.edu/hivandaids/Criminal%20Behavior,%20Violent%20Behavior,%20and%20Prison%20Maladjustment%20in%20Serious%20Female%20Offenders.pdf.
103. Lowenkamp C. T.,Holsinger A. M.,Latessa E. J.Risk/need assessment, offender classification, and the role of childhood abuse.Criminal Justice and Behavior. 2001;28:543-563.
104. LuongD. (2007). Risk assessment and community management: The relationship between implementation quality and recidivism (Unpublished master's thesis). University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, Canada. Retrieved from http://library2.usask.ca/theses/available/etd-09262007-163117/unrestricted/Duyen_Luong_MA_Thesis.pdf.
105. LynchM.BuckmanJ.KrenskeL. (2003). Youth justice: Criminal trajectories (Trends and Issues, Crime And Criminal Justice No. 265). Canberra: Australian Institute of Criminology. Retrieved from http://www.aic.gov.au/documents/6/3/2/%7B6327DF90-1459-4D7E-9A8B-F69D7662AA6F%7Dtandi265.pdf.
106. MarczykG. R.HeilbrunK.LanderT.DeMatteoD. (2003). Predicting juvenile recidivism with the PCL:YV, MAYSI & YLS/CML. International Journal of Forensic Mental Health, 2, 7-18. Retrieved from http://www.iafmhs.org/files/Marczyk.pdf.
107. Marshall J.,Egan V.,English M.,Jones R.The relative validity of psychopathy versus risk/needs-based assessments in the prediction of adolescent offending behavior.Legal and Criminological Psychology. 2006;11:197-210.
108. MartinM. (2003). Predicting institutional behavior in youthful offenders: The role of individual and family factors in risk assessment (Unpublished master's thesis). University of North Texas, Denton. Retrieved from http://digital.library.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metadc4196/m1/1/high_res_d/thesis.pdf.
109. McCoy W. K.,Edens J. F.Do Black and White youths differ in levels of psychopathic traits? A meta-analysis of the Psychopathy Checklist measures.Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology. 2006;74:386-392.
110. McGowan M. R.,Horn R. A.,Mellott R. N.The predictive validity of the Structured Assessment of Violence Risk in Youth in secondary educational settings.Psychological Assessment. 2011;23:478-486.
111. McKinnonL. J. (2004). Predicting risk of violence in a young offender population: The predictive validity of the PCL:YV and the YLS/CMI (Unpublished master's thesis). Lakehead University, Thunder Bay, Canada.
112. Messina N.,Grella C.Childhood trauma and women's health outcomes in a California prison population.American Journal of Public Health. 2006;96:1842-1848.
113. Messina N.,Grella C.,Burdon W.,Prendergast M.Childhood adverse events and current traumatic distress: A comparison of men and women drug-dependent prisoners.Criminal Justice and Behavior. 2007;34:1385-1401.
114. Meyers J.,Schmidt F.Predictive validity of the Structured Assessment for Violence Risk in Youth (SAVRY) with juvenile offenders.Criminal Justice and Behavior. 2008;35:344-355.
115. Ministry of Justice. (2009). Prison population and accommodation briefing for 13 November. Retrieved from http://www.justice.gov.uk/downloads/statistics/mojstats/statistics-women-cjs-2010.pdf/.
116. Moffitt T. E.,Caspi A.,Rutter M.,Silva P. A.Sex differences in antisocial behavior: Conduct disorder, delinquency, and violence in the Dunedin longitudinal study. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press; 2001:.
117. Mukherjee S. Ethnicity and crime. Paper presented at the 3rd National Outlook Symposium on Crime in Australia; 1999Canberra; 1999.
118. Mulder R. T.,Wells J. E.,Joyce P. E.,Bushnell J. A.Antisocial women.Journal of Personality Disorders. 1994;8:279-287.
119. Mulvey E. P.,Iselin A. R.Improving professional judgments of risk and amenability in juvenile justice.Future of Children. 2008;18:35-57.
120. National Institute of Mental Health. (2002). Psychiatric disorders common among detained youth. Retrieved from http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2002/12/021212080423.htm.
121. Nicholls T. L.,Ogloff J. R. P.,Brink J.,Spidel A.Psychopathy in women: A review of its clinical usefulness for assessing risk for aggression and criminality.Behavioral Sciences and the Law. 2005;23:779-802.
122. Nicholls T. L.,Ogloff J.,Douglas K.Assessing risk for violence among male and female civil psychiatric patients: The HCR-20, PCL:SV, and McNiel & Binder's screening measure.Behavioral Sciences and the Law. 2004;22:127-158.
123. Nicholls T. L.,Petrila J.Gender and psychopathy: An overview of important issues and introduction to the special issue.Behavioral Sciences and the Law. 2005;23:729-741.
124. Noble G.,Poynting S.White lines: The intercultural politics of everyday movement in social spaces.Journal of Intercultural Studies. 2010;31:489-505.
125. NSW Parliament Legislative Council Standing Committee on Social Issues. (1995). A report into youth violence in NSW. Retrieved from http://www.parliament.nsw.gov.au.
126. OdgersC. L.MorettiM. M. (2002). Aggressive and antisocial girls: Research update and challenges. International Journal of Forensic Mental Health, 1, 103-119. Retrieved from http://adolescenthealth.ca/wp-content/uploads/2010/05/Odgers_-Moretti_2002.pdf.
127. Odgers C. L.,Repucci N. D.,Moretti M.Nipping psychopathy in the bud: An examination of the convergent, predictive and theoretical utility of the PCL:YV among adolescent girls.Behavioral Sciences and the Law. 2005;23:743-763.
128. Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention. (2009). Statistical briefing book. Retrieved from http://ojjdp.ncjrs.org/ojstatbb/crime/JAR_Display.asp?ID=qa05271.
129. Olver M. E.,Stockdale K. C.,Wong S. C. P.Short and long-term prediction of recidivism using the Youth Level of Service/Case Management Inventory in a sample of serious young offenders.Law and Human Behavior. 2012;36 (4): 331-344.
130. Olver M. E.,Stockdale K. C.,Wormith J. S.Risk assessment with young offenders: A meta-analysis of three assessment measures.Criminal Justice and Behavior. 2009;36:329-353.
131. O'NeillM. L.LidzV.HeilbrunK. (2003). Predictors and correlates of psychopathic characteristics in substance abusing adolescents. International Journal of Forensic Mental Health, 2, 35-45. Retrieved from http://www.iafmhs.org/files/ONeillspring03.pdf.
132. Onifade E.,Davidson W.,Campbell C.,Turke G.,Malinowski J.,Turner K.Predicting recidivism in probationers with the Youth Level of Service/Case Management Inventory (YLS/CMI).Criminal Justice and Behavior. 2008;35:474-483.
133. Onifade E.,Smith Nyandoro A.,Davidson W. S.,Campbell C.Truancy and patterns of criminogenic risk in a young offender population.Youth Violence and Juvenile Justice. 2010;8:3-18.
134. Penney S. R.,Lee Z.,Moretti M. M.Gender differences in risk factors for violence: An examination of the predictive validity of the Structured Assessment of Violence Risk in Youth.Aggressive Behavior. 2010;35:1-15.
135. Piquero A.Disproportionate minority contact.Future of Children. 2008;18:59-79.
136. PonderJ. I. (1998). An investigation of psychopathy in a sample of violent juvenile offenders (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). University of Texas, Austin.
137. PoveyD.MulchandaniR.HandT.PanesarL. K. (2010). Police powers and procedures, England and Wales 2008/09 (06/10). London, UK: Home Office Statistical Bulletin. Retrieved from http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/20110218135832/http://rds.homeoffice.gov.uk/rds/pdfs10/hosb0610.pdf.
138. PuzzancheraC. (2009a). Juvenile arrests 2007 (Juvenile Justice Bulletin). Washington, DC: Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention. Retrieved from https://www.ncjrs.gov/pdffiles1/ojjdp/225344.pdf.
139. PuzzancheraC. (2009b). Juvenile arrests 2008 (Juvenile Justice Bulletin). Washington, DC: Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention. Retrieved from https://www.ncjrs.gov/pdffiles1/ojjdp/228479.pdf.
140. PuzzancheraC.AdamsB. (2011). Juvenile arrests 2009 (Juvenile Offenders and Victims: National Report Series Bulletin). Washington, DC: Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention. Retrieved from http://www.ojjdp.gov/pubs/236477.pdf.
141. Rector B.,Wormith J. S.,Banka D.Andrews D. A.Predictive validity of the LSI-SK Youth Edition. Symposium conducted at the First North American Correctional and Criminal Justice Psychology Conference; 2007Ottawa, Canada; 2007.
142. ReisigM. D.HoltfreterK.MorashM. (2006). Assessing recidivism risk across female pathways to crime. Justice Quarterly, 23, 384-405. Retrieved from http://www.cjresources.com/CJ_Female%20Offenders_pdfs/assessing%20recidivism%20risk%20accross%20female%20pathways%20to%20crime%20%20Reisig%20et%20al%202006.pdf.
143. Rennie C.,Dolan M.Predictive validity of the Youth Level of Service/Case Management Inventory in custody sample in England.Journal of Forensic Psychiatry & Psychology. 2010;21:407-425.
144. Richards H. J.,Casey J. O.,Lucente S. W.Psychopathy and treatment response in incarcerated female substance abusers.Criminal Justice and Behavior. 2003;30:251-276.
145. Rieger M.,Stadtland C.,Freisleder F. J.,Nedopil N. Presented at the 6th annual International Association of Forensic Mental Health Services Conference; 2006Amsterdam, Netherlands; 2006.
146. RogersR.JohansenJ.ChangJ. J.SalekinR. T. (1997). Predictors of adolescent psychopathy: Oppositional and conduct-disordered symptoms. Journal of the American Academy of Psychiatry and the Law, 25, 261-271. Retrieved from http://www.jaapl.org/content/vol25/issue3/index.dtl.
147. RoweR. C. (2002). Predictors of criminal offending: Evaluating measures of risk/needs, psychopathy, and disruptive behavior disorders (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). Carleton University, Ottawa, Canada.
148. Salekin R.Psychopathy and recidivism from mid-adolescence to young adulthood: Cumulating legal problems and limiting life opportunities.Journal of Abnormal Psychology. 2008;117:386-395.
149. Salekin R. T.,Rogers R.,Sewell K. W.Construct validity of psychopathy in a female offender sample: A multitrait multimethod evaluation.Journal of Abnormal Psychology. 1997;106:576-585.
150. SalekinR. T.RogersR.UstadK. L.SewellK. W. (1998). Psychopathy and recidivism among female inmates. Law and Human Behavior, 22, 109-128. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/1393998.
151. SawrikarP.KatzI. (1999). How useful is the term "culturally and linguistically diverse" (CALD) in Australian research, practice, and policy discourse?Sydney, Australia: University of New South Wales, Social Policy Research Centre. Retrieved from http://www.sprc.unsw.edu.au/media/File/Paper276.pdf.
152. Schaap G.,Lammers S.,de Vogel V.Risk assessment in female forensic psychiatric patients: A quasi-prospective study into the validity of the HCR-20 and PCL-R.Journal of Forensic Psychiatry & Psychology. 2009;20:354-365.
153. Schmidt F.,McKinnon L.,Chattha H.K.,Brownlee K.Concurrent and Predictive Validity of the Psychopathy Checklist: Youth Version Across Gender and Ethnicity.Psychological Assessment. 2006;18 (4): 393-401.
154. Schmidt F.,Campbell M. A.,Houlding C.Comparative analyses of the YLS/CMI, SAVRY, and PCL:YV in adolescent offenders: A 10-year follow-up into adulthood.Youth Violence and Juvenile Justice. 2011;9:23-42.
155. Schmidt F.,Hoge R. D.,Gomes L.Reliability and validity analyses of the Youth Level of Service/Case Management Inventory.Criminal Justice and Behaviour. 2005;32:329-344.
156. Schwalbe C. S.A meta-analysis of juvenile justice risk assessment instruments: Predictive validity by gender.Criminal Justice and Behavior. 2008;35:1367-1381.
157. SheltonR. R. (1999). Relationship between frontal lobe functioning, psychopathy, and aggression in a sample of male juvenile delinquents (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). University of Kentucky, Louisville.
158. Silberman M.Sexual abuse in childhood and the mentally disordered female offender.International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology. 2010;54:783-802.
159. SilverthornP.FrickD. J. (1999). Developmental pathways to antisocial behavior: The delayed onset pathway in girls. Development and Psychopathology, 11, 101-126. Retrieved from: http://journals.cambridge.org/abstract_S0954579499001972.
160. SimourdL.AndrewsD. A. (1994). Correlates of delinquency: A look at gender differences. Forum on Corrections Research, 6, 26-31. Retrieved from: http://www.csc-scc.gc.ca/text/pblct/forum/index-eng.shtml.
161. Simpson S.S.,Yahner J.L.,Dugan L.Understanding Women's Pathways to Jail: Analyzing the Lives of Incarcerated Women.Australian and New Zealand Journal of Criminology. 2008;41 (1): 84-108.
162. Singh J. P.,Grann M.,Fazel S.A comparative study of violence risk assessment tools: A systematic review and metaregression analysis of 68 studies involving 25,980 participants.Clinical Psychology Review. 2011;31:499-513.
163. Skeem J. L.,Cauffman E.Views of the downward extensions: Comparing the Youth Version of the Psychopathy Checklist with the Youth Psychopathic Traits Inventory.Behavioral Sciences and the Law. 2003;21:737-770.
164. Skeem J. L.,Edens J. F.,Camp J.,Colwell L. H.Are there ethnic differences in levels of psychopathy? A metaanalysis.Law and Human Behavior. 2004;28:505-527.
165. Smith P.,Cullen F. T.,Latessa E. J.Can 14,737 women be wrong? A meta-analysis of the LSI-R and recidivism for female offenders.Criminology & Public Policy. 2009;8:183-208.
166. Snowden R.J.,Gray N.S.,Taylor J.Risk Assessment for Future Violence in Individuals from an Ethnic Minority Group.International Journal of Forensic Mental Health. 2010;9:118-123.
167. StaffordE.CornellD. G. (2003). Psychopathy scores predict adolescent inpatient aggression. Assessment, 10, 102-112. Retrieved from http://youthviolence.edschool.virginia.edu/juvenile-violence/pdf/adolescent-inpt-aggression.pdf.
168. StanleyJ.TomisonA. M.PocockJ. (2003). Child abuse and neglect in indigenous Australian communities19. Melbourne: Australian Institute of Family Studies. Retrieved from http://www.aifs.gov.au/nch/pubs/issues/issues19/issues19.html.
169. Steadman H.,Cocozza J.Careers of the criminally insane. Lexington, MA: Lexington Books; 1974:.
170. Steffensmeier D.,Schwartz J.,Zhong H.,Ackerman J.An assessment of recent trends in girls' violence using diverse longitudinal sources: Is the gender gap closing?.Criminology. 2005;43:355-405.
171. StockdaleK. C. (2008). The validity and reliability of the Violence Risk Scale-Youth Version (VRs-YV) (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, Canada.
172. Stockdale K.C.The Psychopathy Checklist: Youth Version and Adolescent and Adult Recidivism: Considerations With Respect to Gender, Ethnicity and Age.Psychological Assessment. 2010;22 (4): 768-781.
173. Stockdale K.C.,Olver M.E.,Wong S.C.P.The Psychopathy Checklist: Youth Version and adolescent and adult recidivism: Considerations with respect to gender, ethnicity and age.Psychological Assessment. 2010;22 (4): 768-781.
174. Strand S.,Belfrage H.Comparison of HCR-20 scores in violent mentally disordered men and women: Gender differences and similarities.Psychology, Crime & Law. 2001;7:71-79.
175. Strand S.,Belfrage H.Gender differences in psychopathy in a Swedish offender sample.Behavioral Sciences and the Law. 2005;23:837-850.
176. Taylor K. N.,Blanchette K.The women are not wrong: It is the approach that is debatable.Criminology & Public Policy. 2009;8:221-229.
177. TeplinL. A.AbramK. A.McClellandG. M.DulcanM. K.MericleA. A. (2002). Psychiatric disorders in youth in juvenile detention. Archive General Psychiatry, 59, 1133-1143. Retrieved from http://archpsyc.ama-assn.org.
178. Thompson A. P.,McGrath A.Subgroup differences and implications for contemporary risk-need assessment with juvenile offenders.Law and Human Behavior. 2011;:1-11.
179. Thompson A. P.,Pope Z.Assessing juvenile offenders: Preliminary data for the Australian Adaptation of the Youth Level of Service/Case Management Inventory.Australian Psychologist. 2005;40:207-214.
180. ThompsonC.StewartA. L. (2006). Review of empirically based risk/needs assessment tools for youth justice: Amended report for public release 17 (Consultancy Report to the Department of Communities). Retrieved from http://www.griffith.edu.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0018/208206/Review-of-empiricall-based-risk_needs-assessment-tools.pdf.
181. Timmons-Mitchell J.,Brown C.,Schulz S. C.,Webster S. E.,Underwood L. A.,Semple W. E.Comparing the mental health needs of female and male incarcerated juvenile delinquents.Behavioral Sciences and the Law. 1997;15:195-202.
182. Tyson G. A.,Hubert C. J.Cultural differences in adolescents' perceptions of the seriousness of delinquent behaviours.Psychiatry, Psychology and Law. 2003;10:316-323.
183. Upperton R. A.,Thompson A. P.Predicting juvenile offender recidivism: Risk-need assessment and juvenile justice officers.Psychiatry, Psychology, and Law. 2007;14:138-146.
184. Van de VenJ. T. C. (2004). Assessment of risk and need factors and service use in diverted youth (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). Carleton University, Ottawa, Canada.
185. Van VoorhisP.PresserL. (2001). Classification of women offenders: A national assessment of current practices. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice, National Institute of Corrections. Retrieved from https://www.ncjrs.gov/App/Publications/abstract.aspx?ID=189681.
186. Van Voorhis P.,Wright E.,Salisbury S.,Bauman A.Women's risk factors and their contributions to existing risk/needs assessment: The current status of gender responsive assessment.Criminal Justice and Behavior. 2010;37:261-288.
187. Victoria Police. (2010). Crime statistics 2009/2010 official release (Corporate Statistics, Business Services Department). Retrieved from http://www.police.vic.gov.au/content.asp?Document_ID=782.
188. Vieira T. A.,Skilling T. A.,Peterson-Badali M.Matching court-ordered services with treatment needs: Predicting treatment success with young offenders.Criminal Justice and Behavior. 2009;36:385-401.
189. Vincent G.,Chapman J.,Cook N. E.Risk-needs assessment in juvenile justice: Predictive validity of the SAVRY, racial differences, and the contribution of needs factors.Criminal Justice and Behavior. 2011;38:42-62.
190. Vincent G. M.,Grisso T.,Terry B. A.,Banks S.Sex and race differences in mental health symptoms in juvenile justice: The MAYSI-2 national meta-analysis.American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry. 2008;47:282-290.
191. Vincent G. M.,Odgers C. L.,McCormick A. V.,Corrado R. R.The PCL: YV and recidivism in male and female juveniles: A follow-up into young adulthood.International Journal of Law and Psychiatry. 2008;31:287-296.
192. Wasserman G. A.,McReynolds L. S.Contributors to traumatic exposure and posttraumatic stress disorder in juvenile justice youths.Journal of Traumatic Stress. 2011;24:422-429.
193. Webster C. D.Risk assessment and risk management with women offenders. Ottawa, Canada: National Parole Board; 1999:.
194. Webster C. D.,Douglas K. S.,Eaves D.,Hart S. D.HCR-20: Assessing risk for violence (version 2). Burnaby, Canada: Simon Fraser University, Mental Health, Law, and Policy Institute; 1997:.
195. Welsh J. L.,Schmidt F.,McKinnon L.,Chattha H. K.,Meyers J. R.A comparative study of adolescent risk assessment instruments.Assessment. 2008;15:104-115.
196. Widom C. S.The cycle of violence.Science. 1989;244:160-166.
197. WundersitzJ. (2010). Indigenous perpetrators of violence: Prevalence and risk factors for offending (Research and public policy series 105). Retrieved from http://www.aic.gov.au/documents/2/A/4/%7B2A48440C-E61B-41E4-AD8D-28F536F8B586%7Drpp105.pdf.
198. Young D.,Moline K.,Farrell J.,Bierie V.Best implementation practices: Disseminating new assessment technologies in a juvenile justice agency.Crime & Delinquency. 2006;52:135-158.